UNIT-VII Electrical Protection

Electrical protection system is necessary in order to minimize the damage and reliability of the
device and circuits. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by
isolating only the components that are under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as
possible still in operation. Thus, protection schemes must apply with very pragmatic and
pessimistic approach to clearing system faults. The devices that are used to protect the power
systems from faults are called protection devices.

Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. A relay may also be called an “electromagnetic
switch.” Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal,
or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. A simple device, which is now called
a relay, was included in the original 1840 telegraph.
Basic design and Operation
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one
or more sets of contacts. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or
more sets of moving contacts.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts
was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched
off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
 industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
Protective relay
Protective Relays provide you with unique microprocessor-based devices that eliminate
unnecessary trips, isolate faults, protect motors and breakers, and provide system information to
help you better manage your system.
Principle
Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic induction.
Fuses
▪ A fuse is a device that protects a circuit from an over current condition only. It has a fusible
link directly heated and destroyed by the current passing through
it. A fuse contains a current- carrying element sized so that the heat generated by the flow
of normal current through it does
not cause it to melt the element; however, when an over current or short-
circuit current flows through the fuse, the fusible link will melt and open the circuit.
▪ A device that protects a circuit by fusing opens its current-responsive element when an over-
current passes through it. An over-current is either due to an overload or a short circuit
condition.
▪ The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum.
Fuse Construction:
▪ The typical fuse consists of an element which is surrounded by filler and enclosed by the fuse
body. The element is welded or soldered to the fuse contacts (blades or ferrules).
▪ The element is a calibrated conductor. Its configuration, mass and the materials employed are
selected to achieve the desired electrical and thermal characteristics.
▪ The element provides the current path through the fuse. It generates heat at a rate dependent
on its resistance and the load current.
▪ The heat generated by the element is absorbed by the filler and passed through the fuse body
to the surrounding air. The filler material, such as quartz sand, provides effective heat transfer
and allows for the small element cross-section typical in modern fuses.
▪ The effective heat transfer allows the fuse to carry harmless overloads .The small element
cross section melts quickly under short-circuit conditions. The filler also aids fuse
performance by absorbing arc energy when the fuse clears an overload or short circuit.
▪ When a sustained overload occurs, the element will generate heat at a faster rate than the heat
can be passed to the filler. If the overload persists, the element will reach its melting point and
open. Increasing the applied current will heat the element faster and cause the fuse to open
sooner. Thus, fuses have an inverse time current characteristic: that is, the greater the over
current, the less time required for the fuse to open the circuit.
▪ This characteristic is desirable because it parallels the characteristics of conductors, motors,
transformers, and other electrical apparatus. These components can carry low-level overloads
for relatively long periods without damage. However, under high-current conditions, damage
 can occur quickly. Because of its inverse time current characteristic, a properly applied fuse
can provide effective protection over a broad current range, from low-level overloads to high-
level short circuits.
Type of Fuse:
A fuse unit essentially consists of a metal fuse element or link, a set of contacts between which
it is fixed and a body to support and isolate them. Many types of fuses also have some means for
extinguishing the arc which appears when the fuse element melts. In general, there are two
categories of fuses.
1. Low voltage fuses.
2. High voltage fuses.

LOW VOLTAGE FUSES

▪ Low voltage fuses can be further divided into two classes namely
1. Semi-enclosed or Rewire able type.
2. Totally enclosed or Cartridge type.

Semi-enclosed or Rewire able type

The most commonly used fuse in ‘house wiring’ and small current circuit is the semi-enclosed or
rewire able fuse. (also sometime known as KIT-KAT type fuse). The fuse wire may be of lead,
tinned copper, aluminum or an alloy of tin lead.

▪ Though such fuses have the advantage of easy removal or replacement without any danger of
coming into the contact with a lie part and negligible replacement cost but suffers from
following disadvantages:
1. Unreliable Operations.
2. Lack of Discrimination.
3. Small time lag.
4. Low rupturing capacity.
5. No current limiting feature.
6. Slow speed of operations.

Totally Enclosed Or Cartridges Type Fuse:

▪ The fuse element is enclosed in a totally enclosed container and is provided with metal
contacts on both sides. These fuses are further classified as
1. D-type.
2. Link type.
D- Type Cartridges Fuses
▪ It is a non-interchangeable fuse comprising s fuse base, adapter ring, cartridge and a fuse cap.
The cartridge is pushed in the fuse cap and the cap is screwed on the fuse base. On complete
 screwing the cartridge tip touches the conductor and circuit between the two terminals is
completed through the fuse link. The standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, and 63 amperes.

▪ The breaking or rupturing capacity is of the order of 4k A for 2 and 4 ampere fuses the 16k A
for 63 A fuses.
▪ D-type cartridge fuse have none of the drawbacks of the re wire able fuses. Their operation is
reliable. Coordination and discrimination to a reasonable extent and achieved with them.
B) Link type Cartridge or High Rupturing Capacity (HRC)
▪ Where large numbers of concentrations of powers are concerned, as in the modern
distribution system, it is essential that fuses should have a definite known breaking capacity
and also this breaking capacity should have a high value. High rupturing capacity cartridge
fuse, commonly called HRC cartridge fuses, have been designed and developed after
intensive research by manufactures and supply engineers in his direction.

Switch vs Circuit Breaker

Similar to a fuse, a circuit breaker is used to protect the electrical system of a particular house or
building. An overload of electrical flow can happen sometimes and if you do not have something
installed to protect you from this sudden surge of electricity, you might end up with damaged
appliances and other sensitive electronic equipment. Perhaps, the worst thing that can happen is
having fire inside your house brought by electrical overloads.
Circuit breakers are very effective in preventing these disasters. They will instantly block or stop
an incoming electrical power surge before it does any damage.

The crudest type of circuit breaker is the fuse. Most would consider that a fuse is different than a
circuit breaker. That may be true, but technically, fuse qualifies as circuit breaker because it does
just that ‘“ it breaks a circuit. Fuses are still in use today but are gradually getting obsolete.

However, this article shall deal with the newer circuit breakers, the improved fuses, if you will.
Typical circuit breakers basically use electromagnetism to accomplish its tasks. Sudden excess of
electrical power triggers an inherent electromagnet to trip off the circuit breaker. In essence, the
circuit breaker is an automatic off switch which operates when it detects faults (e.g. overloads,
short circuit, low voltage) before it does damage to the overall electrical circuit.
There different types of circuit breakers. Some are created specifically to detect critical low
voltages; others are purely for overloads and extreme power surges. There are also thermal
circuit breakers and others are designed for industrial use.
Installing circuit breakers can save you a lot of money. It will save you from
the major headache of doing extensive circuit repairs. Once it trips, all you need to do is find the
usually minor problem in your circuit that creates the fault. When the repair is done, just switch
the circuit breaker on again for normal circuit operation. If the fault is not resolved, the circuit
breaker may just trip off again ‘“ still no harm done.

When you come to think of it, circuit breakers are just hi-tech switches but unlike your ordinary
switch, they are used passively. They are just there for a specific purpose. Ordinary switches, on
the other hand, allow the user the liberty to cut off power supply to a certain area or equipment.

Summary:

1. Switches are not automatic as they need to be manually turned on or off while circuit breakers
just trips off on certain conditions.

2. Switches allow users to cut off power supply to a certain area or equipment while circuit
breakers are more preventive in nature.

3. Circuit breakers are essentially automatic off switches designed for a very specific purpose,
which is to prevent unnecessary electrical circuit damage.
Electrical Circuit Overload
Overloading Electrical Circuits
Electricity has enriched our lives. Despite the many benefits, electricity can also bring danger --
the most common being house fires. It is estimated that over 40,000 residential fires are caused
by overloading electrical circuits every year in the United States. Causes include arc faults, short
circuits, or overloading of electrical circuits. This article discusses overloading electrical circuits.
First, we must understand some basics about typical home electrical systems. The electrical
service enters the house and connects to a main electrical panel. From the main electrical panel,
wires run in different directions throughout the house to power lights, outlets, ceiling fans, air
conditioners, and various other direct-wired electrical appliances. These wire-runs are called
branch circuits.
In home construction today, the typical branch circuit consists of three wires -- the hot, neutral
and ground wires. When a light or electrical appliance is turned on, electricity begins to flow in
the hot and neutral wires of the branch circuit to which that light or electrical appliance is
connected.
When electricity flows through a wire, the wire heats up because of its resistance to the flow of
electrical current. Both the size of the wire (resistance increases as the wire diameter gets
smaller) and how many electrical devices on the circuit are drawing electricity (more devices
increase the electrical current) affect the amount of heat generated in the wire. To keep the wire
from getting too hot and starting a fire, the designer of the branch circuit wiring does two things:

• Attempts to size the wire large enough to handle the estimated electrical load on the
circuit.
• Attempts to contain the amount of electrical load on the branch circuit by limiting the
number of potential electrical appliances that can be running at the same time on that
circuit (i.e. places only so many outlets on one branch circuit or puts larger pieces of
electrical equipment on circuits dedicated to that equipment only).
While the electrical codes help with the design assumptions, how the homeowner will use the
outlets in the house is just a guess. The homeowner can plug in and run too many appliances on
the same circuit at one time and overload the circuit.

This is why electrical fuses and circuit breakers are used in the main electrical panel. Their
function is to sense the overloading of circuits (and short circuits) and shut off power to that
branch circuit before the wires get too hot and start a fire.

However, circuit breakers can malfunction and fail to trip. Homeowners can try to fix a
"nuisance" fuse by placing a larger fuse in the electrical panel that allows more electrical current
to flow in the branch circuit than what it was designed for. Homeowners can also use plug
adaptors and extension cords to plug in too many electrical appliances into one electrical outlet.

What Can the Homeowner Do?

• If a fuse blows or circuit breaker trips frequently, have a qualified electrician determine
what the problem is and fix it.
• If the main electrical panel has circuit breakers, flip them off and back on once a year.
This will help keep them working. Better yet, a qualified electrician can test the circuit
breakers to make sure they function.
• If extension cords or plug adaptors are being used to plug multiple appliances into the
same outlet, have a qualified electrician install more outlets on new or different branch
circuits.
• Using power strips (or multiple outlet surge protectors) with their own circuit breaker
protection is better than using extension cords to plug in multiple appliances or
electronics. The circuit breaker protection assures that not too many appliances are
plugged in and drawing electricity at once. Plus, the cords to the power strips and surge
protectors usually have larger diameter wires than do typical extension cords which
reduces the heat generated in the cord.
However, the power strip's or surge protector's circuit breaker only protects the device
itself. It does not protect the branch circuit wiring. Using several plug strips on outlets on
the same branch circuit may overload the circuit and cause a fire.
 • Never run appliance cords or extension cords under carpet. They are designed to be kept
cool by movement of room air around the cord.
• If any outlet or switch wallplates feel hot to the touch, have a qualified electrician
determine the problem and fix it.
• Circuits can only handle a specified total wattage of all electrical devices plugged into
and running on a branch circuit at one time. Here is a guide from the National Electrical
Safety Foundation (NESF) to follow:
What is a Ground Fault?
A ground fault is an inadvertent contact between an energized conductor and ground or
equipment frame. The return path of the fault current is through the grounding system and any
personnel or equipment that becomes part of that system. Ground faults are frequently the result
of insulation breakdown. It’s important to note that damp, wet, and dusty environments require
extra diligence in design and maintenance. Since water is conductive it exposes degradation of
insulation and increases the potential for hazards to develop.
What is the purpose of grounding?
The primary purpose of grounding electrical systems is to provide protection against electrical
faults. However, this was not realized until the 1970’s. Until then, most commercial and
industrial systems were ungrounded. Although ungrounded systems do not cause significant
damage during the first ground fault, the numerous disadvantages associated with ground faults
resulted in a change to the grounding philosophy. There are other advantages for a grounded
system, such as reduction of shock hazards and protection against lightning.
Electrical faults can be broken down into two categories: phase-to-phase faults and ground faults.
Studies have shown that 98% of all electrical faults are ground faults (Source: Woodham, Jack,
P.E. “The Basics of Grounding Systems” May 1, 2003). Where fuses can protect against phase-
to-phase faults, additional protection, such as protection relays, are typically required to protect
against ground faults.
What is Electrical Grounding?
Electrical grounding or “Grounding” originally began as a safety measure used to help prevent
people from accidentally coming in contact with electrical hazards. Think of your refrigerator. It
is a metal box standing on rubber feet with electricity running in and out of it. You use magnets
to hang your child’s latest drawing on the metal exterior. The electricity running from the outlet
and through the power cord to the electrical components inside the refrigerator is electrically
isolated from the metal exterior or chassis of the refrigerator.
Grounding and Earthing
The process of electrically connecting to the earth itself is often called “earthing”, While
electrical grounding may have originally been considered only as a safety measure, with today’s
advances in electronics and technology, electrical grounding has become an essential part of
everyday electricity. Computers, televisions, microwave ovens, fluorescent lights and many other
electrical devices, generate lots of “electrical noise” that can damage equipment and cause it to
work less efficiently. Proper grounding can not only remove this unwanted “noise”, but can even
make surge protection devices work better.

Surge protector
A surge protector (or surge suppressor or surge diverter) is an appliance or device designed
to protect electrical devices from voltage spikes. A surge protector attempts to limit
the voltage supplied to an electric device by either blocking or shorting to ground any unwanted
voltages above a safe threshold. This article primarily discusses specifications and components
relevant to the type of protector that diverts (shorts) a voltage spike to ground; however, there is
some coverage of other methods.
The main job of a surge protector system is to protect electronic devices from "surges."
So if you're wondering what a surge protector does, the first question is, "What are surges?" And
then, "Why do electronics need to be protected from them?"
A power surge, or transient voltage, is an increase in voltage significantly above the designated
level in a flow of electricity. In normal household and office wiring in the United States, the
standard voltage is 120 volts. If the voltage rises above 120 volts, there is a problem, and a surge
protector helps to prevent that problem from destroying your computer.
To understand the problem, it is helpful to understand something about voltage. Voltage is a
measure of a difference in electric potential energy. Electric current travels from point to point
because there is a greater electric potential energy on one end of the wire than there is on the
other end. This is the same sort of principle that makes water under pressure flow out of a hose --
higher pressure on one end of the hose pushes water toward an area of lower pressure. You can
think of voltage as a measure of electrical pressure.
As we'll see later on, various factors can cause a brief increase in voltage.

• When the increase lasts three nanoseconds (billionths of a second) or more, it's called
a surge.
• When it only lasts for one or two nanoseconds, it's called a spike.
If the surge or spike is high enough, it can inflict some heavy damage on a machine. The effect is
very similar to applying too much water pressure to a hose. If there is too much water pressure, a
hose will burst. Approximately the same thing happens when too much electrical pressure runs
through a wire -- the wire "bursts." Actually, it heats up like the filament in a light bulb and
burns, but it's the same idea. Even if increased voltage doesn't immediately break your machine,
it may put extra strain on the components, wearing them down over time. In the next section,
we'll look at what surge protectors do to prevent this from happening.