1.

GARDEN CITIES OF TO-MORROW by Ebenezer Howard

The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom.
Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of
residences, industry and agriculture.

Inspired by the Utopian novel Looking Backward and Henry George's work Progress and Poverty, Howard published his book To-
morrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform in 1898 (which was reissued in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-morrow). His idealized garden city would
house 32,000 people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,400 ha), planned on a concentric pattern with open spaces, public parks and six
radial boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. The garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population,
another garden city would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a central city of 50,000
people, linked by road and rail.

The model of a “Garden City” set out in the first chapter of the book is ultimately the greatest legacy of the book, rightly or wrongly,
with the subsequent formation of the Garden City Association in 1899 (that 42 years later would become the Town and Country Planning
Association) leading to the “Garden City Movement.” The construction of two garden cities – at Letchworth (1903) and Welwyn (1919) – would
act as further catalysts for change that culminated, but was not way limited to, the post-Second World War New Towns Act.

2. LINEAR CITY Movement by Arturo Soria y Mata

The linear city was an urban plan for an elongated urban formation. The city would consist of a series of functionally specialized parallel
sectors. Generally, the city would run parallel to a river and be built so that the dominant wind would blow from the residential areas to the
industrial strip. The sectors of a linear city would be:

1. a purely segregated zone for railway lines,

2. a zone of production and communal enterprises, with related scientific, technical and educational institutions,

3. a green belt or buffer zone with major highway,

4. a residential zone, including a band of social institutions, a band of residential buildings and a "children's band",

5. a park zone, and

6. an agricultural zone with gardens and state-run farms (sovkhozy in the Soviet Union).

As the city expanded, additional sectors would be added to the end of each band, so that the city would become ever longer, without
growing wider.

The linear city design was first developed by Arturo Soria y Mata in Madrid, Spain during the 19th century, but was promoted by the
Soviet planner Nikolay Alexandrovich Milyutin in the late 1920s. (Milyutin justified placing production enterprises and schools in the same band
with Engels' statement that "education and labour will be united".)

Ernst May, a famous German functionalist architect, formulated his initial plan for Magnitogorsk, a new city in the Soviet Union, primarily
following the model that he had established with his Frankfurt settlements: identical, equidistant five-story communal apartment buildings and
an extensive network of dining halls and other public services.

3. INDUSTRIAL CITY by Tony Ganier

Tony Garnier's Une Cite Industrialle is one of the most comprehensive ideal plans of all time.Published in 1917, it is not only
an outstanding contribution to architectural and planning theories but also a sensitive expression of thought and cultural conditions
of its day. Dora Wiebenson's framing of the book focused on the Cite’ s lesser-known role as a product of its cultural context, and as a
bridge between nineteenth and twentieth century planning and between academic and non-academic theories and techniques.
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE

The end of the nineteenth century was a time of great change throughout Europe. The advent of industrialisation altered
the landscape of the city forever. Many of the changes were not for the better and living conditions in industrial cities steadily
deteriorated. The Industrial Revolution had the effect of bringing more and more people from the countryside into the heart of the
city looking for work. Such dramatic over-population and unrestricted urban growth led to slum housing, dirt, disease and a lack of
communal green spaces within the city landscape. Modern urban planning arose in response to this disorde. Reformation of these
areas was the objective of the early city planners, who began to impose regulatory laws establishing housing standards for housing,
sanitation etc. Urban planners also introduced parks, playground in city neighbourhoods, for recreation as well as visual relief. The
notion of zoning was a major concept of urban planning at this time.

SOCIAL UTOPIAN CONCEPTS

At the end of the 19th century it was believed that many social reforms could be achieved gradually through moral and
intellectual education leading to a future ideal state. Garnier believed in the basic goodness of man :when asked why his city
contained no law courts, police force stations, jail or church he is said to have replied that the new society governed by socialist law
would have no need of churches as capitalism would be suppressed.
In the Utopias of this period, fundamental, natural and primitive conditions were stressed; the emphasis on exercise, health,
and physical well-being was a corollary to the awakening interest in natural life. Garnier‘s inclusion of a large public area for sports
and spectacles in his city related to early utopian philosophy, pagan antiquity and love for games.

4. CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT by Daniel Burnham

In Henry Blake Fuller's 1895 novel, With the Procession, the artistic young Truesdale Marshall, just returned home from a
prolonged grand tour, looked upon his native Chicago as a “hideous monster, a piteous, floundering monster too. It almost called for
tears. Nowhere a more tireless activity, yet nowhere a result so pitifully grotesque, gruesome, appalling.” Marshall was not alone:
many observers of late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century America—residents, visitors, and expatriates alike—believed that its
cities were ugly. The shapelessness of American cities was due in large measure to the extraordinary speed with which they had
developed: between 1860 and 1910, the number of American cities with more than 100,000 residents rose from 8 to 50. By 1910,
several cities had passed the one million mark. Such statistics are crucial to understanding the City Beautiful impulse. Despite its
preoccupation with aesthetic effect, the movement concerned far more than facade: the quest for beauty paralleled the search for
the functional and humane city. Urban planning as the twentieth century would know it developed out of the City Beautiful—both as
a phase of it and a reaction to it—and its coalition of planners, of paid experts and unpaid volunteers, of architects, artists, civic
officials, journalists, business people, and interested ordinary citizens.

Daniel Hudson Burnham was indisputably the “Father of the City Beautiful.” As director of works of the World's Columbian
Exposition (1893), he effectively launched the movement that 15 years later would reach its apogee in his epochal Plan of
Chicago(1909). Burnham's importance as an architect and planner lay chiefly in his ability to direct and stimulate the design efforts of
others. His own credo captured the essence of his life and work: “Make no little plans, they have no magic to stir men's blood. ...
Make big plans ... remembering that a noble, logical diagram once recorded will never die, but long after we are gone will be a living
thing asserting itself with ever growing consistency.” In his various architectural and planning pursuits, Burnham choreographed large
efforts indeed.

5. RADIENT CITY by Le Corbusier

Ville Radieuse (Radiant City) was an unrealised project designed by the French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier in 1924.

Although Le Corbusier had exhibited his ideas for the ideal city, the Ville Contemporaine in the 1920s, during contact with
international planners he began work on the Ville Radieuse. In 1930 he had become an active member of the syndicalist movement and
proposed the Ville Radieuse as a blueprint of social reform.

The principles of the Ville Radieuse were incorporated into his later publication, the Athens Charter published in 1943.
His utopian ideal formed the basis of a number of urban plans during the 1930s and 1940s culminating in the design and construction of the
first Unité d’Habitation in Marseilles in 1952.

In the late 1920s Le Corbusier lost confidence in big business to realise his dreams of utopia represented in the Ville Contemporaine
and Plan Voisin (1925). Influenced by the linear city ideas of Milyutin and the theories of the syndicalist movement (that he had recently joined)
he formulated a new vision of the ideal city, the Ville Radieuse. It represented an utopian dream to reunite man within a well-ordered
environment. Unlike the radial design of the Ville Contemporaine, the Ville Radieuse was a linear city based upon the abstract shape of the
human body with head, spine, arms and legs. The design maintained the idea of high-rise housing blocks, free circulation and abundant green
spaces proposed in his earlier work. The blocks of housing were laid out in long lines stepping in and out. Like the Swiss Pavilion they were
glazed on their south side and were raised up on pilotis. They had roof terraces and running tracks on their roofs.

The Ville Radieuse also made reference to Corbusier's work in Russia. In 1930, he wrote a 59 page Reply to Moscow when
commenting upon a competition in Moscow. The report contained drawings defining an alternative urban model for the planning of the city. He
exhibited the first representations of his ideas at the third CIAM meeting in Brussels in 1930 (although he withdrew the Moscow proposals). In
addition he developed proposals for the Ferme Radieuse (Radiant Farm) and Village Radieuse (Radiant Village).

6. PARKS MOVEMENT by Frederick Law Olmsted

As a team, Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903) and Calvert Vaux (1824-1895) collaborated on dozens of parks, parkways

and planned neighborhoods across the country. As the nation's landscape underwent increasing urbanization, new ideas about the
importance of public parks in America were gaining popularity, and Olmsted and Vaux pioneered and propelled this movement. Their
creations are, historically and presently, crucial elements in the identity of their home cities.

Olmsted was a lover of nature who always contended that had it not been for Vaux's influence, he would have become a
farmer. Born in Hartford, Connecticut in 1822 to a dry-goods merchant and the daughter of a farmer, Olmsted spent much of his
youth wandering fields and forests, often foregoing formal studies. After working in various capacities, including sailor, farmer, clerk
and reporter, Olmsted traveled to Europe in 1850 to tour formal gardens and the world's first public parks.
Upon his return, he wrote the book Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England, and this began his official career as
the pioneer of landscape architecture in the United States. In 1856, Olmsted became the superintendent of construction for Central
Park. Together with Calvert Vaux, he would revolutionize urban park design.
The London-born Calvert Vaux was apprenticed to a British architectural firm at the age of 19. He moved to Newburgh, New
York in 1850 to work with Andrew Jackson Downing, a landscape designer who was among the first to propose a "central park" in
New York City. Vaux deemed the first proposed design to be lacking, and suggested a public competition to find the best design for
Central Park. He teamed up with Olmsted and they won the competition, beginning a seven-year partnership that included the
construction of Prospect Park, considered by most to be their crowning achievement.

7. BROADACRES by Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright was arrogant, stubborn, and brilliant. But above all, he was a shrewd businessman who understood the importance of
spectacle in keeping his business afloat. Wright put on many shows over the course of his lifetime, but arguably no performance was greater
than his utopian plan to create the perfect community: Broadacre City.

Wright's ideal community was a complete rejection of the American cities of the first half of the 20th century. According to him, cities
would no longer be centralized; no longer beholden to the pedestrian or the central business district. Broadacre City was a thought experiment
as much as it was a serious proposal—one where the automobile would reign supreme. It was a truly prophetic vision of modern America.

In 1932, Frank Lloyd Wright authored an essay entitled The Disappearing City in which he proposed a solution that he called the Broadacre
City. This utopian concept was not a formal commission, but rather one of Frank Lloyd Wright's many organic concepts of architecture that he
envisioned.

It is widely known that Frank Lloyd Wright loathed classical architecture and its repetition on American soil. That is what lead him to
develop the Prairie mode of domestic architecture in the Midwest. Beyond his distaste of European revival was the modern day city. When
Wright first arrived in Chicago in the spring of 1887, he lamented on the squalor like conditions of the city. The pollution bothered him. The
traffic irritated him. The advertisements annoyed him. And man was not entitled to any freedom of space, or subsequently individuality. This
lead him to develop a concept for a new way of living entirely, with the central notion being decentralization, known as the Broadacre City.

The core idea of Frank Lloyd Wright's Broadacre City is that every man has one acre of land for living. An acre of land for a man and his
family was sufficient enough for them to live by the sovereignty of the individual, a truly democratic idea, in Frank Lloyd Wright's plan. This
would be accomplished by the decentralization of cities over spans of hundreds of miles. Rather than one large city crammed with millions of
people, there would now be dozens of sprawling cities with those millions evenly distributed. An idealistic merge of urban and rural, though not
suburban. The Broadacre City is a prototype of what this would look like. Here would be self sufficient cities covering broad spans, offering the
comforts and conveniences of the city and the open space of the rural. What makes this different from a suburb? Suburbs are the (sometimes
messy) fusion of the urban area and rural area. But suburbs cannot exist without a large city to bud off of, often times providing work for those
in the suburbs. In Broadacre City, it exists independently of any major city, though there may be dozens of Broadacre Cities clustered together,
comparable in idea to a metropolitan area. 

8. CODEX ATLANTICUS by Leonardo Da Vinci

Leonardo Da Vinci kept a daily journal throughout most of his life, keeping notes and drawings on a host of topics from the
extraordinary (inventions, artwork, scientific theories and musings) to the mundane (grocery lists, names of people who owed him
money, etc.). All told, over 13,000 pages of Da Vinci’s notes and drawings exist, many of which are now collected into notebooks
and manuscripts and held in libraries and museums around the world.

As book people, avid journalese, and Leonardo da Vinci enthusiasts we obviously find these notebooks fascinating. So over the
course of a series of articles we’ll take a look at some of these extraordinary books, examining everything from their contents to their
histories. Including, of course, a look at the Codex Leicester, the Bill Gates-owned Da Vinci notebook which has pages we’ve created a
special collection of journals from: Paper blanks’ Leonardo’s Sketches collection. Find out more about that collection here.
The first Da Vinci notebook we’ve decided to look at? No less than the largest bound volume of Da Vinci notes and drawings that
exists: The Codex Atlanticus.

The Codex Atlanticus: An Overview

 Meaning of Name: “Atlanticus” is a reference to the large-size dimensions of the notebooks’ pages. The English translation of
“Atlante” is Atlas, the name typically used to represent volumes of this size.
 Dates: 1478 to 1519
 Topics: Flying machines, war devices, musical instruments, astronomy, geography, botany, architecture, anatomy, personal biographic
notes, and philosophical musings.
 Page Count: 1119-pages in 12 volumes. It includes 100 pages of writing and a total of 1,750 sketches and drawings.
 Present Location: The Biblioteca Ambrosiana, a historic library in Milan, Italy

The Codex Atlanticus contains ideas and inventions to mechanics, mathematics, astronomy, botany, geography,
physics, chemistry and architecture. Furthermore, theoretical and practical aspects of painting, sculpture, optics and
perspective are discussed. Leonardo's drawings show the design solutions for war machines, diving suits, aircraft,
architectural and urban projects, such as various bridge constructions.
An exhibition of original drawings of the Codex Atlanticus of Leonardo can be admired in the Pinacoteca
AmbrosianaLibrary and in the sacristy of the church ofSanta Maria delle Grazie. Since 2009, a thematic series of 45 pages
of the Codice Atlantico in these two places is shown, one part in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, the other part in the Sacristy
by Bramante in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie.