CONTRIBUTIONS OF EMILE DURKHEIM TO

SOCIOLOGY

Submitted to

Declaration

I, the undersigned, declare that this Project work titled, “Contributions of Emile Durkheim to Sociology”
is based on my own research work that was carried out during the course of my study, under the guidance
and supervision of my faculty advisor.

I affirm that the statements made and the conclusions drawn are the outcome of the said research work. I
further declare that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, proper references have been given and it does
not contain any part of any work that has been submitted for the award of any other degree in this
university or any other university.

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 Acknowledgements

I, , would like to take up this opportunity to thank all those who have stood by me throughout the
duration of this project and helped me in completing it.

Foremost my teacher and mentor. I thank him for his faith in me to provide me with such a topic
of research. Her constant guidance at every step and keen attention to detail have been
elementary in the completion of this project.

The college administration and staff had no less a part in this job. The value of their support
cannot be expressed in mere words.

Finally, I would like to thank God for his benevolence and grace in enabling me to finish this
task.

I express my heartfelt gratitude to everyone involved,

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 Table of Contents

S.no. Topic Page no.

1. Declaration 2
2. Certificate 3
3. Acknowledgements 4
4. Chapter 1: Introduction 6
 Objectives of the study
 Nature and sources of data
 Scope and Limitation of the study
 Methodology and Rationale of the study
5. Chapter 2: About Durkheim and his observations 8
6. Chapter 3: Contributions made by Durkheim 11
 Social facts
 Division of labour
 Theory of Suicide
 Religion
 Education
7. Conclusion 20
8. References 21

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
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Emile Durkheim was an eminent French Sociologist and a philosopher. He was dedicated to the
study of Sociology as empirical endeavour. He was of the opinion that the society exerted a
powerful force on individuals. People’s norms, beliefs, make up a collective consciousness. This
collective consciousness binds people together and creates social integration. According to him,
the collective consciousness was vital in explaining the existence of society: it forms the society
as well as holds it together. Through his contributions to the field of Sociology, he helped
understand why capitalism has made people richer, yet mostly miserable. He was born in France
in 1858, at a time that saw the rise of capitalism. Durkheim lived through the period that saw
rapid transformation of France from a traditional agrarian economy to an urban industrial
society. He observed that though capitalism turned out to be extraordinarily productive yet in
certain ways it was also liberating. However, what struck him and became the focus of his career
was the impact of economic system that drove people to commit suicide in increasing numbers.
This was Durkheim’s immense insight that was unravelled in his significant work “The Suicide”
published in 1897. Thus, through his several works he endeavoured to explain how the society
functions and how it has evolved. This he termed as social facts. Most of Durkheim's theories
were founded on the concept of social facts, norms and values of society thereby contributing
immensely in the field of Sociology.

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Set in above prospective the major aim of the project is:

1. To understand Emile Durkheim and the backdrop of his research work

2. To know the observations made by him
3. To understand the various contributions made by Durkheim

1.2 NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA

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 This project work is descriptive analytical in approach and the source of collection of data is
secondary data. This secondary data has been obtained from published sources such as web
sources, articles and other references as guided by the faculty of Sociology were primarily
helpful and of utmost importance in the successful completion of the project.

1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The Scope of this Project is limited to the study of Durkheim’s immense contribution to the field of
Sociology under the aspect of social facts, norms and values prevailing in the society in his times.
The time expanse of the research is during his lifetime era and does not delve into timelines before
or after his lifetime.

1.4 METHODOLOGY AND RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

The study is fairly concise and doctrinal in nature. It delves into the concepts as outlined in the topic
header so as to formulate an understanding of the important aspects of research on the same.

Chapter 2

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 ABOUT DURKHEIM AND HIS OBSERVATIONS

In order to understand any sociological thinker and his works, it is necessary to understand
the principles of the thinker:

2.1 Biographical Sketch

 Early Life :Durkheim was born in a French family on 15 th April, 1858 in Epinal,
France.  He came from a family of Rabbis and his education also began in a
rabbinical school. Despite being a rabbi he led a completely secular life.

 Education: He graduated and studied philosophy from École Normale Supérieure,

Paris in 1882. He went to Germany in 1885 where he studied sociology for two years.
He taught in several provincial schools between 1882 and 1887.

 Academic career: Alongwith Max Weber and Karl Marx he is usually considered to
be the principal architect of modern social science. In 1887, he was appointed as
Faculty of Social Sciences in the University of Boudreaux.  During his years in the
university he wrote three of his most important books ‘The Division of Labour in
Society’ published in 1893, ‘The Rules of Sociological Method’ in 1895 and ‘Suicide’
in 1897 . He founded the first French social science journal in 1898. In 1902, he
became professor of Sociology and education at University of Paris. Thereafter he
published his last major work called ‘The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life’ in
1912 which analyses religion as a social phenomenon. However after the outbreak of
World War 1 the French National denounced him as a professor of apparently
German extraction who taught a foreign discipline at the University.

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2.2 Durkheim’s goals
Across his career, Durkheim primarily had three goals:
 He wanted to establish Sociology as an academic discipline.
 He wanted to analyse if the society would still be held together if there was no
religion.
 He was concerned with the scientific method of studying and its applications.

2.3 Observations

Across his career, Durkheim made an endeavour to elaborate as to why people were unhappy
and dissatisfied in the modern societies. In order to explain this, he isolated 5 crucial factors:

1. Individualism
In traditional societies people's identities were closely tied to belonging to a particular
clan or a class. However, under capitalism an individual makes his own decisions. If
things go in his favour the individual can take credit for himself and if not he can blame
no one but himself.

2. Excessive hopes
Capitalism raises hopes. Every one with effort can become the boss advertising ambition
by swanking off limitless luxury. Just as opportunities are many but so too are the
possibilities of disappointment.  Envy grows and there is general dissatisfaction. In his
view modern societies struggle to admit that life just is quite often sad and painful.

3. We have too much freedom

Earlier there were many social norms imposing restrictions however in the age of
capitalism social norms are relentlessly undermined. Best shows uncertainty in decision
making.

4. Atheism

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 Durkheim, was an atheist himself, yet he appreciated religion. He knew that the sense of
community and consolation that religion provides is of great importance to people.

5. Weakening of the nation and of the family

Today neither the nation nor the family is well placed to take up the task of giving us a
larger sense of belonging.

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 Chapter 3
CONTRIBUTIONS MADE BY DURKHEIM

Durkheim during his years of study and research in a scientific and analytical manner made
the following contributions:

3.1 Social Facts

Just as in physical world facts are observed directly similarly in social world facts have to
be observed indirectly. According to Durkheim, social facts emanate from the collectives
of individuals (external factor), they cannot be reduced to the level of individuals
(internal factor) – and this is the social reality.

His aim was to arrange social facts into levels of social reality. As per him the study of
society should never reduce to the level of an individual, rather stay at the level of social
facts and strive to understand social action in relation to social facts.

In this way study of sociology would be scientific, and not be limited to individuals. This
Positivist approach to studying society is laid down in Durkhiem’s work ‘The Rules of
Sociological Method’ published in 1895.

Rules for observing social facts:

 Social facts should always be treated as if they are things.

 The voluntary nature of a social fact should never be pre-assumed

 All pre-conceptions should be eradicated.

 Observation of social facts should not be limited to an individual level.

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  Observation should always seek those external distinguishing characteristics
which are clear and can be objectively perceived by others

 The observation and the study of social facts should be definitive as far as
possible.

According to Durkheim, social facts are things that are created from collective forces
and do not emanate from the individual. They are to be studied empirically and not
philosophically. Durkheim defines social facts as “Ways of acting, thinking and
feeling, external to the individual and endowed with a power of coercion by reason of
which they control them.”1

Types of social facts

 Institutional that is religion education morality. 

 Structural morphological ( housing pattern clothing still not accepted

 Non institutional

 Pathological ( suicide, rate of crime)

Durkheim discussed the social facts in terms of:

 Legal Principles (‘Division of Labour in Society’, 1893)

 Social Statistics (‘The Suicide’, 1897)

 Religious Codes (‘Elementary forms of Religious Life’, 1912)

1
Rashmi Priya, Rules of Sociological Methods According to Durkheim (Jul 11,2020, 4:40 PM),
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/rules-of-sociological-methods-according-to-durkheim/43740,

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Important terms to explain social facts
a. Concept of anomie: Durkheim focused on how society can perform and
function, thus making him the creator of the functionalist perspective within
sociology. He introduced the concept of “anomie” which means that an
individual can suffer from having greater freedom. 
b. Collective consciousness: Via his research, he learnt that solidarity in society
was achieved through an amalgamation of rules, roles, and norms, the existence
of a "collective conscience," that remind the society of the values that they have
in common, of group affiliation, and of shared interests.
c. Functionalism: Society is a system of interrelated parts where no one part can
function without the other. These parts make up the entire society. If any one
part changes, it affects the society as a whole. He termed this as functionalism.
d. Durkheim and modernity: According to Durkheim, the society evolved from a
mechanical solidarity to an organic solidarity. He explained mechanical
solidarity as one where people in society are closed tied to others via personal
ties and traditions (For instance- religion, family, etc.). Now modern society is
based on the concept of organic solidarity wherein people are connected to each
other due to their interdependence cause by division of labour. Durkheim
explains that modern society is based on the following 3 factors:
 Growth of population and its increasing density
 Increase in ‘moral density’
 Increase in specialization of work
The individuals have started specializing in their tasks since the modern society has
become very complex. Individuals are no longer self reliant but are now inter
dependent on each other, thus giving rise to the concept of organic solidarity.
e. Organic v Mechanical solidarity: According to Emile Durkheim, an organic
solidarity has an advantage over the mechanical one. In the mechanical one,
people are self sufficient and thus do not need to rely on each other or
cooperate. They can take decisions collectively. However, in the organic
solidarity, due to specialization people have come to be more interdependent on
each other thus requiring them to cooperate in division of labour. They can also

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 take their own individual decisions. Hence, Emile concludes that social
integration is necessary in society.

Role of law in preserving the social solidarity of the society

According to Durkheim laws are the most important visible component of the
system of social solidarity. There are two types of laws existing in the society and
each of them corresponds with the two solidarities: Repressive law ( for mechanical
solidarity) and restitutive law (for organic solidarity).
 Repressive law: when a person commits a crime, the severity of the damage
incurred to an individual is not measured but the damage to the society in its
entirety is taken into account and thus the punishment is also very strict and
harsh in the mechanical solidarity.
 Restitutive law: here when a person commits the crime the damage incurred
only to that individual victim is taken into account since the society no
longer has a common or shared belief system. In this case the punishment is
awarded by a specialized institutions called courts or tribunals.

3.2 Division of labour

He mentioned this theory of division of labour in his book ‘The Division of Labour in
Society’ published in 1893.

 Social solidarity: Earlier primitive society was held together due to likeness,
norms and values (known as mechanical solidarity). However the modern
society is heterogeneous and complex yet held together (known as organic
solidarity). Durkheim believes that what binds the people of the society
together is the ‘collective consciousness’ or a shared belief system.

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  With increasing population there were many people to do a single job.
Therefore splitting of activities began leading to specialisation in a particular
job. This was known as division of labour. Division of labour as a social fact
exists everywhere, integrates people and is sui generis. 
 
 This led to know collective conscience and increased individuality. Thus
division of labour maintains functional inter-dependence, "the more the
individual becomes autonomous the more he comes to depend heavily on
society.”

Benefits of division of labour

Since the division of labour focuses on the specialization of the individuals it

increases the productive capacity as well as the skills of the workers. This also causes
a feeling of solidarity for the ones who share those jobs. This process helps in
maintaining and bringing about social order and moral order within the society.
According to him the division of labour is directly proportionate to moral/dynamic
density of the society which is basically a combination of concentration of individuals
and the amount of socialization of a society. This density can occur in three ways:

 Increase in the spatial distribution of persons

 Growth of towns
 Increase in the efficacy of the means of communication

Abnormal forms of division of labour

 Anomic (where people don't follow norms, hence corruption)

 Inadequate organisation leads to conflicts. 

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  Forced division of labour

Way ahead:

This can be resolved by forming professional association which will implement

ethical and moral codes.

3.3 Theory of Suicide

"Any death caused directly or indirectly by a positive or negative action of the victim
himself which he knows will produce this result".2

 The book chronicled and remarked tragic discovery of ever increasing suicide
rates due to rise of capitalism that brought about significant societal changes.
He considered it to be a sociological phenomenon instead of psychological
one. Suicide is a social fact because the rate of the suicide is fairly constant. 

 He conducted the research spatially as well as temporally. He used several

scientific methods such as multivariate analysis, concomitant variables,
surveys, etc. to conduct the research. He listed out various reasons for suicide
and termed it as suicidogenic forces.

Suicidogenic forces

Forces of integration and regulation as suicidogenic forces originate from society.

2
https://durkheim.uchicago.edu/Summaries/suicide.html

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 FORCES OF FORCES OF
INTEGRATION REGULATION
HIGH Altruistic Fatalistic

LOW Egoistic Anomic

1. Forces of integration
 Altruistic: When the integration in society is very strong, persons
committing altruistic suicide feel that it is their duty to do so. For instance,
military.
 Egoistic: People who have lost attachment from their groups or weak
social integration commit suicide out of frustration.

2. Forces of regulation
 Fatalistic: A person who thinks that his future is bleak and his passions are
chocked, are likely to commit fatalistic suicide.
 Anomic: This kind of suicide occurs at a time when there is industrial or
financial crises.

3.4 Religion

"Religion is a unified system of belief and practices relative to sacred things, that is to
say, things set apart and forbidden - beliefs and practices which unite into one single
moral community call the church all those who adhere to them. "3

3
http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/religion/Durkheim%20on%20Religion.doc

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  According to him, society is conceptualized as it is divided into two halves one
which deals with the supernatural - sacred and rest of the society that he calls as
profane. He proves that the real cause of religion is social and not
psychological/intellectual. He believes that totem is the material representation of
the society. Sacred God and society are one and the same thing. So totem is
nothing but the symbol of the society.

 Emile Durkheim, believed that religion was not divine by origin but essentially an
illusion. However, he laid importance on the communal nature of religion that it
creates communal bonds with participation in religious activities, rather than the
individual nature. He also believed that religious rituals “prepare men for social
life by imposing self-discipline and a certain measure of asceticism”.

 Durkheim did not condemn any religion. Durkheim found certain components to
be within all world religions. According to him all religions are based on an
interpretation of the world of the sacred, or those extraordinary things that inspire
a sense of awe or reverence among people. Emile Durkheim arrived at a
conclusion that religion is the disguised worship of society. The deities which
men worship are only projections of the power of society.

3.5 Education

According to Emile Durkheim, Education performs two major functions that is:
 It transmits the shared values of the society
 It stresses on importance of specialized skills in an economy that is based on
specialized division of labour.

He believed that the schools, educational institutions were one of the few
institutions that helped the transition of the society based on mechanical solidarity
to the organic solidarity. It transformed the society from rural agrarian society to
urban industrialized society.

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According to him, schools were the only institution that was capable of preparing
the students for membership in wider society by enforcing a set of rules upon
them upon which they can interact and share values.

Durkheim laid emphasis on punishment so that it reflects the seriousness of

damge caused by them and also prevent other from doing so. Students would also
inculcate the quality of self discipline in themselves by way of imposition of
punishments laid upon them.

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 CONCLUSION

Emile Durkheim’s sociological works have been influenced by the growing industrialization and
urbanization during his times that brought about various changes in the society. He observed the
society during the rise of capitalism through sociological lens. He laid emphasis on how the
society collectively impacts an individual. He explained the transformation of the society from a
mechanical solidarity to an organic solidarity during the era of rising capitalism. For his research
in an empirical manner, he employed various scientific methods and statistical tools. He adopted
a structural approach establishing the fact that social structures have a strong influence on social
action. Society has obligations and duties, and generally acts in a way that is immensely
influenced by the structures of which it is a part. His contribution social facts, religion, suicide
and division of labour against the backdrop of a capitalist economy has been appreciated
immensely and has been criticized by various scholars as well. Durkheim has also through his
research and study distinguished Sociology from other academic disciplines thus making him
one of the founding fathers of Sociology. He helped define and establish Sociology as an
academic discipline.

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 REFERENCES

Books:

 Kenneth Allan. 2012. Contemporary Social and Sociological Theory. Sage Publication
 F. Abraham and J. H.Morgan. 1985. Sociological Thought, Macmillan Publishers.

Articles:

 The Contribution of Emile Durkheim Towards Sociology by Puja Mondal

Websites:

 https://abovethelaw.com/2014/10/movie-night-with-justice-breyer/
 https://revisesociology.com/2016/12/12/what-are-social-facts/
 https://www.thoughtco.com/emile-durkheim-relevance-to-sociology-today-3026482
 https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-some-contributions-made-sociology-by-
emile-471217
 https://www.jstor.org/stable/23768661?seq=1
 https://study.com/academy/lesson/emile-durkheims-theories-functionalism-anomie-and-
division-of-labor.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim
 https://revisesociology.com/2017/08/22/functionalist-durkheim-role-education/

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