6

6.1 ( : John, 2016)

(vertebrate central nervous system)

90% (glia cells
neuroglia)

19

4
(astrocytes) (oligodendrocytes) (ependymal) (microglia)
1. (astrocytes)

1.
(spatial relationships)
2. (scaffold)
 6.2 5 ( : Unity Companies, 2016)

3.
(blood-brain
barrier, BBB)
4.
(neural scar formation)
5.

6.

(effluxed K+)

(K+ concentration gradient)

7.

2 1) (gap junction)

2)

218
 2

3 (three-party junctures)
1 2

(other glial cells)

2. (oligodendrocytes) (myelin sheaths)

(jelly-roll fashion)

3. (ependymal cells)
(neural tube)
(ventricles) (central canal
of spinal cord) (cerebrospinal fluid, CSF) (cilia)

(neural stem cells)

1990s
(hippocampus)
(irreplaceable)
(precursor cells)

6.1

-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
-

219
 6.3 ( : Tango, 2016)

4
1. (cranium skull)
(vertebral column)
2. (meninges) 3

1) (dura mater pachymeninx) 2)

(arachnoid mater) 3) (pia mater)

6.4 Antranik, 2016)

3. (cerebrospinal fluid, CSF)

4. (blood-brain barrier, BBB)

220
 6.5 ( : van den Berg, 2016)
3
1. (dura mater)
2 (periosteal) (meningeal)
(cavities)
(sinuses) (superior sagittal sinuses)

2. (arachnoid mater, arachnoid = spiderlike)

(cobwebby appearance)
(subarachnoid space)
(dural
sinuses) (arachnoid villi)

3. (pia mater)

(cerebrospinal fluid, CSF)

(shock-absorbing fluid)

(choroid plexi)
(ventricle cavities)

4 (interconnected ventricles)

4 (fourth ventricle)

221
 6.6
: Antranik, 2016)

6.7 ( )
: Antranik, 2016)

10

1.
2.
3. 4
222
 4.
5.

(interstitial fluid, ISF)

2

(endothelial cells)

(tight junction)

(primary active
transport) (glucose transporter)

6.8 ( ) ( )
: Maddox, 2016)

223
 6.9
: Raghuram, 2016)

(hypothalamus)
(controlling output)
(hypothalamic capillaries)

(anaerobic metabolism)

2-3
10-15

224
 (

(transamination))

(hemolymph)

(vertebrate brains plasticity)

70%
(songbird)

(nerve-growth inhibiting
proteins)
(plasticity)

(neural pathways)

(dendritic shape) (cytoskeletal elements)

(degenerative diseases)
(Alzheimer’s)
(transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, TSE)
- (bovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE) (mad
cow disease)
- (scrapie)
- (transmissible mink encephalopathy)
- (feline spongiform encephalopathy)
- (chronic wasting disease)

225
 - (Kuru and classical and variant Creutzfeldt- Jacob disease, vCJD)

1986
2004

3 1)
2) (virino)
3)
(prion proteinaceous infectious particle)
(abnormal form)

(scrapie-infected animals)
(PrP)

(memory formation)

(spongiform disease)

(incubation period) 2-8

2-6

(dorsal root ganglion) (trigeminal ganglion)

(distal ileum) (bone marrow)

(functional specialization) (evolutionary origin)

3 (hindbrain)

226
 (midbrain) (forebrain)
(embryonic neural tube)

6.10 ( : Kimball, 2016)

1. (brain stem)
2. (cerebellum)
3. (forebrain)
a. (diencephalon)
i. (hypothalamus)
ii. (thalamus)
b. (cerebrum)
i. (basal nuclei)
ii. (cerebral cortex)

( )

(modern vertebrates) (jawless vertebrates)

(conservative division)

6.11 ( : Dovimae, 2013)

227
 6.12 3 ( : Darling, 2016)

1. (brainstem)

500
2 (medulla oblongata)
(pons)

(teleosts)

6.13 5 ( : Austin Community College District, 2008)

2. (cerebellum)

(hagfishes)
(lampreys) (jawed fishes)
(cerebellum-like structure) (central body)
(paired lobes)
(motor activity)

228
 (flying mammals)

3. (forebrain)

2
3.1. (diencephalon) 2
3.1.1 (hypothalamus)

3.1.2 (thalamus) (primitive sensory

processing) (relay station)

6.14 ( : Droual, 2013)

3.2 (cerebrum)
(tortuous ridges)
(grooves or folds)
(interconnections)

10,000 80%
(cerebral cortex)
(basal nuclei)
(much-fold walnut)
229
 3

(mammalian cerebral cortex)

2
(left and right hemispheres) 2
(corpus callosum) 300
2

6.15
: Mowatt, 2016)
(body’s
information highway) 2

(cerebral cortex) 2
(gray matter) (cerebral medulla)
(white matter)
(basal ganglia)

(bundles) (tracts)

(wires)

230
6.16 ( : ANATOMY BODY, 2016)
6
2 .

6.17
: OpenStax College, n.d.)
231
 4 (expanded layer 4) (satellite cells)

5 (thickened layer 5)

6.18 6 ( : King, 2016)

6.19 ( ) ( ) : Sharadsaini, 2016)

232
 (cortical mapping)
4 (lobes) 1)
(occipital lobes) 2) (temporal lobes) 3) (parietal lobes) 4) (frontal
lobes)
1. (occipital lobes)

2. (temporal lobes) 2

3. (parietal lobes)
(central sulcus/fissure)

4. (frontal lobes)
3
1) (voluntary motor activity)
2) (vocal activity)
3) (higher mental function)

6.20 4( : Austin Community College District, 2008)

(somatosensory
cortex)
(somesthetic input)
(proprioceptive inputs)

233
 6.21
: Austin Community College District, 2008)

6.22
: Kimball, 2015)

(proprioception)

(tectum)
(thalamic nuclei)
(somatosensory cortex)

(sensory homunculus)
6.24

234
6.23 4
: King, 2013)

6.24
: Austin Community College District, 2008)

(felunculus) (canunculus)

235
 (tactile stimulation)

(rhombencephalon)

(intensity)

(spatial
discrimination)

(higher sensory areas)

)
(primary motor cortex)

(paralysis)

(motor homunculus)

236
 (cortical area)

(arm- specific neurons)

(intermingled)

6.25 ( ) ( )( : Clarke, 2016)

(cortical regions)
(choreograph)
(efferent
neurons)

1) (involuntary control)

237
 2)

(readiness potential) 750

(higher motor area)

(supplementary motor area, SMA) (premotor cortex)

(posterior parietal cortex)

6.26 ( : Schwerin, 2016)

4 (programming)
(coordinating)

4 ( )
(motor program)

(cortical area)
(language area)

238
 (left cerebral hemisphere)

(verbal task)
(right cerebral hemisphere)
(nonlanguage skills) (spatial perception)
(fragmentary way)
(world holistically)
2 2

(thinkers)
(creators)
(subcortical and higher brain function)
(subcortical regions)
(basal nuclei)
(thalamus) (hypothalamus)
(diencephalon)

6.27
: what-when-how.com, 2008)
(basal nuclei)
(basal ganglia)
(nucleus) (nuclei)
( (ganglion)
)

(nonmotor functions)
239
 1. (muscle tone)

2. (selecting) (maintaining)

3.

(motor
pathways)

6.28 ( )
Austin Community College District, 2008)

(complex feedback loop

linking)

(antagonistic or unnecessary movement) -

(motor activity)

240
 6.29
: hanisblog.com)

(3rd ventricle)
2

1. (thalamus)

(relay station)

6.30 : Austin Community College District, 2008)

241
 (cortical association areas)

(positively reinforcing voluntary motor behavior)

2. (hypothalamus)
(specific nuclei)
(associated fibers)

1) (controls body temperature)

2) (controls thirst and urine output)
3) (controls feed intake)
4) (controls uterine
contraction and milk ejection)
5)

6)
(anterior
pituitary hormones) (posterior pituitary hormones)

6.31 ( : Nance, 2012)

(shivering)

242
 (limbic system)
(emotion) (motivation)
(intermediate level)

(reflex integrator)

(limbic system)

(ring of forebrain structures)

(
)

6.32 : Droual, 2013)

(amygdala)

(paleostriatum)

(unconditioned stimulus) (conditioned

stimulus)

( )

(hard-wired emotional memories)

243
 (GABA)

(overly anxious)

6.33 ( : Jarvis, 2009)

(behavioral patterns)

(sociosexual behavior)

(complex or bizarre behaviors)

(docile)

244
 ( )

(preprogrammed)

(reward and punishment center)

(reward and punishment centers)

5,000

(pleasure device)

(motivated activity)
(motivation)

(
)
(goal-directed behavior)

(homeostatic drives)

(drives)

245
 (psychological observations)
(neurophysiological mechanisms)

(self-stimulation)

2
(depression)

(antidepressant drugs)

(ProzacR)

(cerebellum, brain and spinal cord)

(cerebellum)

(integrative portion)

( )

6.34 ( : Nance, 2012)

246
 3
3

(subconscious control of motor activity)

- (vestibulocerebellum)

- - (cerebrocerebellum)
(cortical motor
areas) (procedural memories)
- (spinocerebellum)

(peripheral receptors)

(middle management)
(intentions) (orders)

(the Smith Predictor)

(long feedback
delays)

(sensor)
(anticipatory adjustments)

(subconsciously coordinate)

(phasic contraction)

247
 (brainstem)

1
2 (incoming fibers)
(efferent output)

1. (sensation input) (motor output)

12

10

2.
(integrating neural clusters or
centers)
3.
4.
5.
(reticular formation)

(reticular
activating system, RAS)

(electroencephalogram, EEG)
(intralaminar nucleus)

(midbrain tegmentum)
(desynchronization)

(synchronized pattern)
(comatose)

6.
(sleep-promoting center)

248
 6.35 12 ( : osteopathicthoughts, 2015)

(consciousness) (awareness)

1. (maximum alertness)
2. (wakefulness)
3. (drowsy)
249
 4. (sleep)
5. (coma)

(synchronized pattern low frequency-high amplitude) (general anesthetics)

6.36
: Austin Community College District, 2008)

(electroencephalogram, EEG)

1. (alpha rhythm) 8-13

2. (beta rhythm) 13-30
3. (delta rhythm) 0.5-4
4. (theta rhythm) 4-7

(Raphe nucleus)

(light sleep, slow-wave sleep, non-rapid eye movement sleep, NREM)

1. (quiet sleep non-
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep) 2
1.1 (quiet sleep or non-
REM sleep)
1.2
(dreaming sleep or REM sleep)
250
 2

(an idling brain in a movable body)

6.37 funnydogworld.com, 2014)

(brain-wave
patterns)

10 (alpha-
wave pattern) (calm, relaxed wakefulness)
(switch on)
(switch off)
3
3 (the three stages of quiet (non-REM) sleep)
1. 1 (stage N1 sleep)
(light sleep) 5
3-7

(jarred awake)
1

2. 2 (stage N2 sleep)
1 10 - 25

(large- slow wave) 12-14

(sleep spindles) (sigma wave)

(memory
consolidation)
(K-complex)
251
 (built-in vigilance system)

3. 3 (stage N3 (deep sleep, or slow-wave sleep))

½-3 (deep sleep)

20% - 30%

(dreaming, deep sleep, paradoxical sleep, rapid eye movement sleep, REM
sleep)
(dreaming) (rapid eye
movement sleep) (active brain in a
paralyzed body)

(fight-or-flight response)
(intermittent twitches)

6.38 ( : Smith, 2014)

(the role of REM sleep)

252
 3-5
90

(REM rebound)
(sleep architecture)

(hypnogram)
(city skyline)
(sleep architecture)

4-5

2
3
1

6.39 ( : Smith, 2014)

90 (90-minute changeover)

1. (sleep induction)

(L-tryptophan)
253
1-15
(sleep latency) (nocturnal awakenings)
2.
3.

4.
(
) ( )

(spinal cord)

6.40 ( ) ( )( : Kimball, 2016)

(segmented ganglia)
45 . (18 )
2 .( )

254
2 (spinal cord segment)

6.41 : Antranik, 2016)

6.42 ( : The Johns Hopkins University, n.d.)

(cervical/neck nerves) 8 (C1-C8) (thoracic/chest nerves) 12

(lumbar/ abdominal nerves) 5 (sacral/
pelvic nerves) 5 (coccygeal/tailbone nerves) 1
2
(nerve roots)
(bundle)
(cauda equina)
1 2 (L1-L2)

255
 6.43 : Antranik, 2016)

6.44 ( : Bag, Patel, Osman Roberson, 2011)

(butterfly-shaped region)

(short interneurons)
(axon of long interneurons)

(ascending tract)
256
 (afferent input)
(descending tract)

6.45 ( ) ( )
: Austin Community College District, 2008)
(tracts)
(ventral corticospinal tract) (descending
pathway) (motor region)
(efferent motor neuron)
(lateral spinothalamic tract)
(ascending pathway)

(afferent input)
(spinothalamic tract)

3
1. (dorsal/posterior horn)
(afferent neuron)
2. (ventral/anterior horn)

3. (lateral horn)

(spinal nerves) 2

(dorsal
root ganglion)
(ganglion)
(center) (nucleus)

257
6.46 ( : Clark Biggs, n.d.)

6.47 ( )
: Antranik, 2016)

258
6.48 ( ) : KIN450, 2015)

6.49 ( : OpenStax, 2016)

259
 (nerve) (neuron)
(axon bundle)

(tracts))

6.50
: Georgia Highlands College, 2013)

(segment) 1

(dermatome)

(wrong location pain)

(referred pain)

(wither region)
260
 (pericardium)
(traumatic pericarditis)

6.51 ( : Georgia Highlands College, 2013)

6.52 ( : Themilie, 2016)

(activity of command fibers elicits a fixed

action pattern)
(command fibers)
(coordinated
behaviors) (fixed action pattern,
261
FAP)
(stereotyped behaviors)

(giant Mauthner neuron)

(startle response)

(inhibitory input)

(medial giant neuron) (lateral

giant neuron)
(ecdysis)
(exoskeletons)
(ecdysis behavior)

(peristaltic fashion)

(memory and learning)

www.human-memory.net)

(cephalopods)

(
) ( )
262
 (biological constraints)
(species-specific) (individual genetic endowment)
(forms of memory)

2
1) (long-term memory) (declarative
memory) (explicit memory)
2) (procedural memory) (implicit
memory) (non-declarative memory)
(motor movements)

6.53 ( Psychestudy, n.d.)

2

(phenomenon of imprinting)

(Konrad Lorenz)

24

263
 (retention) (storage)
(memory trace) (verbatim
information)

2 (short-term memory) (long-term

memory)

(memory consolidation process)

6.54 ( : Psychestudy, n.d.)

(consolidation)
(synaptic plasticity) (late long term potentials, LTP)
(Ca2+ influxed)
( : alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-
propionate, AMPA : N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, NMDA)

1.
2. (multiple spine bouton)
1) 2)

3.

(working memory)
(blackboard of the mind)

2
1. (forgotten) (
)

264
2. (long-term memory)
(active practice)

6.55 ( : Jensen, 2005)

6.56 ( Kumar, 2015)

(long-term memory consolidation) (

)

( (fixative)
)

7-10 7-10 (
)
265
 (long-term declarative
memory)
(process) (codified)
(conjunction)
(visual memories) (auditory memories)

6.57 ( : Craik Lockhart, n.d.)

(remembering)
(forgotten)

(permanently forgotten)

(neuromodulators)

(anandimide) ( (anandamide) ) (reset)

(unpotentiated state)
(tetrahydrocannibinol, THC)
(anandimide agonist)

6.58 : www.drugabuse.gov)
266
 6.59 : Andrew, 2016)
(memory tracts)
(memory center)

(medial
temporal lobes) (prefrontal cortex)

(the hippocampus and declarative memories)

(the cerebellum and procedural memories)

(procedural memories) (motor skills)

(specific motor of sensory system)

267
 ( )
(lower center)

(short-term and long-term memory

involve different molecular mechanisms)
(working memory)

(planning) (problem-solving) (organizing

activities)

(neuronal connection)
(storage bins)

(auditory cues)
(object’s appearances of visual cues)

(neuronal
network)
(pre-existing synapses)

(existing neurons)
1.

(Krogh principle) (Eric Kandel)

(Aplysia spp.)
( 20,000 )

2
1) (habituation)
2) (sensitization)

(specific afferent neurons)

(defensive
withdrawal reflex) (sea hare, Aplysia californicus)
(defense escapes)
(mollusk) (mantle cavity)
268
 (mantle shelf) (siphon)

(afferent neurons
presynaptic neurons)
2

6.60 ( : Rudman, 2004)

1.1 (habituation)

( )

6.61 (Aplysia spp.)

CidpUSA.org, n.d.)
269
 (gill withdrawal)
10-15

1.2 (sensitization)
(strong or noxious stimulus)

(
)

(nociceptors)
(gill withdrawal
reflex pathway)
(postsynaptic potentials, EPSP)

(unconditioned stimulus) (paired stimulation)

(conditioned stimulus)

0.5
(
) (modulatory neuron)

270
 6.62 : CidpUSA.org, n.d.)

1. 0.5

2.

271
 3. (cAMP-dependent protein kinase)
4.

5.

6.

7. 20%

(siphon afferent)
(gill efferent)

( ) ( )

(noxious stimuli) 4-5

(cAMP cascade)

2.

(excitatory
synapse) (long-lasting modifications)

(
272
 ) ( )

6.63 1( : Sanderson et al., 2008.)

1.
(postsynaptic change)
(excitatory neurotransmitter) (
-
(N-methyl D-aspartate))

2 (Ca2+-dependent second-messenger pathway)

273
 2.
(presynaptic modification)
2
(nitric oxide, NO) (retrograde messenger)
2

(retrograde factor)

(unidirection)

(neuromodulators)

6.64 1 : HumanPhysiology.Academy. 2015)

(sensory-
deprived environment) (sensory-rich environment)

274
 (transcription factor) (cAMP
response-element binding protein, CREB) (switch on or turns on)
2 (CREB2)
(CREB-faciltated
protein synthesis) (enduring memories)
(positive regulatory factors)
(inhibitory, constraining factor) 2
(positive and repressive factors)

(
2 )

(CREB transcription factors)

(immediate early genes, IEGs)

(neuronal networks)

(consciousness)

(crude senses)

275
 4

276
 ( ) (X)
______1. 90%
______2.
______3.

______4.

______5. <10-15 < 2-3

______6.

______7. (prion proteinaceous infectious particle) PpP

______8.
2
______9.
______10.
______11.

______12. (higher motor area)

______13.

______14.

______15.

______16.
______17.

______18. (electroencephalogram, EEG) 4

______19.
______20. (GABA)

277
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