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The Art of Calligraphy by David Harris PDF
The Art of Calligraphy by David Harris PDF
The Art of Calligraphy by David Harris PDF
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DAVID HARRIS
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DORLING KINDERSLEY
LONDON • NEW YORK • ST UT TGART
A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 7513 0149 3
Rotunda 84
ROMAN & LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS Rotunda Capitals 88
Rustic Capitals 16 Humanist Minuscule 90
Square Capitals 20 Italic 94
Uncial & Artifical Uncial 24 Humanist & Italic Capitals 98
Italic Swash Capitals 100
INSULAR & N ATIONAL S CRIPTS
Insular Majuscule 28 POST-RENAISSANCE SCRIPTS
Introduction
OR 2,000 YEARS, the western Latin alphabet
F
B OOK PRODUCTION
T he prod uction of a
manuscript book is has developed and been modified by a vast
a complex business,
requiring the skills of range of social and technological changes,
numerous craftsmen.
providing a rich and varied resource for the
modern calligrapher to quarry. This book
charts that development, presenting scripts
in both historical and practical contexts.
Calligraphers of all levels will be able to M AGNIFYING CLASS
A magnifying glass or
explore the origins of each script and eyeglass is a valuable aid to
understand anew the construction of examining the lettcrforms
in historical manuscripts
the 26 letters that we use every day. shown in this book.
GENERALLY, LATIN-BASED scripts fall Ascender line I Wed9e serif Bracketed serif Capiwl line
.-
into two categories: formal - that Minuscule Ascender ilfajuscule (cap1La/
is scripts used as the instrument of Counrer (lower-case Ear lerur, up~r-cose
leuer) ltt1er)
authority; and informal - the cursive
or quickly written scripts used for
everyday transactions. History ~ Pen Bowl (bow,
I width
repeatedly shows formal scripts
degenerating into cursive forms,
which are, in turn, upgraded, finally
•-Bowl (bow,
curved strolte) Cross st.rolte Stem
achieving formal status as new hands (crossbar) (moin stroke) space
.-
Headline
Practical advice I
(waistline,
r -/ine)
Following the historical study of
each script is a practical guide to • Diamond
the construction of the letters in
that hand. A complete alphabet is
included, showing the separate strokes
E_ ~Penan9le
6
I NTRODUCTION
7
THE D EVELOPMEN T OF W ESTERN SCRI PT
ETRUSCAN LETTERS
PROBABLY the most important event
These lercers have been wriccen in O scan,
in the history of Western script was an ancient Italian language derived from
the Roman adoption of the Etruscan Errusca n. In addi ti o n to the writing system ,
almosc every aspect of Etruscan culture was
alphabet. By the first century B. c., the adopted by the Romans, including the legal
Romans had developed several scripts. and military systems.
One was a quickly penned, cursive This terracotta 1able1, ofa type used to mark property
script used for correspondence , and land, shows clearly reco9nlzable leueiforms, such
as i_his charac1er, which resembles an overwrned E
scratched onto a wax tablet or written
with a reed pen on papyrus. This hand
T HE L ATIN AL PHABET
was influential in the development of
This inscription from the base of th e T rajan
the minuscule letter, including the Column, R ome, is on e of the fi nest surviving
Half Uncial (pp. 38- 39) . An other examples of Imperial Capitals (pp. 108- 109) .
T he oldest Latin alphabet co ntained 21
key script was the Rustic Capital, characters, as opposed to th e Etruscan 20. By
used in manuscript, signwr itten, late Roman times, the Latin alphabet had 23
character.>, the two additional character.> - Y and
and inscribed forms (pp. 16- 17) . Z - having been taken from the Greek Upsilon
Imperial Capitals and Zeta. All of these .c;haracters have survived
The third Roman hand produced by for modem use, with the addition in medieval
times oflen ers J, U, and W.
the fi rst century B.C. , now known as
the Imperial Capital, was used in both
stone-carved and brush-drawn fo rm
(pp. 108- 109). O ver 2,000 years
later, the letters of the script provide
the basis of our modern capitals.
By the fourth century, the Square
Capital, a modified de luxe bookhand,
had also emerged (pp. 20- 21) .
Another important scr ipt that had
its origins during the Roman period
was the Uncial (pp. 24-25). Similar
in for m to the Greek Uncial that
preceded it, this was developed for
use by the early Christian Church.
'8
THE D EVELOPMENT OF WESTER1 SCRIPT
9
T111 Dl-l'E/01'111 \ / (}/ fl'l.:.\7£R\' S<Rll'I
11
SCRIPT T!l!ELJ.\ E
Key
Grr)' li11e: Ch icflinc of influence
D<l11rd /111r: Duration of Kript for ccxt
- - - - - - - - -----1=1l1us TlflJ•·---------·--·
I I 71i1e /111r Duraoon of <cnpt for me
other dun for 1ext
300
p.z.:__ •r ~ ,J UMIAL
400
--:.:.~ ].
1
~r ;7.tt:_
=_:Pfi-15
_ N_1p
.....ca
-~-u
-.·o~..-- ...
-.-~~nn
-o-Ji
~
500
600
I
~iuffudanpccc1~ .. ~muf;tpft&tttt
CUR\IVE
------------------~I
~~1PUt'U& ~.... mryt(fualTit
H ALF UNCIAL II
.. CUR\IVE HAH UNCIAL
fN\ULAR M ll'U\CULE
~__. .....________________"-1_.________________....__.__..._______..,._______..__-1............
Vl~IGOTlll( I I Ot'll\H.:TAN MINUSCULE L UXEUll I
7(XI MINUSCULF I I MINU\CUIE I
I I I
------ --~:~-------1:1---------------lf--------~,.~----------__J......_ .....
. ...
I I I NSULAR I
800 I I I MAJUS<'ULE I
I I •
900
I
•
I
• CAROLl'IE
bApc.1'J!mo io hAn .... i•
~ ~ MlNU\C'ULE !
• •
I I
IOOO I I
I I
I I
1100 I I
..J. I
I
l-omm1fu1Xftt~;------1
EARLY
1200 Con11c;
I
..
R OTUNDA
: : ponnfiam ruumn uuK <E trimi :n:,.n
1300
~~~~~~~--·~~~~~ ·~~~~~_.__.
I I TEXTURA
111
________ I ________..._~-·--'------ I --------._~_
TEXTURA
... 1111111,
• . , . __
1600 ...
I
1700
1800
1900
Fou~nAnoNAL H A'm
2<XXJ (13Rll 1\11 CALLIGRAl'll IC
R EVIVAi) ~ith the- hot
12
SCRIPT T i .lfE/.11\ '£
SENATVSPOP' • f6RMONSVM-CC ., I
I M Pl:RIAL • Ru~-r1c CAPITAi s I
CAPITAL~
I
I
---------------- . I
I
I
I
...
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
d.q-ci I
I
IMPROB·tIDVR.
I
I
...
I
SQU1\RE CAPITALS
I
I
I
I rra~~hfl~fW?tt~~~ I-
.__
htftttu r-tI I
I
R u 1'1c CAJ>I rA1~
I I
~ fio I I ~
R1flI' lC"
U). ><..;·n Ii'E;: D·.·
.
I l . ....... \ 1.. . •..•. •• -~... ... ... . . y.
I 1:-:sULAR D IWLAY I
I CAPITAL'> I
I
I
I
...
I
.I
•
I
I
~ Ca;>:E,St:IB:Tr-.I
''7
LOM llAIWIC CA PITAL~ I
I
I
•
I
1n~~ m9-fcnt
H UMANl\T M 11'U\CUI r
I
I
l3A'>TARI) I
- gulas nodes led -
SECRETARY I
I
•• :JUoltojignor m -
ITALI (
~ C:.ntt« bk "-...._,.i,,.,.
~ ~ ~ '! ~·9¢ntiltc ab abtm
I
.I
0~~ -
~
l3ATAIW~ • FRAKTUR
r··-.1 COPPERPLATE Ii
I
I I
I I
I
-•
I
•I
I
I I
I I
I GLRMAN
I
I CA I LJ(;J~Al'H I ( '
I
I ll. EVIVA I
I
I •-
.... jhltlJttgCbtt/~ I
'v 7
,..
I
13
GETT/.\(, 1:1RT£()
I
Getting Started
T begins with the tools
HE ART OF CA LLIGRAPI IY
and materials, and these should be selected
\vith great care. Often , a struggle to achieve
a good result is an indication that the chosen
surface or writing tool is unsuitable. Owing to
a \Yide pread reviYal of interest in calligraphy,
there is now an enormous range of pens, paper,
and other equipment available. Here, basic
information is given on the typ es of surfaces
and writing implements you can use, and also
on how to make the two traditional types of SUIU·ACES
pen - the reed pen and the quill. For practice
and trying out
in itial id eas, a
The reed pen lightweight designer's
The reed pen Jnd the quill (1>ppositc) ha\'C been used '>lllCC antiquity. Although layout paper is ideal. For
both haw now been 't1pcr..edcd by other writing implcmems, the recd pen more fom1al work. good- quality
rcma im .in ideal cool for expressive calligra phy . It is usually m ade from a paper is importam - preferably a
ho llow-stc111111ed gard en ca ne (Plm1,(!111itis c1111111m11is), but some calli graphers ~mooth, c lose-gra in ed and acid -
use a synthetic material. suc h as plastic tubing, instead. A sharp crafr knife frcc type. Vellum, made from
is required to make a recd pen - alway., r.1ke the greatest care when using it. calf~kin o r goat~k111. is the finest material
for writing. with parchment a close second.
l
cenrimcrrcs (7 inches) long. Use a directly underneath the first cut, Ju a •a11~t)
strong craft knife to make a cut about make a shorter cut to create the flat efderachablc
-I cenrim ctn:'> ( I 'I, inchc'>) long co top of the pe n nib. N ext, remove 1lfibre-uppcd mbs (oppo,itc)
rc\'l.~al the hollow centre of the cane. any pith from the core of the cane. pen is idealjor
prcl1mma9 11ork :1
~
vi
)>
,,.
s
0
:r
~
;;
I .J
GETTING STARTED
The quill
Although the quill is probably the finest of all writing tools, it is not as
conven ie nt as oth er impl ements and requires more practice in handling.
l:leing of a softer material than a steel nib or a recd pen. it req uires gentler
pressure than you would expect. but th e subtlety of lin e that it produ ces
is far superior to that of other pens. T urkey. goose. o r swan feathers are
the most u seful , and duc k or crow may also be used for fonnal work.
U SING A WHETSTON E
To sharpen a steel nib, hold the pen
at -15° ro the whetstone and stroke
the top side along th e stone .
DETACHAULE N IUS
I
Parchmenr IS made from
\
sheepskin. and IS 1ou9hcr
and morefibrous than rellum
A lon9. broad-
1
.I broad-ed9ed ~::;0 ;eed ed9ed sable or
~·ntheuc or
sable brush is
essent ialjor
cxpressire
call19raphy
synt her ic brush
1s usedfar
lar9e-scale
\ , ,.,;11
Imperial Imperial is the most
Capitals Capitals tradiuonal 3. Make a sho n longitudinal cut 4. Place the tip of the quill o n a
ef100/s through the cencrc of the nib to ease cutting surface and carefully cut atro's
the now of i11k. R emo1·e the pith the 'haft to crea te th e nib edge. Make
from the centre of the pen and any a square cut for a "slanted" pen and an
remai ning material on the o utside. oblique cue for a "straight" pen (below) .
15°
ti "s1ra19/11 "pen has an oblique-wt nib. , I "slanted" pen ha; a square nib, t ut
wt at an an9/e efabow 70° ro the cu ri9h1 an9les to the slll!}i II is ideal
shqji it is iclcal.for scripts such as .for scripH such as the Caro/me
the Ilaff llnnal (pp. -1()-41 ) ,l/rnuscu/c (pp. -10--1 1)
15
,..
ROMAN &_L11TE R OMAN S CRIPTS
Rustic Capitals
of today is sometime~
I F THE CALLIGRAPH ER
confused by the rich variety of scripts available,
I 1l i\Ats \ L\ \..\·r l\0(\' l:\'l
1
must have been tr ue for the scribe of the early ·'· A\ .\lQf\tS·L\\1 f·( .\ D\' N1-.\L.. 1
Roman period, who had only three basic hands.
The first was the magnificent Imperial Capital -
the most complex of all scripts, used in stone-
cut for m on the great monum ents of state (pp.
108- 109) . Secondly, for ever yday needs, there
was the cursive script - the quickly executed
hand used by everyone writing in the Latin
language. Thirdly, there was the Rustic Capital,
an elegant alternative to the Imperial Capital
and popular with both signwriter and scribe.
FR OM T H E FIRS T TO the fifth century,
the Rustic Capital was used for de luxe
manuscripts, particularly works by The nib would have been
Virgil. After the fifth centur y, it lost held 01 a near veriicalfar
·C
16
RUSTIC C IPl"fil l.S
PAPYRUS LEAF
Papyni~ wa~ the principal
writing \urface for over 3.000
ycars until the late Roman
period. It ''.is made by
The interlinear 9/oss h111 been pounding together
1mrrcn m o modern Italic two ~trips of
hand (pp. 94 95) papyrus leaflaid
at right angles
P ETER HALLIDAY to each othe r.
T his modern version of Virgil's Edogtt<' VII,
1vnr1en in blacJ... ink on crea m paper, was penned
by Peter Halliday in 1983. N ote the comrast he
achieves between the broad horizontal and
diagonal '>trokcs and thc chin vcrticals. DETAIL rROM VEH.CILIUS
R.OMANU~. E<:l.<><:A II
17
ROMAN &_LATE ROMA N SCRJPTS
Rustic Capitals 1
\
\
111ere is no
crossbar on the A
_c
1. Using a square-cut pen nib, 2. Pull the pen downwards to the
begin the serifof the letter L by right, while twisting the nib from 65°
pushing downwards with the broad to almost vertical at the line of the
edge of the nib. The pen angle stem. Without lifting the pen, begin
should be about 65° for this stroke. drawing the fine stroke of the stem.
! 111e second
stroke of the
tall F rises
above the
l1eadline
3. At about halfway to the baseline, 4. Lift the pen, tum it to 45°, and add
anticipate the foot serif by gradually the foot serif in one firm, downward
turning the pen ro about 50°. This diagonal sweep. The foot is a major
will create the distinctive Rustic element in the script for it leads the
thickening of the stem base. eye forward to the next letter.
T11isfonn of
G is most
co111111011/y used
This broad sweeping
t11rve is drawn in one
l
smooth stroke 1vith a
pen angle of 45-50°
This al1ema1iw
~13
downward sweeping
mokes, combined '"" •! ""
n J n),
with the near-diagonal
strokes of the feet,
that gives the Rustic
Capital ics characteristic
rhythm. These strong
strokes provide a
counterpoint to the
fine vertical stems. 2 ____,
18
R USTIC C APITALS
I
lJ T11is is the
modem
fonn of]
111
....1
........_.C/
'~
2
-
111e siem
of tire] is
identical to
that of the I
2 3
2
--
3
A\ \ ~~ \r
3
ortheV, \
11se the same 1
d11ct11s as the A
:N _ \ 1 · 3
\ W
l~- 0 'l 0 2
X \ X.
~;~;;•:te~is 1 Ii
3
,l
4
Use thisfonn \
of Y only on 1
the bottom line
Alternative Y of a page of text
_l 11 l _ z
The Z could
alternatively be
completed i11 a
2
single stroke
2 ........._.
19
Ro,1tA:>. &... LArE Ro.11;1 , . ScRJPTS
Square Capitals
J\S A LATE FOURTH -CENTURY Roman hand without
fl. precedent or descendents, the stately Square Capital
(Capita/is Qyadrata) falls awkwardly into the evolutionary
pattern of Roman cripts. Because very few examples survive
from thi period, the duration of its use and the development
of its style are subject to conj ecture. The script re mains, ISmall 1cr!f\ ore SQUAllL CAPITAi ,\/
drawn 1111h rhe The broad down wa rd
however, one of great dignity, its grace owing largely to the corner oft he pen mb mokc\ of rhe .\/ cypify
the Square Capical ktter
openne s of the 1etterforms and the clear letter separation.
Parchment 110> 11rc1<heJ across a 11ooJen.Jrame and
the resrdual.Jlc,h 1cmo1ed 1111h a c11cular knife
Ir IS OFTEN BELIEVED that the Square PA l lCllM~N1 M/\KloR
Capital originated as an atte mpt to In R ome. parchment was an e\tabhshed n\'al
inte rpret the brush-drawn Roman to papyrus by A.I>. 300 and was the principal
~u rface for '' nung late Rom,111 111anuscripc~.
Impe rial Capital (pp. I 08-109) in suc h as the C.>dex Vaticanus 3256 ((ipp<>site).
pen-drawn form. Ho.,,vcve r, the thick It was invented in Pe rgamo n, Asia Min o r,
in respon~c to an Egyptia n tradL· e mbargo in
down trokes and hairline horizontal 197- 158 u.c . that cue off the \upply of papyrus.
stroke of the quare Capital point to
the use of a horizontally held pen, in SAN SrnASTIANO 1•1 AQUE
contrast to the angle of 30° required T he imcnp tio n o n chi ~ plaque 111 the C hurch
of San Scb.1-.tia no, R o me, da te~ fro m betweL'n
to produce the visually balanced
the year\ .V>6 and 38.J. Notice rhe imaginative
\·ertical and horizontal stro kes of the ligarure~ of ccmin lerrer;, ~uch a~ .\'- T. f-l·R.
Imperial Capital. This uggests that r '-A . .rnd T-E. and the way \Ollie lercer\
luve been inserted 1m1dc others.
the Square Capital may have been
derived fro m anothe r source.
' SMARlYQCRVD'ElIAiVS SkTYRANNI
Contemporary influences . fl~Ql)'lAS·PA RI13R:TVN GMilLE'NGctNi>I
It is perhaps more like ly that scribes EQVODt',01¥ITMONSTRNllQP.lU'AcFRim
writing in . quare Capitals looked for ~ ISfNLWIJ:M·SEQVTTVRNO"\-\:P.O~ER:AJiNS
inspiration to conte mporary carved >nST ~MF~..(~NTA:PARA~:NE·S,ONJNVSAQJR£1'
le ttering, rather than to the brush- , .BI~SE · RANSlBJfE·D lES-ALIMt:NTANEGA':"NTVR ~
created capitals of their predecessors. iy.tfX:r lHN·BA~VM&\N<i'.VSIA\U-OMNlA:SANGIS
. VVLNEfu\Q\\BNTVLER A"FM ORTIS·MTVENJA:POES'If\S
One such e xampl e is the fourth -
' NOCTrSOPORl'f.ERATVBBANT I N SOM NIAMNTEM
century plaque in the Church of San .~ OSTENDT'FLA]j£fil·JNSONTISQV\.Hvf M J3 RATEN3RET .
Sebastiano , Rome (right), in which Q~E.fU.T¥1HN.VEN'Y~(g UiV.R:FOV E'fOM N lA PRESfAT.
stroke angle and lette r pro portio n EXPRESSl.~V~R llV~:N:HAH.fSI~€RVM
coincide with the manuscript hand.
20
-
SQYARE CAPITALS
fN ~
•
21
ROMA N &_LATE ROMA N SCRIPTS
Square Capitals
HE QUARE CAPITA L is characterized by a combination of
T broad strokes - both straight and curved - delicate hairlines,
and neat serifs. Of the dominant broad strokes, the diagonal is
Use tire comer of tire 11ib
to add tire serifs of tire A
.\lost Square
Capitals are
171e comer
of 1l1e nib
Basic elements
The Square Capical letter is about four
D
-
about four pen is used for pen widths high, with the letters F and
widths lr(~lr adding 1l1e L drawn sl ightly higher than the rest. 2
serifs The script is best d rawn with a reed
I
pen or a square-cut steel nib.
Complex letters
---+4
------
The perfectly balanced
letter N is one of the
most complex letters in -
2
3. Recum to the
headline and build
up the serif under
the horizomal stroke.
4. Now draw the
leading vertical stroke
with the corner of the
nib and add the serif.
5. Still using the comer
of the nib, add the serif
at the head of the
diagonal stroke. 1-
J - 171is le11er J 1
is a modem
COnStntC1io11
Drag 1/ie tail of tire
J with the comer of
tire nib
22
SQYA RE CAPITALS
- =ii_r~
3
i ------,1------·-·
Use tire comer of the nib Twist the pen from 45° to
to draiv the senf of tire K almost horizontal for the This letter U is a
1----
diagonal stroke of the K modem construction
1
The L is a tall letter,
rising slightly above
1he headline
- - - --<· ----+- - · -
2
Twisr the pen slightly for Use the corner of the nib Twist the pen from 90° co 45°
the diagonal slroke of 1he M 5 to add the serifs of the M for the diagonal stroke of the Y 4 3
~-- ·-~-
7 3
Twll<~<p<•fmm ~ ~1 ,-
450 to the vertical
for the diagonal
1
~
-
6
J 2
stroke of the N _ _ _ _ -----·
Use the corner of the nib to
draw the serifs of the N
3
..-- - - - - - -
1
a 2
Use the corner
dr~:~:en::;
ofthe X
u ---3 ~-
-
Sligh1/y 2
'( l
twist the
pen for
the tail
oftheQ
z -=__ .J
-1 ,
µl
_______?!
4 •
5
Use the corner
of the nib to
add the serifs
of the Z
VIRGIL
the nib
4 the R can be spacing and by interlinear
serif of 1/te R spacing that equals the
~-----·-_,,.-..._..,.,~ combined
letter height
2
Use the comer of the nib to
add the top serif of 1he S 2
s GIORGI CS
Two lines of Square Capitals
23
Ro 111 , . &...Ltr1:. Ro 11 "'' ScRtPTs
T HE R OMA
originated in the second or third century
A.O., possibly in North Africa . Although its
1s drawn 1111 h I he pen hc/J
near to the horl/Ontal
makes the Uncial, together with the remaining ~cript i' a 1<1tir
sc·o)pcn h\Bc-nc.:1.ocucn de force of the Artificial
Caro line Minuscule (pp. 38- 39) and u;1cial. The finely drawn
the Foundational I land (pp. -12 -13), hairlint"i and dd1catc scrif5
arc of a superior quality to
idea l for learning the basics of pen those in the Vcsp.1si,111
handling and calligraphy. Psalter (oppNilC').
2-1
e ..-s,,l.(IS
"'
"" ' " "''"' '
0 ) (' .\ quC' lllTIC061\0
... , "
~s Ol'i;t::--:Sl>R m-r"oo >e:M:: ,, quo·nwr•
..
' , .·r
D 111nM)f>1mp1 o\NT s u pt:K<TH1 :-:oCl ! ~Tes u·n •O\N
•\ .. '• .
C .\f{Nl' S llH; ,;,S (jCl lT Rll'>llL\NT< TlU 1;>.: lnllC l<l'H JI
. '
S
j (' ,
~ ~IA ~\,,.,/.,idi"d~
Uncial & Artificial Uncial
UNCIAL IS A practical writing hand and as such presents
T HE
no difficulties to pen. The Artificial Uncial, however, is
subject to considerable elaboration involving many pen twists 2
wirl1 1l1e romer of the nib
B I~~
and changes of angle. Both forms of the script are regarded as third strokes of
bilinear - written between two horizontal lines - but they tire £3 am be
ro111bined
show the beginnings of a tendency that ultimately leads to the
development of our lower-case letters: F, I, N, P, Q., and R drop Uncial B Artificial Uncial B 3
below the baseline, and D, H, and L rise above the headline. For the second
stroke of tire C,
~ --
c c
Uncial C Artificial Un cial C
I~
1111is1 tire nib anti-
d0<kwise am/ drag
rl1e ink downwards
Basic differences
l'nritil
·
J ~·
~
~
1111SI tire 11ib
a111i-d0<k11~se
a11d drag the
i11k do11~1wards
1. Oegin by drawing a
horizontal hairline stroke,
usi ng the full length of the nib.
2
To dmll' tire serifs
of the F, twist tire
111b m111-d0<kwise
mrd drat tire i11k
dou111111ards
Comp/ere rlre
r11n1e a11d rail
'!(tlreG in a
Blob si11tle scroke
~ lude111a1icm
26
U NCIAL &._ARTIFICIAL U NCIAL
s s
On tire tl1ird
stroke, rwist To draw rlre serifs
rhe nib ro the of rlre S, twist rlre
horizontal nib 1111ti-dockwise
and drag the
Drag 011t the tail Uncial S Artificial Uncial S ink downwards
of the K with the
comer of rhe nib
711e Uncial L 711e Artificial
resembles a version retains For tire serif ef
min11smle letrer
Uncial L
the appearance
of acapiral
At rlre eud ef the
secottd srroke of
rhe L, twist tire
nib mui-dockwise
and draJi tire ink
T 'f
Uncial T Artificial Uncial T
tire T, twist tire
nib ami-dorkrvise
and drag tire
ink downwards
do11111111ards
&rl1fon11s of M have a
ro m ero, U
mi1111sc11le appearance
v v
modem constmrtions
~
j-~\:fl, "?,.:0~
N N
Uncial N Artificial Uncial N
2
~
, -
. fl ,_ .r
rl1e vertical
w
modem constmctions
0
Uncial 0 Uncial W
ID'W ,
Artificial Uncial W
p p ']9::.,,,p,.,,,, x
tire X, twist
tire nib anti-
clockwise and
drag tire ink
downwards
Uncial X
Uncial P Artificial left wit Ir rlre comer of rhe nib Uncial X 3 Tire Y is
Uncial P
• \ dotted
The second
~2
and tlrird
srrokes of the
Q may be
dr1111111 as a
single srroke
Uncial Q Artificial Uncial Q
2_
2 71ris alrenrarive
Q ( ))
Alternative ArtificialUncial
Artificial
Uncial Q
1
'i=-
fim11 of Q lras
tire appearance
ef a capiral lerrer
Uncial Z
7,
Artificial
Uncial Z
Porm botIr serifs of rlre Z by
g,, j
77re simpler twisting the nib anti-clockwise attd
H:.,~
2 Uncial Z can dm,lljlirig the ink downwards
Drag tire rail be penned in
ro tire righr a single stroke
wirh tire comer
of tire nib
Uncial R
27
ltl ll\,qllOl llCIJ Jl .
,. • (1 qtnpn~HCCU(]OlJ Clll p~ ._
....\ ,.
Insular Majuscule
HE INSULAR MAJUSCULE (Insular Half Uncial) derives its
T name from its origins in the islands of Britain and Ireland.
"Insular" is from the Latin for "island", and "Majuscule" refers I NSULAR M AJUSCULE F
The principal c haracte1istic
of the Insu lar Maju cule letter
to the height of the letters, much larger and bolder than those is th e wedge-shaped saif on
of the complementary Insular Minuscule (pp. 34- 35). the headline ( pp. 32- 33).
BEATITUDES PAGE FROM THE B OOK OF K EU.S IF EVER THERE WAS a golden
T he border of this page from the Dook of Kells combines
che eighc inicial bs and in corporates both zoomorphic and age of calligraphy, it was the
anthropomorphic decoration. The horizontal stro ke over "spu" beginning of the eighth century,
in the first line denotes an abbreviation of"spiri111" ("brea th of
when orthumbria was o ne
God"). The horizoncal stroke is a dev ice used by scribes for oft-
repeated words. Also typical is the lercer /1 in che 13th line, whi ch Careful study <f thc thinner of the most flouri shing centres
has been extravagantly extended in order co fill space. T he use of ink on the f 9ii>es clues to of art and scholarship in western
red dots to outline in itials and ornam ent text is more sensiti ve and the construction ef Insular
restrai ned here than in the Lindisfame Gospels (pp. 30-31). Majuscule lellers Europe. Interaction between
scriptoriums of the twin Augustinian
monasteries Jarrow and Wearmouth
(see the Codex Amiatinus, p. 24)
and that at Celtic Lindisfarne (see
the Lindisfarne Gospels, pp. 30- 31)
led to the production of some of the
greatest achievements of medieval art.
The Book of Kells
The Book of Kells was written at
some time in the second half of the
eighth century and the early years of
the ninth century, probably by Irish-
Northumbrian monks. Its place of
origin is shrouded in uncertainty and
the first record we have of its existence
is an account of its theft in 1006 from
the monastery of Ke lls in Ire land.
The four illuminated Gospel texts
in the Book of Kells were written
by at least three scribes in insular
versions of Uncial (pp. 24- 25) and
THE GOSPEL OF ST. MARK
Half Uncial (pp. 38- 39) letters. These
The Insular Majusc ul e is witho ut capitals as th ey are used in The ascender <f the leuer
the modern sense. Chapter openings, such as this detail from b slams to the ri9lll, with would have derived from characters
the Gospel of St. Mark in the Book of Kells, commenced the wed9c scrifbalancin9 originally introduced into Ireland
with a line of display capitals, a Versa! (pp. 58-59), or a over the bowl ef the letter
combi nation of both. Verses would open with a larger from the ancient region of Gaul by
character, whic h was often decora ted or filled w ith colour. St. Patri ck and his missionaries.
29
f ,, ·su1.AR &...N m OXA I SCRI PTS
C1-11- R1 10 l'AGc
These ornate display capita ls on the Chi- l~ho
,,
page of the Lindisfarne Gospels make this one
of the most impressive leaves in the book. A
\•a riety of influences are evident, 1nclud111g
Greek. Roman. Half Uncial, and runic.
Eadfiith 's use of the capitals is high!}' creative.
There arc three different fonns of the letter A on
th is page: two on the second hne, and a third,
OC form o n the bottom line (pp. 32-33).
Th e Lindisjarne Gospels
The richly illuminated Lindisfarn e
Gospe ls date from the e nd or the
eventh century, when the scribe
,I
30
/ 1\ 'SULA R M AJUSCULE
Manuscript decomtion
~l ath1CROJ.l1 The scho lar Giraldus Cambrensis,
writing in 1185, remarked: " ... you
Ul]OeJtJ may say this \·vas the work of an
n angel , not of man ... the more I
study, the more I am lost in fresh
amazement." He was describing,
in all probability, the decoratio n
•• of the Book of Kells (pp. 28- 29) .
This, along with the illustratio ns
in the Lindisfarne Gospels and other
works fr om the earlv J
medie Yal
pe rio d , r epresents the highest
achievement of vVestern manuscript
decoratio n. Fro m the carpe t
pages (pages without text and filled
entirely w ith intricate designs) to the
decorated initials and display capitals,
and fro m the shie lds, trumpets,
spirals, and knots to the labyr inthine
.. interlaces that dissolve into fanciful
animal fo rms, the craftsmanship
has remained unsurpassed . Today,
we Yiew the work w ith the same
wo nderment as Cambrensis, often
requiring a mag nif)1ing glass to study
the fin e detail.
D ENIS B ROWN
T his calligraphic p iece, entitled C11/111ra/ Deco111posi1io11,
was c reated by th e Irish calligraph er Denis 13rown in
1993. Ac 1.2 by 1.6 metres (47'!, by 63 inc hes), it is a
work of great scale and power. The med ieva l arrisrry of
che Insular M ajuscule letters are seen to be systematically
corroded by the symbols of moderni ty, chc electric cables.
31
f 1\ 'S ULA R &.. NATIONAi. Srnwrs
b Tire stem of
the b sho11ld
mroe to tire lefr~ 2
J
Bala11ce rlre top of
rlre srem over
rlre bowl ef rlre b
c
2
The seto11d
srroke of rhe
c is a separate,
pushed stroke
d
Alternative d
4
e
2 The linirlinr
of the e can bt
exreuded to rlrr
Horizontal darts downward stro ke, then pull the pen right mu/fi11isl1rd
To create the darts that appear on to the right to make a long horizoncal 111i1lr a dan
letters d, g, r, and z. use the back of the stroke. Letters g and t have a secon d
pen nib. Begin by drawing a diagona l dare; create this by twisting the pen
stroke to the right, followed by a short downwards to an angle of about 15°.
Co111pleterlr1
..._,'f-- ---::::""'? r-- - - Tire comer of tire 11ib ca11 be seco11d stroke cf tire f i11
11sed to draw tire short dart a sin,ele 11w11e111l'111
32
I NSULA R M AJUSCULE
- Ju-
h ~- 11
711e second a11d
third strokes
efthe h cm1
be combi11ed 1~
2
771e serif at rl1e
rop of the q is
a variario11 cif
tl1e wedge serif
1J-
s
2
TI1e arc ef tl1e
k ca11 be made i11
u
I
m- ·rr ~
TI1e v rakes
tl1e.fon11 ef a
modem u
n tr
I
u -- ;'~-
fomu ef 11 ra11 be 11sed
I
4
--~-,
Al"m•ti., " Tire Jrairli11e of the
T71e cross stroke of the 11 can be
x is skated or dra11m
exte11ded to the rif?lll to fill
1virh the nib comer
spare at the end ef a li11e
0
T71eois
composed ef
tivo si11.l!le
opposi11g strokes q
<1 I
- - 2-z~- . ~
-~
After dr111vi11g Draw tl1e third
33
/\SUI IR&_.\' 17/0\ 11 SCRIPTS
Insular Minuscule
;\L07\GSIDE EACH OF THE MAJOR prestige formal hands, P OIN rc.L> 'vllNUSCULL I'
.I"\.thcrc has usually dc\·elopcd a functional complem entar y The nallle dcrin~s from
the char,1cteri'>tic long
hand for use in cYcry<lay t ransactions and fo r writing non- S\\'eep of the descender\.
This i, in comr,1st to the
sacrcd manuscripts. In the case of the Insul ar Majusculc, the '>qt1,1rcr descenders of
complementary script is the Insul ar Minuscule , which dates rhc \Ct 111inw,cuk.
from the late fifth or carlv sixth ccnturv. Its use continued
J )
making it one of the most endur ing of all Latin scr ipts.
\. .,\,
, (/.\ PR.<>IV<W I S.ILl.1/0.\"/S
to indicate a shared culture bet \\'een d /11 Pn>l'<'rbi" Srilc1111<>11is. a \\'Ork
Ireland and Britain, free from by the gre,H Anglo-S,1xon
l
hi-,wrian 13.:de. \\"<ls \\'ritten in
Continental influence. .Ill lmular Minu,cuk script th.u h.1d been
. • j::i1,11ms ..ihs\\:1\1' l'~>plt\: <lbn1'~1 ~
Anglo-Saxon han d perfi.·cted in We.mnomh -Ja rro\\' by 750.
·. f1\l~!b1~· sun~n•\ll) ('~"T\·tv.;.1n? .
After the Counc!I of' Whitby in 664, c 11 .;i1,1l\~rni'n ::i1 ,rr..p l11di-r.1m S~·~
Mt, R< IAF\ PR1\ YI R-llOOK
the inlluence of the Celtic Church ~ h1;)Jtnl>11.1~-1:u\mmrnf 11lm~rn'"·
Thi' p,1gc of \ct minll\cuk from J Mercian
'~ mem1Slhmn lni:>t~nm~i: h1mm11.:uln11_\
''Takencd in England, Scotland, and prnyc:r-book \\',h writtc'n in th<' c·arly ninth
_ y-.:,u1tin'e. ~,:;:mll'. "vii1 "m111p1ml..-c6
cenrnry. po,,ibly in Worcester. Brit;lln.
\Vales and a more distincti,·e Anglo - Comp.m: the rcLirin:ly restrained decoration p1CC)\etn ~ti:it\ec~- •]111 C)\e,\\l!V .:11ehm~
Saxon hand began to emerge. Its of rhe inuial letter \\'ith that of Uc:de \ ~--;:d'l'"'-""':I 111•\l\<!; l~1'1l1tl1<\ <]tl"(" bH'l;; i<.-
l /isroria Erdcsi,,srir" (<>ppasire), which ~l\11of'-1TlOJl)n1bttS t\' Sl'f'(l\ "1n1l1.\ ::i-,; blh<-<>lc
qua lity is classed in four grades: fc«lture<> spirals, frc:ts ..111d knot interlace<;. \J'· ('.)nnimrr. 1rnh1 omnh1 \~.1s Jns.,.,d.1
hybrid, "·hich contains half- uncial pctc1w1 1111.'1'.l ur.p1. .:1wn11111 ']11<111' pi.1
e lcments and the oc form of a; set, ""' 1111hl1[~· ltmC
nutnf mt".l e> US•]' 1~ l1,1n~
• J-t
f ,\ 'SUIAR l'v/ /,\ UK UI I:
tn 35
I NSULA R &._NATIONAL SCRIPTS
TI1e a is poimed
Insular Minuscule
ALLIGRAPHERS MAY WELL find the ductus of the Insular
-
~w
-- l~
at tlie top
· - ·2- - = - -·
C Minuscule one of the most satisfying to accomplish. In the
<t
Anglo-Saxon pointed minuscule shown here, the characteristic
TI1e stem ef tlle
pointed aspect - most noticeable on the descenders - is created b could be more
by progressively turning the pen to a steeper angle as the stroke
is drawn . The pen begins at the headline at an angle of about . -2- - ] J "'"'" """'"
40° and on reaching the bottom of the descender has turned
to a near vertical. The minim height is about five or six nib widths.
/
c
/
2 -~
-- ---'/-!/---
4. Ar rhe baseline, rhc 5. Once the descender 6. On reaching rhe
pen angle should be has tapered co a point, headline, the pen should
about 65°, reaching
75° ar rhe rip of the
descender.
begin retracing the
stroke before separating
at the baseline.
be at its origi nal angle.
Now proceed with rhe
next part of the letter.
[ TI1e letrerj
is a modem
consrn1ction
36
I NSULAR M INUSCULE
,,,
- 1-a 2 3
-- -l , .
0
- 11ieocanbe
2
drawn with one
stroke or two
-- ....... ---~- --
__ (J 2
Use either one
or two strokes
to drmv the z
2 4
1-
f, y.
37
CA ROii.\ /:, &_&IRIY G OTHIC S CRIPTS
38
CAROLINE MINUSCULE
SHElLA WATERS
Composed in 1990
by the English-born
a.ouo~
calligrapher Sheila
equidiseo.n~ArlseYlikeplun>eS Waters, this work
is part of a triptych
f'rtnn~e:~-whi~ofynise- entitled C/011d
Be:tween the-mou1'Qin chains Concep1io11s from
In mom ins-sun, whic:hslo"'.!rbunJS Above. The text is
arranged asyrrunetrically
...J,e: v.J.kJ'f0$·'W~ in a stretched, modern
;J,e-tl,1u;bftBchAn~Bini~~~ version of Caroline
wh;ch~>.whi le;'And~Jis~e-,- ~ Minuscule. T he even
height and straightness
In momi'tf"(~,r-;~ sncn.vfirl.J I couL:l w.J.l..upan. of the lines allow
F RANKISH EMPlRE
The extent of C harlemagne's Frankish .....M?'tral<M"e$Ot><•( m i (es f -"91:; subtle colour changes
Empire in the early ninth century is marked R.e t urn eJ to p.venf:"vAJ'on_,1 to be made to the
in red on this map of modem Europe. As letters without
the empire expanded north of the Alps, the overall design
Latin and Greek learning was carried with it. becoming too busy.
A square-cut nib
The major djfference between
39
CAROLINE &..EARLY GOTHIC S CRIPTS
Caroline Minuscule
HE CAROLINE MI NUSCULE is one of the easiest hands for a
T calligrapher to master. As a reformed script, its original
function was to communicate legibly (pp. 38-39) . The letters are
without embellishments, the word spaces clear, and the ligatures
minimal. Although closely related to the Half Uncial, from which it
derives (below) , the Caroline is always written with a "slanted" pen
whereas the Half Uncial is usually written with a "straight" pen.
-r r
- - opftt letter the Half Uncial
The caroline
n takes a The Half Uncial The bowl of
recognizably hand retains tl1e the g should
- - - lower-case form - Uncial capital n be left open
40
CAROLINE MINUSCULE
-c
P11/I the foot of the I
alo11g the baseline
A ltematively,
the p co11ld
be drawn i11
two strokes,
witlr tire second
stroke cot11it111i11g
to tire stem
711e stem of
the q co11ld be
a comin11ation
3
of tire seco11d
stroke
2
Longs
2 71ris alternative
footforh, m,
and n can be
used instead
of tire sweep
3
Alternative n
41
Ct/\()/ /\/· &_ E.tRI Y GOT/II(_ S<-RIP/\
Foundational Hand
o BOOK ON THE mechanics of calligraphy is complete
N without a reference to Edward Johnston's Foundational
Hand and its simplicity and integrity. Historically, it belongs
to the early 20th century. However, the basis for the script is
a manuscript dating from the year 966, the Ramsey Psalter. f ot.;:-.;nA 110:-:. . 1 ''
Wirh rhe pen held ar
Believed to haYe been produced by scribes at Winchester, 30°, thl• we1gh1 of
each Foundmonal
the Ramsey Psalter was written in a hand now kno\\·n as
.I letter .1ppear- co be
e\·enly dmnbmed
the English Caroline Minuscule, an Anglicized version betwee n hon £Ontal
of Frankish Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38- 39). and \'ert1c;1l \Croke,.
-12
FOUNDllTIONA I. H AND
43
CAROL/XE &..EARLY G OTHIC S CRJPTS
a
I
Foundational Hand
J\ L.\10 T A IMPORTA:'\T in calligraphy a the letterfor ms is the
Ji. manner in which the words are laid out on the page and
I
L~ 3
the textural effect that they achieve. With its regularity of ductus, ~
b
in which arches, curves, widths of letters, and internal spaces all 2"\
relate, the Foundational Hand demonstrate a perfect evenne of To draw rile serif 3
texture (see Inter-letter spacing, beloll'). The pen angle is about 30°, a11d srem of rile b,
see lerrer I
increasing to about 45° for diagonal strokes. Minim height is four or
fi ve nib widths, with a further three for ascenders and descender s.
d 5
To draw r/rr
serif and srem
ef rile d, scr
lcrrtrl
e
The key lener
As this compomc character of a, d, e.
11, and q shows. the o is the key lette r
of the hand. T ake time and care to
compose its two curved strokes. It is
useful to explore the construction
of Foundauonal letters by drawing
them with rwo pencils taped
togethe r. The pencil points relate
to the corners of a pen nib. f [
lntemal spaces
The elegant oval
of space with in the
S .
3
letter o provides the
model to w hich all
other spaces in the
hand should ideally
t
-' - conform.
Inter-letrer spacing
T he spaces between letters should be as h ,.1
To d"w ""
and srem of 1/1e
h, see leuer I
consistent as pmsible. Many scn bes train
thei r eyes to study inter-letter spacing as
keenly as the lette rforms themselves.
••
lJ 3
To draw rlie serifs
ef r/re 1 and j, see
/mer I
FOUNDATIONAL H AND
r-
....--:: 1
these~~1-
k To draw
and stem of the
k, see letter I
- -·-
l u
to the left (1) and p111/ the pen
downwards to dra1v To dratv the
Make an inward curve to the stem (3) serif of the
join the main stem (2) u, see letter I
m v
/.
2\ -~
To draw the serif of the
m, see letter I
3
n To draw the
serif of the n,
see letter I w \ ,~ ·
1 2
0 ~2 ~.?
·-
- 2<t
4
P
To draw the
serif of the p,
see letter I
Ml 4
-~ The fifth stroke of
5
the p can begin to
the left of the stem
- 3
z
T11m the pen
~
nearer to the
horizontal to
3 broaden the
~
second stroke
3 of the z
r To draiv the
serif of the r,
see letter I
l -&--
This alternative g may prove
easier for beginners to pen
than the traditionalfonn
gAJ«rn•~"' 45
CA ROi/SE &._EARL)' G OTlllC SCRIPTS
..J6
£11 RO' Gmrnc
P API It l\IAKrR
The e.uJie,t Europc.111
This I cnal lmcr I Jeparis.from paper "·" 111.tdc from
Gmht( (Onim11on< m the cwrcmc rag. of cotton or l111cn.
m{ornw/11} ~{ Jh Juora11on The pen 1s held <JI a shcJ/1011 er cJn9lc which were chopped.
than rn the St. Arnbro'l', Dl• soaked, .111d laid on a
MiSl('rii> I manusmpt (oppo,i te), 'ievc bc:fore being
resuhm9 in less lc91/1/c lmc1 o/1c11 pre,scd a1td dried. In
l3ri t.1in, rd.irivcly fi ne
r7 paper w.1, .wa i l~blc by
---~LIBn
tlw 12th ccnrn ry.
m~iucrr~
Cim~rc1.111 order bcc.une known. The humour
and vibrant colour in rhe illusrrarion ofthi\ p.1ge
fro m the 111.111mcript arc in sharp conrr.m to the
ft.Ut'1. doqut.t tttttr"ttxn.l ~tnffk- w ork produced in the .lll'lcre rimes that followed.
nuni mttta db ldmntone penfdn()4J...*"___ Ihc;c lc.s comprc«cJ than lcttCf\ (ITC
.J7
CAROUSE &_EARLY COTl llC S CRIPTS
d
- - - --!'I '
Split serifs " Filled" serifs
Create the split ascender with a pen angle of 40°, A third method involves
drawing the left serif and main stem first, then "filling" the split serif((.).
adding the thinner right 1crif {A). Alternatively, The pen is held at a constant Omit tire crossbar
extend the thin serif mto the seem (8). 30° for the whole letter. 2 <>f tire f 10 creare a
lo11.~ fomr of s
_g Altematia,ely,
tire g could bt
TI1e feet on the mmple1ed ill
straigl11 strokes of tlrree stroke,
the minims tem1i11ate
111ith a11 11puwd
wm of the pert
3 TI1e h could
altematively haw
11 serifed f 001
48
EARLY GOTHIC
2
..
Tite first stroke of the
t could extend above
the headline
_
- ~ t2 ~
P111/ the first
troke of the I
tl1e baselin_: _
1
711e v is a modern
construction
<
11--- ~t _u, llt -
HJ;
The w is a modem
constnution
1} 31;,;4
third strokes of the
x can be combined
711e x has a
di"'~'~"" * -. ;.
ii:
This liga111re between
the long s and rite
711is halfr can be 11Sed T11e Jralf r is constructed
[~4
J t is a disrinctive
\; ~
2
C-t ligature
49
GOTl-1/C SCRIPTS
Textura Quadrata
y THE BEG! NING of the 13th century, the Early Gothic
B script had evolved into a non-cursive, angular hand known as
the Textura Quadrata (Black Letter, Old English) . The name
indicates the woven appearance of the lines of text, "Textura"
m eaning "an even effect in weaving". The script r epresented '
a r evolu tionar y change in calligraphy - afte r centuries of
emphasis on clear letter recognition , individual letters were TEXTURA Q UADR.ATA S
T he script's most d istin cti ve feature is the
suddenly subser vient t o over all textural effect. diamond-shaped terminals of the minim strokes.
50
Tt.XTUIU Qy1f)R.1Tt
)/
GOTHIC SCRJPTS
Textura Quadrata
T HE ESSENCE OF THE Quadrata is the formal, upright letter
with strokes differing as little as possible from one another.
a--- ------~~~- I
5
71te bowl of tht
a cat1 be mort
rounded
b
broken by the use of hairlines. These include the skating strokes
that occur on letters a, e, and r, created by dragging the wet
ink with the corner of the nib. The Quadrata's other distinctive
features are the split ascenders and the diamond feet on the
mfoims, applied with only a small space between each one.
Basic elements
A "slanted" pen
(square-cue nib) is TTW]i11al strokt
used for the Quadrata. of tire c can~
The pen is held at finis/red 1111tl1
an angle of between a lrairline
35° and 45° for stem
strokes, adjusted to
a shallower angle for
connecting strokes.
Minim height is
generally about five
pen widths. The
relatively large size
of the letters makes
the use of a reed
pen ideal.
f
( - 11 f{
J
• >Join tire tltird strokt
of tlte e ro rite stem
of tlte minim
---+
4
~1
4/
/ ./ 1
]~
""12
l~J
71te 11p111ard srroke
above the i and j Catt
Textural effect be subs1i1t11ed for a
To achieve the ideal textural effect of Quadrata, lnter-U'ord space slro1ild fi1/l diamond strokt
inner-letter spaces and inter-letter spaces should be equal ro abo11t two 3""'-.
each eq ual the width of one stroke. 11ib widths
52
TEXTURA QyADRATA
l
4
-~
' tlE 6
"-. Make sure tliat
J a small space is
left be11wen rl1e
_m Make sure
tliat a small
space is left
between
each Joor
ofthe m
u
two diamond
heads of letters
u and v
-rr
Make sure
4
rl1at small
spaces are
2 j 2 left betu<een
rlie rlrrre
diamond
/reads of
thew
&
0 2
,,
2
~---4-~~-
J
~- D-:Og tlie tail of tire
-q_
of tire nib ro
1
complete 1/1e
splir serifs ar
1l1efee1 of
leuers p and q
7 2
~
~
_ , 711e /1airli11e diagonal
of rl1e z can be drawn
as a separare stroke
---
....--.-
J
-
r 2
Sk;;te sire hairline
of sire r 1vitlr tire
comer of tire nib
,-3)j 711e l1a!{T
can be used
to follow a
riglrt-lrand
~ bow
0 -r 7
ligature
111e r(~l11-lra11d
Skate tire - bow of the p ca11
hairline of tire s be joined 111itl1
with rlie corner tire left-hand
of tire nib bow of the c
joined p and e
53
T EXTURA PRESCISUS
Textura Prescisus
(Textualis Prescissa, Black
E OF Tl IE TEXTURA PRE. CI U
U Letter) paralleled that of the Quadrata (pp. 50- 51), both
in its duration as a bookhand and in the development of its
textu ral style . The two scripts even used the same Capitals
and Yer al (pp. 58-59). The chief difference between them is
indicated by the adjunct to the Prescisus's name, vel sine pedibus,
" ·hich tran lates as "with it feet cut off". T his refers to the
square-ended bases of the minims and descender s in the hand.
111r .< q11arr-111dnl
Pres<isus {t·rt """''"'
1ml1 1l1r ,j,,111 w111/_fr 1•1
I TlXTURA PR.FS('J<;U\ \I
The flat feet of the
Prescisus are che ~cnpt\
0 ( 1111 • Quc1t/r,11,1 most charactemuc feature.
~
nmi dl mtra mtr::5P" 'V sv1
T l 11, 0RMl\llY P \ALl ER
The Ormc~by 1'1alter, written in particular de xterity to use a "slanted"
f3 rmtumbta mmocdmatabltt East Anglia in about 1300, reveals a
more relaxed fom1 of Prescims than
pe n to produce the artificially
mtlrfum :1
· nu~ mufTus
. . fum ftrut lo
that used 111 the Luttrell Psalter. constructed fee t that imitated the
· :--· THE LUI TIU 11 P\AI 11 R
work of a "straight" pen (pp. 56- 57).
, :,. ,,•!., The length of time it took to write
l!tnua tnM mfimt.tta funtd~ The Lu11rell P1altcr. wntcen for a
wea lthy Lincoln1hire landowner in
about 1325-35, i~ Pre~cbu~ writing at
the script meant that it could be used
~ ~ its finest. T he lines of text are unifom1 o nly fo r large , prestigious books.
and co ndensed , eac h \tro ke n ea t and Use started to decline dw·ing the late
precise. T he chic kening of mi nims
cowards th eir ba~e m ay indica te a
Gothic peri od , and the introducti on
cwi1cing of the pen (pp. 56-57). of printing saw its final demise .
I he ha!/ r 1s useJ nhcn The diamond heoJ< ef min1m1 ore 1)1 I All I RO\\ 11 IF
Textura Prescisus
T HE PRINCIPA'L DIFFERENCE ~etween the Quadrata and Prescisus
1s the latter s absence of diamond feet on letters a,f, h, i, k, 1,
m, n, r, t, and u. The split ascenders on b, h, k, and I are reduced
a Drag the ink with tl1e
corner of the nib to
complete the foot of the a
2
A hairline ca11 be
inc/11ded 011 tire c
-c
number of elements in common. pen (square-cut nib). A pen angle of
Both have a minim height of 45° is usual for both Textura scripts.
Tiie hairli11e of
011tli11e Twist the pen tlie e sliould to11Ch
l! ~
the foot by
drawi11g alo11g
the baseli11e
a11d up to joi11
thestem
\f\ 45° at the bottom
if the stem
tlie main strokt
Filled feet
To make the square
foot, draw the stem at
an angle of 45°, then
add the outline of the
foot by dragging the
Pen twist
A second method
involves twisting the
pen from 45° to the
horizontal in a -short,
swift movement (above).
f rag the ink with tlie 1
mer of tlie nib to
nplete the foot of the f
Omit tire crois
stroke to use
tlris letter as
___a_l°-1:'l!.
--T
ink with the comer Alternatively, begin
of the nib. This is twisting at the top of for writing Prescisus letters,
then filled in with ink. the stem (above right). i11duding tire reed pen - «~
- ~ ______ _.,,~
2
h 1
l Drag the ink with
the corner of the
nib to complete the
squarefeet of the h
4
Use the corner
of the nib to
complete the split
ascender of the h
~IJ_ 1-j
/ /
Flat-headed serifs nib before filling it in with ink (above Alternatively, afull
Like the square feet, the flat-headed left). Alternatively, add the serif by diamond can be used
serifs are created artificially with a twisting the pen downwards from the to dot the i and j
"slanted" pen. One method is to horizontal of the ascender line to the
outline the serif with the comer of the 45° angle of the stern stroke (above).
56
TEXTURA PRESCISUS
-~
4
Complete tire
split serif of
tire k with the
comer of the nib t 'll
D
111e I could alternatively Leave spaces
feature an elongated between the
diamond foot heads of u, v,
w, a11dy
4 6
4
-w
0
Pull out tire rail
of tire x with the
comer of the nib
The hairline
stroke of the z can
-
2
~
-- 3
be thickened by
tivisting the pen
Extreme form
of Prescisus
3
57
GOTHIC SCRIPTS
built-up strokes. A Ver sa! is a single initial letter, drawn larger G OTHI C CAPITAL P
than the text script and used to indicate a title, chapter, or Decorative diagonal
strokes and hairli nes
paragraph opening. The size of the Versal and the amount of gold reduce th e amount
of white space in the
and colour used to decorate it is directly proportional to the letter's counter and
enhance its status in
perceived status of the initial within the text. Although less a page of text. In this
impressive than Versals, the Gothic Capital is far from plain, P, the thick diagonal
is complemented
with elaboration in the form of hairline verticals and diagonals. by hairlin es above
and below it.
.4 .~ .1
I T WAS I GOTHIC text that capita l
and minuscule letters of the same
hand first appeared together. Gothic
Capitals, which used the same ductus
( +'~~ ·? !'." ~ .
as the minuscules (pp. 50-57), were
used within text script to begin a
sentence or denote a proper noun.
In impor tant sentences or verses,
'~w:.--~~- ~1' :1
Gothic Capitals were fre quent ly
usurped by Versals. In its simplest
for m, a Versa! can be an outline
letter filled with a splash of colour.
In more sophisticated forms, it can
®~ $~· ~' . a,
and interlaced knots (see the
Lindisfarne Gospels; pp. 30- 31).
. ·a.. tl ~§e · $: .,
stems 10 911•c extra emphasis 10 the letter
58
GOTJ llC CAPITA LS&.. V£RSALS
:w=.-w::..-4-ZIJ.- ef
Tht su99csuon a bracketed
Y!rifshows that these capitals
"'ere modelled on lmperral
letters (pp. I 08 I 09)
Gothic Capitals
OTHIC CAPITALS USE the same ductus as the minuscules
G (pp. 52- 53, 56-57) and are written with the same "slanted"
pen. However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the
4
A 35°
~
Letter height
The letter height of the Gothic Capical
is approximately seven pen vvidths, two
higher than the minuscule height.
H airlines
The inner-letter space is reduced by Alternative D
the use of hairlines, drawn with the
corner of the nib. There are usually
one or t\VO venical hairlines, and a Tire curve of
single diagonal hairline on either side the E w 11 be
of a thicker diagonal stroke. strengthened
1vit/1 an
additional
stroke
2
Bulges an d h ackles
The venical strokes of
Gothic Capitals can be
Use a pen angle of
abo11t 35° to draw
the spiky hackles
f stroke :;~~r~ ~1
extends below
the baseline
J,2
i 6
60
G OTHIC CAPITALS
111e a1tve of
the H ca11 be
s1re11g1/1e11ed 1rengtl1ened
111i1/r QI/ wit/1 a11
additional additioual
stroke stroke
T11e sixtlr
stroke of the
J ro11ld be
a11d the J, the .dra11mfrom
b11/ges are ......_. rig/rt to left,
dra11111 last 3 fi11ishi11g
111ith 1l1e
hairline mrl
111e owe of
the V ca11 be
stre11g1/re11ed
111ith QI/
addi1io11al
stroke
'....
2
111e a1tve of
the N cau be
strengthmed
Ulit/1 au
additio11al T11e n11ve of
stroke ~ 1heW ca11 be
6 strengtlreued wit/1
an additio11al stroke
hair/i11e curl 4 111e bowl of 1/1e
~ 0 orQ can be 4 '--
. . \. strengthened 5 ~
111ith au ~6
additioual
stroke ~
Alternative 0 and Q
streug1heued
111ith an
additioual
stroke 2
61
G OTHIC :::i CRIPTS
Lombardic Capitals
LOMBARDIC CAPITAL is a built-up letter characterized
A by curved stems and distinctive monoline serifs.
Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 58- 59), Lombardic letters
worked well in sequence and so were used for whole
words and phrases. They were successful both in penned
form as display capitals and carved form for monumental
work. The script was increasingly prevalent by the mid-
The lercer M can
1 l th century, and finally ousted by the Humanist Capital alternati vely adhere 10
in the 16th centur y (pp. 98- 99) . However, it enjoyed a LOMl3AROIC CAP ITAL M a baseline cross suoke,
A square- cu t nib is used to makin9 the ri9ht -hand
resurgence, particularly as a monumental letter, during draw Lombardic Cap itals, srrokc a mirror ima9e
with the pen held close to <?f the lefi -hand one
the 19th-century Gothic revival in England, under the the horizontal (pp. 64-65). (pp. 64 65)
influence of the architect and designer A.WN. Pugin.
~1)I~. JJ>FJiETA:
Ital ian region of Lombardy. However,
over the centuries, the term has
been widely used and accepted by
calligraphers, typographers, and
·~~ ~ :
letterers, and has come to represent
the particular combination of Imperial
and Uncial eleme nts that make up this
distinctive hand of capital letter s.
A simplified Imperial
Lombardic Capitals can be seen as
,:-.; Co;>:
simplified , pen-drawn versions of the
Roman Imperial Capital. The multiple
strokes of the Imperial (pp. 110- 119)
~- e~r:
are reduced to a minimum, producing
a le tter that is re latively easy to execute
(pp. 64- 65) . The Lombardic script
usually includes Uncial forms of
"~:,~::: ·fi1NlJn
rr51mo•
A, D, E, M, and T (pp. 24- 25) .
•'eryjlne Early
Gochie scrip1
1
'--< J.i 1
1 •
<PP· >- -----"?lanno.mqmnm.mqumra mcnnr.wm Ccin mmcc)m
46 47
62
LOMBARDIC CAPITALS
In thu early examplt Th<St display Imm read: "J.Y 1\ 'ilf Di\ '/ THE GELLONE SACRAMENTARY
efa hmoriaud l'trsal SRI /HU PS INCPT UB SACIVIJllTR". In the title letters of this eighth-century text
(pp. 58- 59), the Vir9m This 1s an abbrmation of: "IN NOilf/NE for Chris011as Eve Mass, produced in northern
is shown in thtform DOMINI NOSTRI JESU CllRISTI. France, we can discern the crude beginnings
efa capital leuer I INC/PI T UBER SACRA MA TRIS" ofLombardic Ca pitals. Th e scribe has used
Impe rial Capitals as his models, d rawing th e
o utl ine of each letter in a single stroke w ith a
narrow pen nib. In the first three lines, letters
feature internal decoration. The words of the
title have been considerably abbreviated. On
the second line the abbreviation of"DO,\f/,\ 'f"
.. as " D NI" has been indicated with a menmid
.s
.
c
instead of with the traditional ho ri zontal stroke.
63
GOTHIC SCRIPTS
Lombardic Capitals
HERE IS 0 HISTORI CAL precedent for a full set of Lombardic
T Capitals and those shown here have been compiled from a
,·ariety of sources. Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 60-61), they are
Eitlrer of tlrese
two fonns of A
I
can be 11sed
)~
u eel for writing complete words and phrases and so consistency
~
is of great importance. Concentrate on making the weight of
stroke, the level of compression or expansion, and the serif
construction exactly the same in each letter you draw.
--+
2
711e concave line of tire form of A I
serifs can tem1inatt at
B 'l-l II·
each end with a
decorative blob
Waisted stems
Waisted stems ca n be created by ove~lapping two broad,
curved vertical strokes an d then adding the hairli ne
horizontals at the top and bottom (abo11e left). A more
precise method is to draw the whole o utline with a
Use a na"orv
pen 11ib ro add
tire de(()rafive
blobs at tire rnd
of rlre serifs
c - 6
8
· ~'lrn_
4
narrow nib and then fill it 111 with ink (abol'e centre).
Rounded letters
Define the form of
rounded letters by
drawing either the Un cial
outer or inner ci rcle Eitlrer of rlrese rrvo
form of D fomrs of D ca11 be 11sed
first. The latter often
proves more pracrical
(see letter 0. opposite).
Expanded and
compressed letters
T o regulate the chose n
level of expansio n or 3
[~(El ·
compression, use the
spaces e nclosed within
characters as guides.
Compressed letters
have shorter serifs than
expanded leners. Bow~
can be fully rounded
or po inted. Exp1111ded lerter
~1
Compressed letter
I
- 5
--- ~1 5
..........-.....-- Caseli11e
1111d
slrndow
Display capitals
Since the 12th century,
the Lo mbardic Ca pital
has often been heavily
elaborated whe n used
F IT
- Ji1
' 2
3
as a display capital.
Decoration can range
~-....,~.-- Floral from simple additional
decorn11011 caselines tO complex
illustrations that are
gilded and in colour.
64
[OMBARDIC CAPITALS
ii J~· ~· It Jn· ~ -
I ! J])· TI J9J S '~·!,- -_
I
a Jij· nt c
,
r cr;1._- I
L Il ~1, 2
a UOO·-~ 7
1 2
~ rl1 {~ v~': ,bardicV }~
7
__.!.__~· w1r6
m ~
fi
~\ 11 ~ i 1s a modem
(OllSlnlCliOll
Il tr ~ TII D. tr~·
6
0 'O 2
7
P Jl W· 2
-
U 'OJ(D}, Z 6
65
GOTHIC SCRJPTS
J\l[EDffATIO•'·s OS
THE LIFE OF CHRIST
Th is manuscript page
shows the translation
into Middl e English
by Nic ho las Lowe of
a popular I3th-century
Latin work artribured
ro Sr. Bonaventura.
One of 49 versions
of th e text known to
exist, it dates from
abour 1450. The
66
Bll S7i1RD SEC R£7i1RY
A DAM A D EVE
This text of the story of Adam and Eve was
written in English in about 1-115. A fine upright
as~ect to th~ le tters suggests that they were written
.. ,,J
w1th an oblique- cu e nib. In the best English
13astard script traditions. the 111 is well pro nounced
and the ''elephant's trunks" are boldly dra\\'n.
The tr\I mcluJes a set efcapual /men
11mrcn 1mh che same dumis as the Jo ....,.
case te11 (pp. 78 79)
67
G OTHIC SCRIPTS
Bastard Secretary
J\ s A FUNCTIONAL, CURSIVE cript, the Bastard ecretary is
fi written with as few pen lifts as possible, with letters linked
a- 1~ 2
B t
more quickly than the for mal Gothic scri pts, such as the Textura
Q uadrata (pp. 52- 53). Ascenders are complemented by strong,
downward diagonal strokes known as "elephant's trunks'', drawn
to the right of the stem at an angle of about 45°. These echo
the downward diagonal strokes of the minim feet .
2
~
71rt a11gle of tlrt
"tlepl1a111's 1ru11ks"
slro11ld be consis1e111
tliro11glro111 tire text
u~
l1airli11e loop
dra~ed to tire left of tire
of tired iu a
le11er, almost 111 a parallel
si11gle stroke
to rlre baseline
Key letter
The Ir is a useful
letter with which co
start practising the
71re e is almost
Bastard Secretary. 71re rail of rlre e
circular mrd can
It includes both the could join tire
have tire appearance
"elephanc's rru nk" that second stroke
of a letter o
sweeps &om the head
of the ascender almost
4-~
to the headline, and
71re seco11d
the characte ristic
stroke of rlre f
downward pu ll of
For rlrefi rsr stroke retraces tirefirst
the pen at the foot
of the seem. of tire r, grad11ally to tire headline
trvist tire pen and curves sligl11ly
10 tire vertical to tire right
( '#
D rawi ng an upward loop Adding a downwa rd diago nal
P$~·
With its sweeping hairline loop, the Without lifting the pen, make a 3
dis one of the most distincti\·e lerters strong downward diagonal stroke, Make a lrairli11e
in the hand. After drawing the bowl, curving it tO the left co join the bowl strokefrom tire
create a large arc by pushing the pen at its midway po int. This stro ke w ill foot of the srem to
J
upwards in one sweeping moveme nt. echo the shape of the loop. tire headline, before
2 starting tire fi11al
do11111ward strokt
Basic elem en ts a11d tail
The pen angle for the
hand is about 40-45°
and a square-cut nib is
lJ
generally used. Minim 71re letters i and j
height is four pen ca11 be dolled
widths, with the
ascender equal to a
further four widths.
68
B ASTARD SECRETil RY
y
or fo11rth stroke is extended
1
to prod11ce / / the comer of the
rhe tapered.-:.../ _ pen nib
desce11der 2
of the p
2
to the vertical
to fi11isl1 the
desce11der of tht
~1
q with a hairli11t
-i- - -~
Conj oined letters
r
Conjoined letters are less a
feat ure of the Bastard as the
~
- 711e ha!f r is used to Quadrata, but thisfomr of
1}
1 1 fo/10111 letters with a
L_ right-hand bow
p-p ligature is quite co111111on
69
Gon11c ScRJPTS
Batarde
T (Lettre Bourguignonne) is the French equi valent
I IE BATARDE
of the English Ba tard Secretary (pp. 66- 67). It was developed
at the end of the 13th century and used until the mid - 16th
century, evolving from a lowl y cursive bastard hand into a >trokc can be cxtcnJcJ
formal, prestige script in its own right. Batarde achieved its most The rad of the p a hen the !Cller bc9mr
apomuJ onJ a 11orJ
sophi ticated appearance in the mid- 15th century, an er a when con be dro11n
euhcr up119ht or
the popularity of the printed book was increasing among a whole ~h9htly sfonrcd \
13A1 AIUlE P
In co1mructing the
new ection of society. In this de luxe fo rm , it was the hand 13atarde p, a series of pen
lift, and angle changes•~
favoured by Burgundfan court circles, hence its alter native name . required (pp. 72- -J).
70
8 ATtlRDI;
C'O'l(fHfl(fllfft't'Atc
lltnt(.. n ffl( tt'ft-t· tn • 1UH(
'tllUftt«<rt~ <tf •1)ft(ll0111: ''fl
I
~:.~;::~'1';~'~t~''!:,;;:~:(~~·'
lumlt(t ft1(i'ti UO'tllt •111t"'"
,u11t.,tt ., uc"'1nr<'1l11nt•/t'Wttv
·~l't}Jllft\UHttltlllC JJUott\., cvnf~'t~ l-..run-,u•lff ~ltW tt'
( Ht\' (( hll!tJlf(f (itr\A."t lt' Il l t«>-.\1n tttf-~LI ~untjft {ttfltf
f nloH"11<ft •frirlc ••ttfltc •f •ithp:""""U. r-'<~{fm'l'f
ftt«'H'f' f • P1111«1t11th\\)t /.JNc 111« ... f):(lmm mnu'\t.f
{:l HlJllttt/ t•I O .. \liUf 1Ul(f' ~ {t~gutm·~J'.-W(' r:•"«"
~ 1t tTn~n1ll t1t n nt"°'h ~ "nifff'( C ~Ud't11 Utf «tttftt
u t n r-m• h ""H<• I.-~ • P• t\,t'~..._.. ~WA'rt talltH'f•H
-f?'~rt.etl Uli'"fll J.U t 1to.,'tff 17\tH lc ,m1tt 'tt.ltf"'t'!' C1
c .o ctt 1wt: U'f'1'CTIUti~t "!"'1tfur'"« uort1J11111111lt lllM_,.,..,.
OJt<R ft ff't• tttttnf'f (-.no tn"1 q"'~ l'ttr(U't \>H lf . . .,.
'14~K• t1 t {i'Wftf1'lf(lf •cs ~}:R tt ~ t Cf' kN)c-k ..
-'t'c'rn 4 •1t ,...H"•1tm tt- .-•"t « •••/('""'"~<~
f< 1..,1t1ecl<'W..,._......._.,...,.
.,,.,_, f..'u!Jnmfo HtHt "-ifi"
f,.. lcmno-(\«"" '(f•, 1 ~n "'"'1."''ttlltt<tY(tt-....../1
C'C f1ut tt-11k mt «f.<tltf'f" ~·u ,. mtOOUtUttt-i"' d / tf'
~·""'''"'"'tf""C't' C't ""';
""'"'1,.nm \'.lt1r 111• •.kmntr
[«-mffirnr'trf. •/Uff#tf ' " "'
-f"''"''ttMHf' 1u o110 <t rt
m iff> U~IH'fll/iUHUf" Oll.lfH
l t1t(t111tflC· ~t J11t fff.,.41111\"tt
tm1111tnt U1'1l tf' <C\Yll''t" \Jtbtfl'
i'''"fl" l </>110 tt+ 1ht111'
l"°HOirlUftl/ i '!.,!111('tt't '° t.#11
{-:,:. °',I~~ ,r..,,.,
-fl•< ~t.!lllt'J.Udtf9tl((llhln'(
cffr ft ufurp: r.uto (t• 1'-.'flf' fnt '1.U C"ffltUhfl~lllrntt"tC
•J Ut'\\.-c-p.-<~ffn 11·fJf l W tlt h'-vN11nt.""m· ·
t11f• .,Un'('lf.: « t<]Xt tffi .•
INtHc1•"ll nN0tt kttY+J-UI
c...,,...n<. 1;;, .
i::w1t I~.~
J modern .1ppe.uance. owing partly to the
rdation,h1p of text to margins and partly to the fro m La l'en9eance de la l'dort lhesa
re~tramt ~hO\\ll in the decoration. The feet of (/efi.) had arguably lesser skills than
the 1111111111~ end without elaboration and the
~cript •~generally more cursive than th.H
J«t(ric his two contemporaries featured
med to wnte the 13ook of H ou~ (c1ppMi1r). -- fut 1mu.<=-pl\'(c ron« urmtf he re. I le docs not achie,-e the
m(au C'OffHtl ,1~UlCttt"'='ll har mony of the Froissart Chronicle
.ft,y\'\1Hgtct'Cn\• .. o r Boo k of Hour s, his pen angles
are inconsiste nt , and he is unable
~ 1)-rf•tt~. tm1 · to return to any constan t pen angle.
Common f ea t ures
In some examples of Batarde, thcj
DETAIL FROM THE FROl\'>AR r CIIRONICLE and long fo rm of s lean forward at
The initial C is decorared wnh a Cade!
(pp. 80-81). The hom~ on the letter,'./ are
an angle. By keeping the angle of
similar to those on the ,I! of another Gothic these two letters absolutely con tant,
script, the Fraktur (pp. 76-77). Both th e
half rand full r forms are u~ed in the tcxr.
the cribc can create a counter point
to the main har mo ny. This textual
effect know n as "hot spots" - is
a commo n feature of Batarde.
Other freque nt characteristic
of Lettre Bourg uignonne are the
This page from La J 'r1~t,/C111ur tie /11 .\fort 1/1rsa ove rlapping stro kes reminiscent
includes the nibricated prologue to the main
rext, which opens with a Ve~al. The book dates of Fraktur (pp. 7-1-75) , and the
from 1479 an d wa~ written by David Aubert delicate hairlines used to join strokes;
of Ghent, scribe to Phi lip the Good, Duke
of Bu rgundy. Jn the illustration, we sec th e these see m to add a fur the r sense
sc ribe p rese nting the boo k to hi s pa tron. of m ove me nt to a page of text.
71
GOTHIC SCRIPTS
2
'--
longs are frequently written more boldly than other letters and
have a forward slant (the two letters have the same basic form ,
with a crossbar added for thej). This produces "hot spats" within
the written text and makes fo r a dfatinctive textural patte rn.
6
Prepare 10 add tire crossbar
to the f by ruming tire
q11i/I to 10° ,_ --
2
_.,
TI1e ain't' of the c
1em1i11ates wit/1 a
lrairli11e flick
/
I 2
;-
The key lttters f a11d long s
should lean slightly to tht right
c
/ 171e lrairli11t
Drawing the J and long s tum the pen from 30° to the vertical stroke of the e is
T he many changes of pen angle as you pull the pen downwards, drn11111 at a11 a11gle
required to draw the Batarde f and finishing with a hairli ne. R etrace the of abour 45°
longs are typical of this sophiscicated first stroke, looping o utwards to the
hand. Begin about ha!£ a minim right to create a thickened stroke, and
above the headline and gradually rerum to the original angle of 30°. Omit 1l1e crossbar of
tire f to create tire long
fo m1 of s (left)
Draw tire hairli11e
171e C11rved hairline stroke at 2 rrossbar of tire fat
1/1e top of 1/1e feller q can be a11angleof10°
co111i1111011s with the descmder
171e leuer f ca11 lean 171e c/11bbed sha~
Joward at a more of 1l1e f ca11 be
pronounced an.11/e tlra11 exa_eyerared
Descenders this (pp. 70-7 1) 3
The descenders of letters p and
q are made by turning the nib
anci-dockwise from the horizontal
to the vertical, fi nishi ng with a
hairline. T he descenders may
alternatively slam to the left,
echoing the forward lean of
chef (above) and longs.
-
with ajlatfoot A hairline al tl1t
Flat feet top and tail of
Flat feet occur on all leading 2 the letter h is
I
-
stra igh t minims in the script, dwratreristic
such as the stem of the t and / /
the first leg of the 11. In a
I
"l71eia11d
J
more cursive version of 2
j ta11 be
Batarde, the minims may dotted
tenninate with a flick at the
e nd of the downward scrokc,
as on the second leg of the 11.
72
B ATARDE
?~
ti ~ t
Tile stem m1d
'ill
leadi11gfoo1 of The stem a11d foot
tile k can be ef the c cm1 be dra11111
in a si11gle stroke
dra11111 i11 a
si11gle stroke ~ 5
2
3
·m 2 5 6
The first two
strokes ef 1l1e v
ct111 be dra11111 i11 a
si11gle 111011emem
s ?
r----...
2
2
-4
3
jrom 111'0 co1!ioi11ed vs
'''""" J,,.,,J,,
u ~2
J~ f
p
of the p
~
1~ ;)
711e letter z ct111
al1emt11i11ely be
drt1w11 in a single
stroke
2 Wilere prnaical, Bi11t1rde
I !. 1'7 ~
letters cm1 be con11eaed
witil frt1irli11e .11mk1•s
Join ed letters
6~
77re right bo111 of tile h
mid the left bow of tl1e
77re p and h are 1l1e o cm1 be conjoined
73
GOTHIC ScR1Prs
WORK~lll I I
TH E DIFFER ENCES between Fraktur
This pomon of .i
and chwabacher are difficult to \\'Orksheet (11/1<>1'<') i'
define precisely. Both fea ture the po,sibly the oldest
su rviv ing example
swollen body and pointed tail of the of Fra ktur- n:laled
Batardefand lo ng s (pp. 70 71), as lettering. Ir \\'a\
"rirten in about 1-t<K>
well a curved stroke o n the bo"·s
by Johanne' vom
of le tters a, b, c, d, e, 9, h, o, p, and H age n, who refer\ to
q. Diamond strokes reminiscent of the h;ind a~ •· .\ '01111/a
Fract11rnr11111" ("broken
Textura letters are a distincti,·e feature noccs"). It is from this
of the hand, but there is a te ndenc\' tcnn ch ac che n,1111c
J
"Frakrur" is believed
for terminal strokes to be cun·ed . All ro have been dem•ed.
letters have a rigidly upright aspect.
Ge ne rally, the chwabacher has a
The tail oft ht\ p. unJ -+-~--------1
broader, mo re cursfre form than the that ef C11her l<11<n on the
l><Juon> lint oj IC\/, mu;
Fraktur, and docs not ha,·e the forked
hcne been oJJcd h) hanJ
ascenders and excessive e laboration of ofter the book "'" prmtcJ
that hand. Some of the most striking
,·ersions of chwabache r we re
penned, centuries after the cript first The 11/mtr<Jll<>n• anJ --..:...~.;;
I cnal< nere oJJcJ after the
appeared, by the calligraphe r and the ie.11 haJ been <omplctcJ
desig ne r Rudolf Koch (opposite) .
7-1
FR.1KTUR &_Sc 1111:1Bx11ER
M \I 11 IAU~ E\·A:-:GELIU\I
In chi\ Germ.m rexr ofche Go,pd
of '>1. Marrhew from 19:21. R.udol(
Koch combmC's 1he feamre-; of Fr.1krur
.rncl Tcxtura Quadraca co 1he ul11m.11e
dq~rcc - che lines of CC'XC appear co
h.l\'c bt:cn knirred. Koch cla-;,1ficd chi'
'1yk ,1, .1 ve~io11 ofSchw;1bacher.•md
expl ain ed: "The page should <;ccm to
be ,t,1ckt·d with finisho::d row, of
lt11t''> ... t''pecially the space bcrwt't'll
\\'Orel.. lllll\I nm be broader dun 1h.u
bt•twl't'n line,:· The Ver;a]<; h.1\e been
1reJtl'd 111 an equally robmc mannl'r,
rt·,ulcmg m 1wo beautifolly de'>!gncd
p.1gc' of rexr.
m~ctp~-tnunc-tfcmpcr:
ct tn f(mta fcmtouun ~tttmt /
rtumt ~ucmartagrooapt~
new 111eani11g to the Used only in German-speaking
ren 11 "Black LC'ttC'r"
areas, this broken letter is frequently
Mt 9omtnutlttcfitStuctna~ (/I/I· 50-51).
referred to as a "German Letter".
nat
~ , . ., , .""
1Jfafm~tttl~·-_____.;:.;____
'~ m• M ~"tttt'
_;_ (he 1tr<119ht. comprc«cJ
111pct1 t>f the hanJ NIT<lJS
Th e rej ection of Italian scripts
Fraktur and 'ch,,·abacher enjo)·ed
~-~~ \:t'l"- (11.tu( ~\IV . m lrnuT<J 1m91m: eicn the longer li,·es than an} other bastard
~'1 no: tubtktttUG bCO ~du letter r h"' an urnaht form script in Europe in the earl) 20th
a:;c::..:;~ ~ ~ l'RAYLR-IJOOK century, half the books printed in
f(tnUO,nO:pt(OCClW(tltU8, tl~ Thew p.1ges from
'm ' / the pr.tyC'r- hook of
Germany , still featured Fraktur-based
ttat) dUtl tt1 rou,~, ~lOlt( : ct ltl ~ ~:~:!:.e~~~~l~;~ll~~.ian typefaces. T his longe\'ity was a di rect
~ ~ Schbmpt•rger of
result of' the Ger man rejection of Ital ic
Niiremheri.t in 151-1. and Humanist scripts (pp. 90 /0/).
Thl· Fr,1 ktur type wa~
T here \\'ere two important factor in
dC''>tgned by Johann
'eudorfTC'r 1hc Elder. thi rejection: first!)·, the Reformation
farhc-r of rluee caused Protestants in northern
gt'nt'rauom of
c.1ll1gr,1phe1>. The Germany to reject Italian hands as
border decoration i~ a pol itical gesture; secondly, it was
equ.1lly oum.rnd ing,
hC'i11g rhe work of w idely believed that a Humanist
Albrec ht Dlirer. script d id not sui t Ger man text .
75
GOTlllC SCRIPTS
~·
(pp. 72- 73). The hairline spikes, such as those on letters b, 9,
h, and q, are a distinctive feature of Fraktur and do not tend to
occur on the rounder Schwabacher letters. The pen angle of
about 40° is altered only for drawing the pointed descenders.
Ro unded strokes
Despite the Fraktur
letter's upright aspect,
many strokes are
actually rounded. Here,
the ascender of the letter
b has been drawn wirh
a curve to echo the
3
rounded stroke of che
bowl. Whether you
choose straight or I~ 77refirst and mond
strokes of tire f carr
~Y,
rounded letters or split
be drai1111 wit/rout
or pointed ascenders,
lifti11g the perr
it is important to be as
consistent as possible
throughout the cext. Twist the pen from 40°
lo near vertical fo r the
desce11der of tire f
77re crossbar is a common feature
[
of rlrr letter g in botIr Frak111r
l
and Stlrwabadrer scripts ~/__ _ _ 771e seto11d and tlrird
11 strokes of tire g <IJll
Spike strokes Altenratively, tire lrairli11e be dra11111 in one
The distinctive can be draw11 as a 3 co111i1111ous
Fraktur spikes are co111i1111ation of tire first movement
made by extending stroke (see g, opposite)
'~-'FY ·~·
one stroke over the
previous one. The
more pen lifts there T11e spike stroke overlaps
arc in a letter, the tire bottom of the rormded
more spikes stroke of the boivl
are created.
lJ~
fimslr 111tlr a short ""'
-#------ Frak111r descetrdm are ta
1
lrairline, a blob, or
restrained, except 011 tire
a backward sweep; 2
bortom li11e of a page of
altematively, it ca11 be
looped (see g, right)
text, where additio11al
flourislres can occur j/
76
fR,IKTUR
t Be,~i11 the t
111tl1 a11
11p111ard stroke
2"V
1-
( _U
TI1e final foot
m v
4 7 of 1/re m can I
I "4 1em1i11ate 111i1Jr a
2 diamond stroke
"' 2
n
4 TI1e final foot I
tv
1.,_ of tire n ca11 terminate
2 111i1lr a dia111011d stroke "' 2 i
Alternative o 4
r
pe11from 4 the 11ib to draw 1l1e
40° 1011ear~ hair/me rail of rl1e y
vertical for
tire descender
of the p
4
, ...._
l'i
Full r Half r
2
3V
011 the s, 1/re seq11euct Alternative h 711is c11r/111g lrairli11e
71us "elepham's
mmk" ca11 be 11sed 011
le11ers b, h, k, a11d I
~- ~2
11tirh tire lop stroke letrers h, m, a11d n
drawn second
77
GOTHIC SCRIPTS
Bastard Capitals
ASTARD CAPITALS I IAV~ the same ductus as the minuscules
B that they accompany (pp. 68-77), and arc penned with the
same nib. In most in ranees, they tend to be wide, expanded
letters. The thick stem trokes arc often supported by a thin
YCrtical slash to the right, and the addition of a diamond stroke
in the centre of the counter is also common. Like the bastard
minuscule hands, the capital were ubject to a range of
indi\·idual and regional variation. Because of this di\'ersity, the
alphabet shown here should be regarded only as a general guide. 711eCrn11M
altematfrely take
tl1e fdrm ~( tlrt
Basic elemen ts E /below), b111
The pen angle of 1vrtl10111 tl1e cro>s
the 13astard Capital is stroke
about 40° or the same
as the minuscule that
1t accompames. The
letter height is about
six pen widths. The
characteristically wide
letters, such as the 8,
are a direct product
of downward and
horizontal arced
swei:ping strokes.
TI1e l1arrli11e
vcrtic.il QI/
Dr11111tlrl' ltc1irli11es with 1/1e E ""'
tire romrr '!f 1/1e 11ib be omi111•d
78
BASTARD CAPITALS
ti L 2
Drawtl1e
airline stroke
>f tlte N 1vitl1
L ~eron~
of the nib
4 J
~r,, , ,.:,.'.J~
4
ef•M:c
tht dtsu11der
Alternative H
Jn this ampersa11d
1/1e T is stresstd
79
C 1DELS
Cadels
the Cadel (Cadeaux) in the early 15th
T HE I VENTIO OF
century is attributed to Jean Flamel, librarian to the
prominent patron of the arts, the Due de Berry. Flam el used
these large, patterned capitals to inscribe the duke 's name
in the front of each manuscript. By the mid-15th century,
Cadels were widely used in northern Europe as single Versals
(pp. 58- 59), mainly in vernacular text written in the various CADEL 1-l
Despi te the apparent com plexity of th i~ 16th-
bastard scripts (pp. 66- 79) . During the 16th century, they century Cadel, the main structure of the letter is
appeared in Italic text in increasingly elaborate forms. easily pen nable (pp. 82- 83). T he fine internal
decoration can be drawn with a flexible steel nib.
81
GOTHIC SCRIPTS
Cataneo' s Cadels
These leners Band Care based on the initials
Cadels of Bernardino Cataneo, writing master at the
University of Siena, ltaly, between 1544 and 1560.
In their original form, they were used with text
HE GREAT VARIETY of existing Cade! models makes it very difficult to in R.otunda (pp. 86-87) and italic (pp. 96-97).
T assemble a complete alphabet. These examples have been selected
to represent a few general principles. Although Cadels can look very The skeleton B consists
daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great deal easier than of a spine and 11110 bo111ls
you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very impressive.
The golden rule is to begin at the core of the letter and work outwards. 1. Begin the
stem of the B with
Letter spine a double stroke,
Always begin with the spine
of the letter. Here, the spine
J l
"'
with the inner
stroke leading
is composed of downward into the stroke
diamond strokes and straight of the top bowl.
vertical strokes. The pen angle Next add the single
for both types of strokes is stroke of the lower bowl,
between 35° and 45°. leading into a tail.
l. Establish the
basic structure
of the Cadet in
pencil before
retracing the
strokes in pen.
2. Build up the
skeletal form
with loops at
Ust a pencil for tht
the top of the
itiitial pla1111i11g of 1l1e
bowl and spurs
/e11er's stmcture - -
to the left of the
stem. Scrolls can be
added as a final flourish.
Tire top
/of tire bowl
_/) has bee11
X extended
82
CAD ELS
~
_,, . con1plen1entary upright curved strokes and requires
strokes on either side careful plaruung.
of the core diamond Interlocking loops
~
strokes. As a general A series of interlocking
rule, the legs should bur unjoined loops can
have more weight be adapted at a
than the feet. terminal stroke o r
~~ ~ '-.. 1vi1/10111
provide an infill. 71,. " "'i-rim•l" "'" "'""""
acc11ally 1011clri11g
Tire balance of thick a11d t/1i11 2. Usi ng che right angle fold as a
strokes i11 tire left arm 1vill be centre line, work out the strokes for
tire exaa reverse ef 1/1ose in the arm. When this is complete, fold
1/1e rig/re am1 the paper over the centre line and
repeat the pattern from the see-
4. Now add the crossbar, breaking the through image. Any flaws in the
strokes as they cross the lines of the legs. design will become immediately
Finally, add the decorative loo ps and flourishes. obvious when the pattern is reversed.
83
I TAL/AN &_ H UMA N IS T S CRIPTS
B OOK OF HOURS
This small Book of Ho urs, produced in
Bruges in about 1480, shows the evenness and
regularicy of the R otunda. The script differs
from that used for the Verona Anriphoner
(opposite) in one significant respec t - the
upturned feet of the minims. Here, they are a
concinuation of the minim strokes, which results
in slightly more cursive letters th an was usual.
84
R OTUNDA
La rae-scale letters
As a manuscript hand , the Rotunda was
written in a full range of sizes, from very
small to very large, and was the chosen
script for some of the largest known
manuscript books in the world .
When w r itten on a large scale, the
letter s can have a r igid formality
and the hairline strokes often seem
dispropor tionately light.
Rot un da Capitals
Accompanying capitals are written
with the same pen as the minuscules
(pp. 88- 89) . A double stroke can be used
for the stem, with a clear gutter between
strokes. In some historical instances, the
Rotunda Capital was developed into a
Versal. In others, Gothic or Lombardic
Versals were used with Rotunda
text script .
A common feature of all Rotunda
letters, both minuscule and capital,
is the sharpness of the cut of the nib,
which gives clear, precise strokes and
fin e hairlines . In larger versions,
the pen should be clearly lifted after
• the completion of each stroke, while
I I in smaller versions, many strokes can
l~M:fft--=:-=::::L.-...:..___ _ ____:._ ___..:.__
-i1..j.!l1f! be drawn in one continuous movem ent.
1
n11(' tltll_' I
These large-scale Rotunda leuers lack any
cursil-ejeowres note the ongulamy wtth
which the ascenders and s1roi9ht minim
s1rokes hove been drawn
The type used in this. dic tionary was possibly from the
fo unts of the Vcmce-based German pn nter Erhard
t fructuofi1''111 1':1'mtfcmpl,itl)fOdcart poffe·"'· • " ..
R atdolr _(pp.
90-9 1)'. w ho .had punc hes cut fo r a , '£i ~e (Ur( fmf\bf+l•J'+tn "n+.Ct ti: empbttbc
R otunda type 111 1486. This detat l shows rwo different "--4 '-' t' t' ([
forms of d: the uncial ~orm and the upright .Caroline ...,. Oft8 91 ( ( Cmpb!CD(OtfC' ?tf1.1CfU6 { ( QU{ (fl
fo rm - bo rh ca n be seen 111 th e middle of the sixth li ne. · · ..
85
I TAL/A.\' &_HU.llA.\'IS T S CRIPTS
a
17iefoo1 of
Rotunda 71re a is tlraracrerized
rhea <011/d
a/tentatively
by its lrairline c11rl Jinislr wirlr
upright, open letter, which works well on a sweep to
K TU:'\DA IS A;-\
both a large and small scale. The characteristic straight stem
strokes, such as those on letters b,f, and h, are constructed with
i/1e ri.~111
b
the pen held at about 30°. The square foot is then added in o ne
~J
77iejlar-headed
of two ways. The implest method is to use the corner of the nib asunder of tire b
to outline the foot, before filling it in with ink. Alternatively, can be replaced by
the "dual ductus" technique can be used, which involves turning _ a split ascender
the pen from 30° to the horizontal in one short mo,·emcnt.
Although the latter may seem more complex, it is probably
c
preferable when drawing large Rotunda letters.
A split asm1deua11
lie used instead ef r/re
jlm-lreaded Paritty
L
011 lafRe-scale
b
Ror1111da letters,
the mn1ed stroke
is drau.1 separmely Altemarively, tire
from tire straight d <an fea111re an
11pr(~/11 stem
stroke 1
Sweeping strokes
On lener; in which the stem
f
srroke ends in a right sweep,
such as I (above), the sweep is Twist tire pen
usually completed in a single Alternative 3 rorlre1wtiml
stroke. On larger letters, two crossbar for the mmbur
separate strokes are used ef tire f
(see b, I, and 1, rig/11).
I Key letter
- 2
g c
I
-t-+ I
The <> is the key letter of the
I R otunda. The bowls of b, d, !I· p.
I and q closel}' follow irs shape, and irs
I open aspect is also echoed in the c 3
I and e. The first stroke is o nly slightly
curved. closely following a vertical
before sweeping vigorously to the
_b
right. The second s:roke is much
more semi-circular than the first. T1re jlar-lteaded T11esmmd
as<ender of tire h
<a11 hf repla<ed b)'
a sp/11 asunder j) stroke ef rlre
2 h «111 be
exrmded cmd
1/1e tlrird
stroke cmritred
T erminating flicks
As an ahcmativc to the sweepmg
stroke, letters 111. 11, and u can
••
l
terminate with a flick. These arc
severe and rather mechanical: the
stroke 1s simpl}· executed with a pen
angle of 30° and without any
directional tu rn of the pen.
86
R OTUNDA
ll' -
111e flat-headed
ascender of the k The second stroke Twist the pen
can be replaced by of the k can be to the vertical
a split ascender extended and the
2 third omitted
?3
-
The second leg of the
_u_,
u can finish with a flick
Alternative
foot
'-...
6
m can finish with aflick
m ~ 11, Alternative
foot
n ]'
1
--- The second foot
tV
~ -
of the n could
alternatively
~
terminate
with aflick
..
Alternative
-,.
,.-
foot
1
·---i
~
__O '~
Drag the ink with
the comer of the nib to
l2
___ - fa . 4J;
make the tail of the x
_. _ _ .c ftJ'
Any two letters with
The use of the
opposjng bows
half r is common
can be conjoined
in Rotunda text
87
I TAi iii\' &.._HUMll .\'/ST SCRIPTS
Rotunda Capitals
the Rotunda Capital is less clearly defin ed
T llE TRUCTURl: OF
than the minu cule (pp. 86-87). Both single and double stem
capitals can be used; hi torically, they were often combined with -L.
5
~ l 'B
Veniral
Lombardic Capitals (pp. 64-65) . The double stem capitals shown lrairli11es carr
here have been taken from a number of sources and should be be added
regarded only as guide fo r individual interpretations. As with the tl1ror~~lr rlre
roumer of
Rotunda minuscules, a "double ductus" applies, with all curved tile B
~
trokes and some upright trokes drawn with the pen at 30°, and 4
~'
the remaining strokes drawn ,,·ith the pen at the horizontal.
/ I siu.~le diamond
stroke reduces tile
110/u1111• of spare
in tile ro11111er Diago11al lrairlirres ra11 be
added to tire lrtter D (left) ./
Counters
The round, open narurc of the Rotunda
Capital tends to produce generous
coumers. The expame of white space
can be broken by the addmon of spurs,
£ 1L£ ~
~
J
~2
for the whole stroke. finishing at the
baseline. To create the square foot,
use the corner of the nib to trace
along the baseline and up co· join the
right side of the stem. Fill in this
triangle of white space with ink.
4
1
of ~pace in the counter has been
reduced by the double hairlme.
88
R OTUNDA CAPITALS
£
l 1
~
56 hon{:,;;~;';;
Tum tire pen
H
- 3
0° J to draw
,,....-. tire final stroke
oftlreU
2 ~
{.l ~
C ca1L V(( l I
1~J£:;f, 1V t ~~)'
1
A hairline stroke 4
be added to tire rigltt
of the stem of tire L
~
2 rite ce111ral stroke ~
~ t
'--:::
~:<h<M l~ ~ - !'}~ ~5
~ ~ ~
-
)t
2 7 4
;:,J,;'.:~ 1:::-!
1~
4
lp J0° to tire
ltorizo111al
to drarv the
first stroke
2 J
.!.._
Alrair/ine
stroke <an be
added to tire
rig/rt of the
stem of tire P
-0 tl)
of the P
1 ~'='>;,i:;:~
1
,R
Tumthe
pen from 1
J0° to tire 2 J right of tire Imemal
r/1e fom rdecoration
of hairline can
<rosstake
horizontal stem of the R strokes and diamonds
to draw the 5 6
first stroke
ofrhe R Alternative forms of 0
R
Any Ro111nda Capital can be
drawn rvitlr a single ratlrer than
Single stem a double stem; this plainer form
Rotunda is best for use in text with
Capital R 111i1111scu/es (pp. 86-87)
89
I 1. 111, 1.\' &...HU.11. 1.\'IST SCRIPTS
Hulllanist Minuscule
T HUMA IIST MI rusCULE (littera Antiqua) and the Rom an
HE
Imperial Capital (pp. 108- 109) are the two historical scr ipts
most influential in our modern society. Between them , they giYe
us the basic constructions of o ur capital and lower -case letters,
both in handw ri tten and typew ritten form. In the Humanist
The serf s hove All Hum anise Minusc ule
Minuscule, the darker overtones of the Gothic scripts gave way been clroun w11h letters have an uprig ht aspect
the pen held at 30° with clea rl y defined strokes.
to the lighter tylc of the
Renaissance letter. It would
be difficult to envisage a
script better sui ted to the ,_
intellectual ideal~ 0f the age.
bone. uolnnCdllS tuc coronafu nosll1r
I
T HE H UMANIST Minuscule '"as
esse ntially a red iscovery of the
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38- 39).
9u1cm C'Cet 11'1m
deu s mcu s r n confpdh~
dtn. ( 0 111ltT(Tl'C .
D 1ngr d.o m m c 1
ll.t.O u la m me
'")
I
As a clear, unambiguous hand , free
from affectation, the Caro line was 0 mmc nc rnhfforc n1 0 . troc1cl5 me nc
considered bY, I4th -centuryJ scholars, Cl Ill I fc.l (11,l COrrtpt,l S llllr!ii<ercn'. ffiCl
including the Italian poet Petrarch,
to be in harmonv with the ideals :;;~=;~::i..dommc c1uont..tm rnfumuc, (urn {. met. 1
J
13om: OF H OUR~
This l3ook of Hour<; \\'JS wrim;:n in 13o logna
in abour 1500 for G10,·anni II lkntivoglio.
Arguably. cht' ,umpcuous decoracion and
bright colour; of che Vel'\al~ derracr from che
dig;1icy of chc t<'Xt ~cript itself The flat ~crit:.
.H the ht'ads of the a>ct•11dt' rs are th e nal\I ral
producr of a horizontally held pen (pp. 92- 9.1).
90
I'" If I \"I.IT 11/I\ IJ.\( Ill t.
\ouch.- ""'P"''""
con,ht.:n<) u 1th nhuh these
Jt11tlll c1mpcr,<mll\ lune been
Jra11 n 1hro11Hhout r he u.11 - 1-+-+:;..;;;.l!!ll,.,..:...:._______twi:Wll....WllliJ~=fo11tt c.un lacu1 a inpromolrloM vtbtndi111\11 l'di1lo
c hr10usecdtli1m <t•11•mm1br•fu cuu•fuprrttrum .f t'W>sp.icruno
tnU.S COtfOUS <IUS dtc.ltnt (HU l'(.dt
lier •d uawncl11m prouoc.irt fil1osw
~t • & . , .. offiLus au.s Propcu ho.- rd1n'futl I»
............... n1opo1tntn&moiucrnfu.im <'ud
l\ros ftd .duc,uc.1tloundtfaplu•u1
compt•on< dom1nt. Suu1 olitd.tt do
ir11tth1u'
I h,· /,,,,,k hw been huthtt vxon r~ & uunt duo i'Git m1n11 c.it~ltl.uscum umort&trtmo
h,mJumtm c>n 1d/um --'l+-+fir.f'tffj~- nt vno1 .So1(rolmtnwm lxrrnagnu• rt in limpbc.1t•ttcoaf1s 'ldln ftru1 c!;
tfi. Lg,o o1uttmd1Cl0tn elmrh>Ol1 no·non •doculum f<ru1m1csqu•li ho
tccltlla.. Vttut.imtn &,v03 r.n~I. m1n1buJ plactnlts: ftd vt knu c.hn01
vnufqu1f'!.I vxorem fuam f.curl't1p F.citnta "Olun11ttm dci : ex .an1mo coi
I h.- l'a"1/1 <1r<" b<1seJ on (um d1logat :vxor duttm u1nr.tt "'"' bona volun .. tc. fuuocntts lieut dom1
R<>man anJ nor I ombarJ1c luum . nc6' non hom1nibtu focnttsquonii
lmuj<>rtm lpp. 5 59J lm-'M!f---- - -- - - C."f ft1 litoflol.., /'.,.,,,_,.. V11Ufqu1ftp quodcunqs ftttat lonum
O• (.~~ntu j"mt1tdO '"'"'""° v- hot rutpt<U clom1no.fmc. fuuus fo,.
•"fluwl ·JcmM {<ru.s c!'dommu " lobu. £,.t vosdomono~f-tt1U.,
0
ST. PAUL '> Er'l'.>TLE f1/11rrmm hntownt r rr"tu 111.r 1tm11kntammas fcu.ncuqu1a &1llo
\Vnncn in ,1bour 1500. .cJ wriUNn<l1&"°" ;ro..o«n• .Ju ...fo rum &'ldl&rdomonusellma:rtu. « J , .,, 1f • Ho
,,..... ,.,...,
, . , , ,. "
thi\ text combines 1cth [me dom1ni1.'dim11n1btm,,,.< 111.. pufonaruma=puonondhpuddc.ii ' ·~rol ~
·"'.. ·._....... tr.Uhm: Pofrrcm• m vm•«•/..... J'
.,.... ,. ..
lt,1lic .111d Humanise 0.Wtn>fr• ms c:on(orum1ni m do
fidt1 h""1•'"'
M1t1t1\l"t1k h.111ds co
dr.un.me dll-n. Despite
the d1111111um·e size of
the letter", rt•produced
' ' '"'• h •
...... .. i ....
lllu ••. a... t
ii ll.u olird1tt ~rrn11bcu vm
mdonuno flcctn1m1ull•
d\.Ho~p.nrtmtuumt1..m•ttta11
lu<tm : qucdtfinun~tumpnmum
mtno & rnpott:ntl~vtttUJuuus . 1tl
du1~\'0Slltmatuto1mdcut p>rGu1
ft.arudouf~mlidtucl1o1b.lo ·quo
ftlU'I non di nobu oollutbtto ..dutr
~.,- t• J4.J
' ,...., • • .,.a
fuscnrwm&.f~ngnman.ftd.aclun-
here .1pproxun.uely the
\,1111e \Ill' ,,, they ,1re
written. e.1ch charJCter
n.'111.1i 11' di,tinct and
clc,1rly legible. Ar a
glance. rill' manuscript
llld\" lw mMJkt'n for J
· printed book.
~ aqua:qiani s~orCfn adfc. foco.af11 t~~Argtot, were drawn w ith the same ductus as
._ te ~cs emm
1 1 the minuscules and were the same
US nacur er tat
autem UntCUlf}J par gcnctitre ex height as the minu cule ascender
:licec c~ fccu umo~um ~ure .ipG in~unt "0$ nutriri (pp. 98 99). A rigid adherence to
1lidorum9porum fubftancaam, a quabus·ec1am ascender and descender lines, along ;;;;
91
I TA L/AN &_HUMANIST S CRJPTS
Humanist Minuscule
T HE HUMANIST MINUSCULE is a direct descendent of the
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 40-4 1). Letters are clearly defined,
separate, and open - very close in form to modern letters,
a
e, , . , ., .,
711e 111edge serif of the
" Slanted" p en
The "slanted" pen
H umanist Minuscule
is based o n the early
TI1e wedge serif of the
hand of Poggio and
d ca11 be replaced by
relates q uite closely to
ajlat serif
the Caroline Mi nuscule.
It is written w ith a pen
angle of30-40°. The
a is a double-storey
letter; this distinguishes
it from the Italic a,
..
if using a "slamed" pen,
which is a single-storey the bowl of the d u1il/
letter (pp. 96-97) . have a diagonal axis
"Straight" p en
During the latter part
of the 15th century,
there was an increasing Like rl1e Rot1111da
tendency co write the f, the H11manisr
Humanist Mi nuscule Mi1111swle f dotS
with a ·'straight" pen. not /Jave a rail
The pen angle for this
is shallow - 5-15° -
and a greater contrast
bcrween thick and thin
strokes can be produced. if using a
"slanted"
Wedge serif draw11 pe11, tire bowl
in tulO srrokes Foot draw11 with Foot drawn with of rlre g will ·
!rave a
diagonal axis
~ ~ 111e h can
Serif types Minim feet ten11i11are 1virh
T he script features two types of serifS: When using a "slanted" pen, the a 111medfoo1
-l1
wedge-shaped and flat. T he wedge tendency is to create a turned foot,
serif is created eithe r in a single
stroke o r in two separate stro kes
produced by terminating the minim
stroke with a flick to the right.
When using a "straight" pen, chis
,.
(above). The flat serif is created with
a single horizontal stroke. When
using a "straight" pen, the flat serif
can also be used co termi nate upright
minims and descenders (see letters
f, Ir, k, 111, n, p, q, r, opposite).
flicking movement is more difficult.
Instead, use the flat serif, o r finish the
stroke with a slight moveme nt to the
right along the baseline and then add
a separate serif co the left.
l
92
HUMA NIS T MINUSCULE
u
by a flat serif tire stroke witlr a flat senf
v
- --
3 5
n if using a "slanted"
w
) :;, , ,
pen, tire o will /rave
-]
x
~- -
0
- 3
-
y
if 11si11g a "slanted"
· pen, tire bowl of
2 tire p will have
a diagonal axis
z
extended into a tail
·C
if using a "slamed" pen,
rlre bowl of tire q will lrave
- 2
Humanist Minuswle letters dra11111 witlr a
"s/a111ed" pe11 ca11 lea11.fom1ard sligl1tly; in
a diagonal axis
rhisfonn the a, f, and g differ from rlre lralic
(pp. 94-95) in that thq are unlinked
2
T1re first stroke
of tire r can
ternrinate witlr
irtumed foo t
"Slanted"
letters
Tire tail of the g differentiates tire
feller from its Italic counterpart
(pp. 96-97)
93
I T!IL/i1N &_H UMllNIST SCRIPTS
Italic
1'\ IT Italic script (Chancer y Cursive, Cancellaresca
BA IC FORM,
1
I TALIC A
The lcalic a,
Corsiva, Littera di Brevi) is a cursive offspring of the Humanist with its full)
formed bowl,
Minuscule (pp. 90 91) . Over time, it became a distinctive is che earliest
hand in its own right, spawning, in turn, the Copperplate ancestor of our
modem lower-
(pp. 102- 103). The script was invented in 1420 by iccolo case teeter a.
TRl-.;A7ISI; OS 1-lAll'KlSG
This page from a work by che Italian scholar
Francesco Moro was penned in abouc 1560-70
and consists mainly of alphabets and texts in
different hands. At the top, in gold, are two lines
of Cadcls (pp. 80-8 1). 13eneath the blue border
are the Italics, fully separated and ge nerously
spaced. The mi nuscule hand is a fom1aca,
identifiable by the wedge-shaped ascender serifs.
Four lines ofTcxtura Quadraca (pp. 50-5'/)
follow and , below rhc green border, rhere are
several lines of Human ist Minuscule (pp. 90-9 /).
94
I TALIC
- -- -
SK.RI FT J(i\]ALOC
----
SA1VR1V/I LIA
This fine Ital ic script was written by Ambrosius
The long ascenders and descenders have Theodosius M acrobi us in 1465. Each letter is
presented a problemfor ihe scribe where clearly defined, reminiscent both of the Humanist
they clash in the interlinear space M inuscule (pp. 90-91) and the earlier Caroline
Mi nuscule (pp. 38-39'). T he capitals are small and
In this lialic text, the calligrapher has restrained compared with those by Moro (opposite).
included bothjormaia and corsiva
ascenders; this 1is the corsi va type
95
} TALUN &_HUAIANIST 5 CRll'TS
lr 2
Formata Corsiva
baseline. All connecting
form of d form of d
strokes follow these
basic rules.
Kl
- The rop loop ~ -
of the e w 11 be A ro11g11e ca11 b_e
Ascenders and descenders drawn as a added wlren tire e is
711is wedge can be lite same lieiglit as
serif , drau111 _ __ Separa le Strok•• _ _ at tire end of a word
tlte minims or sliglttly sl1orter
in tu'O strokes,
is <0111mo11 in
modem 1vork
Witlto11ttltt
crossbar, the f
becomes tire
lo11g fomr ofs
corsiva serif
creates bold
ascenders
A ltematively,
tire descender
Serifs oftltt g ca11
SerifS can be wedge-shaped and left-facing (fonnata) or ttmrinatt with
right-facing (corsiva). On leners b, d, h, k, and I in the a suwh
Step-by-step o alphabet (right), both fonnata and corsiva cypes are shown. (above lcli)
Altematively, tire
seco11d foot of tire
h c1111 termi11ate
witlr aflick
_(above left)
•
J_
1. To create the o in 2 . Maintaining the 3 . Push the pen
a single stroke, use an 40° pen angle, curve towards the headline in
angle of 40°. Begin just the stroke downwards an arc, meeting the top
below the headline and towards the baseline, curve just below the
push the pen upwards before moving along the headline. Alternatively,
to the headline, before baseline and beginning draw the letter in two
curving down to the left. to curve upwards. strokes (opposite).
96
i TALJC
_u- _-_-lhJJi; -
Formata Corsiva
form o f / form of /
Th•fi•• , ...:~Ii~I
the w <a11 begin,
'
like tl1e u, witl1
-
3
\11·--- --
a 111tdge serif
97
/ T, IL/,1.\' &._HIJ.11A N IST SCRIPTS
H
Humanist & Italic Capitals
UMANIST CAPITALS ARE closely modelled on Roman Imperial
Capitals (pp. I I 0- 1I9) and can be used with the Caroline
Minuscule (pp. -10-J I ) and Foundational Hand (pp. 44-45), as
A
B
well as with Humanist Minuscules (pp. 92- 93). A pen angle of
30° is most likely to produce letters with a similar stroke weight
to the stone-cut Roman originals. Italic Capitals are based on
the Humanist letterforms but have a distinctive for\vard lean.
There are Yarious possible serif formations (below), and any 2
of these can be used on either type of capital. 2
c
Twist the pe11 to
the wrriral to
draw the serifof
the C (see left
H11111anist and lralir fo r altemativt
Capitals slro11/d 11ever methods)
exceed rlie eq11ivale111
of /lvo 111i11i111s i11 lreigl1t
Pen nibs 4
The same pen nib should be used for capitals as is used
for the minuscules that they accompany. The serifs
can be drawn with th e pen at a slightly shallower
angle than that used for the main stem strokes.
=+
2
- 3
i)- ) f l
Arm serifs Alternative serifs ---- 2
Twist the pe11 to
tl1e verti(JJI to
draw the top mif
G <l
Draw che anns of E and F and the Alternatively. the top left serif can of the G (see ldi
cop cun·es of C. C, and S in a single simply be the beginning of the seem - - for altematfrt
scroke and, if desired, build up che stroke and the right serif can be 111erl1ods)
3
two serifs wich the corner of the nib. created with a slight flick co the left.
-- 2 5
/
ill11er
fillet
H -l --
3
IJ
Basic foot serif Bracketed serif Inner fillet
Create the basic foot serif Altemarivelv, finish the A third option is 10 draw 71it /mer J ra11 drop
seem stroke ~vith a sweep the basic foot serif (left) below the baselint
by extending the seem
10 che lefr and finishing to the right and add the and add the inner filler
wich a baseline stroke. left serif separately. with a short cu rve.
-......:::__,,
2
98
H UMANIST &_ITA LIC CAPITALS
K ~ative ru_
~'
T
1 T71e top arm of
rlre K call be
dra1111l 111itlr a
straight stroke
----
arm
2
3
L -
--
2
7
M £' t--
T11e second Tire first diagollal
stroke of tire of tire V <arr be a
Mcall be straight stroke
straight
--
2
- 4
x , x- 5
p 2
111efirst diagollal
stroke of the Y
can be straight
---
Italic Capitals
2
The first alternative E shows bracketed serifs
T111ist the pen to the
at tire top and bottom of the letter, and tire
vertical to draw the
second shows a straight stem and straight amrs
serif of the S (see
opposite for Two alternative
alten!ativ~ metji_od~- forms of E
3
99
n11111.v &..Hu111AN1sT ScR1r rs
two Sfparate
r11rved strokes
i11
JOO
I TALIC SM~I S/-/ CAPnitlS
ff,.
2
1 ~
[ ,_, efT11efi11al
tire L canstroke
drop
below the baseline
__O 2
T11e rail of the
X exrends be/ou1
rhe baseline and
ren11i11ates with
a swaslr
flt~)~ ~
is looped and
3 exre11ds w the
-- -
Lt/
!
'n• fM<ofd" P
can be omitted
ri,elrt ~( tire lerter
__ _/J___ =4 ---
-~-s
s Alternative B Alternative E
Upright Swash Capitals, s11d1 as
this B and E, ca11 rep/are ltalir
Capitals (pp. 98-99) i11 ltalir text
101
POST- R ENA ISSANCE SCRJPTS
Copperplate
I\ LTHOUGH TH E I TALIC script began life as a quickly
fl. penned, cursive version of the Humanist Minuscule,
by the beginnjng of the 16th century it had become a
formal script in its own right with a correspondingly
slower ductus (pp. 94-95) . In 1574, an instruction manual
for Italic script was printed from text that had been
engraved on sheets of copper with a pointed tool known
as a burin. The hand developed for this new engraving COPPERPLATE CAPITAL 8
The stem efrhe Although written to the sarhe stroke
method, combined with the narrower pen and slanted Coppuplore Cop110/ thickness as the minims, Copperplate
usually iermmates Capitals tend to be relatively large
writing angle that scribes had begun to favour, led to the with a blob (pp. 106- '/07). The degree of
expansion or contraction should
emergence of a new handwritten script: Copp erplate. closely echo that of the minim.
WALPURGIS IGHT
This handwritten text of a poem by the artist
Richard Dadd dates from abo ut 1840. The letters
closely follow the approved "school" hand of
the period: th e minims are small, ascenders are
relatively large and unlooped, and the hand is
written at the very steep angle of nearly 40°.
102
COPPERPLATE
"COMMAND OF HAND"
In order ro maintain their sta tus as teachers,
the 18th-century writing masters often
produced a series of virtuoso calligraphic
perfonnances that were each known as The strokes cross each
"striking" or "command of hand", in whic h other at the most acute Copperpla te in edu cation
increasingly complex baroque flourishes were angle possible The adoption of Copperp late script
produced without the removal of pen from
paper. This ornate work is one such example. The loops, drawn to varying sizes, would
occur red remarkably rapidly, a
have been carefullj• planned in advance phenomenon owing par tly to the role
in education of the writing master.
COPPERPLATE WORKSHOP
In letterpress printing, the raised In the past, writing skills had been
surface of the type is inked and taught by univer sity academics, but,
im pressed on to paper. In copperplate
(intaglio) printing, this process is by the late 17th century, incr easing
reversed. Ink is applied to the liter acy and the demands of business
inscribed surface and wiped from the
face of the plate. Dampened paper is cr eated the need for a teacher who
then pressed o nto the plate, picki ng taught \¥riting exclusively. Examples
up th e in k from the recesses. In this
engraving, we can sec the paper of writing master s' work were
being forced onto the pla te, while, reproduced by copperplate
in the background, printed sheers
are drying on the racks. engraving, and schoolbook manuals
began to super sede the elegant
writing manuals - such as The
Un iversal Penman - that had
previously been widely favoured .
Technical skill
By the 19th century, Copperplate was
the standard school hand in Europe
and the United States of America,
and stude nts were judged as much
on writing technique as the content
of their wor k. T his emphasis on
technical skill lasted well into the
20th century, when the Copper plate
pen was usurped by the ball -point
pen , typewriter, and word processor.
103
POST- R ENA ISSANCE S CRIPTS
Copperplate
T HI ELl·GANT SCRIPT is probably the most cursive of all hands.
Most letters can be written in one stroke and there arc few
pen lifts between letters. Minims can be slightly compressed and
--a 111e bou4 of t/1e
a i.< euclosed
~oo
~
~
~ 111e fonvard lean of tire
Copperplate letter is
about 30°
Tool selection
Always use a pointed
(} re TI1e asce11der
of tired is
11ot looped
mb for Copperplate
letters. A flexible TI1e bowl of tire
drawing nib or purpose- d is enclosed
made Copperplate nib
will ensure the best
vanation of thick and
e
thin strokes.
Hll1e11 strokes 01~rlap, keep tire pm a11gle 111e lower loop of tire
r
as close to 90° as the script will allow f ca11 altematively be
draw11 to the right of
Adjusting the p ressure
The pressure is adjusted twice o n the
average mmim stroke. Dcgm with a
gentle pressure to produce a fine line,
u the stem
104
COPPERPLATE
t
open or enclosed_
The ascender of
the I can be looped
~ ?t
?) ·/JJ ti_.
(if The rnp loop of tire v
can be open or enclosed
1i//~~'~
Tire full r has two
105
POST- RENA ISSA NCE S CR1PTS
Copperplate Capitals
J\ MONGST THE MORE useful practical advice offered in the
f"\ Copperplate manuals of the 19th century (pp. 102- 103)
is this tip from writing masters James Lewis and Joseph
Carstairs: "The writing hand should be lightly supported by the
tip of the little finger and the forearm free to move in a circular
movement''. This can very helpfully be applied to the drawing
of Copperplate Capitals, a script in which the precise control
of pressure on the pen is central to the execution of each letter.
Capitals
and minuscules
Never use Copperplate
Capitals to write a whole
word. Where several
capitals have to be used,
such as for initials, plan
the letters VCI)' carefully.
When used to begin
a word (pp. 104-105),
the feamres of the
Copperplate Capital Here, tire rail ef tire L temri11ati11g a
can be adapted to lras beerr e/011gated a11d stroke, fi11islr 1vitlr a
complement the lowered ro compleme11t lrairli11e or apply press11re
minuscules. tire minuscule letters 011 tire pen to leave a blob
106
COPPERPLATE CAPITALS
~
1
~;:
v 1 r ~
2-- 1c237_5b789-
Arabic numerals Arabic numerals l1an11011ize with Copperplate
scripts better than Roman n11merals
107
R O.If.I\ &_LATE R 0 ,11.rl , . SCRJPTS
Imperial Capitals
(Capitalis Monumentalis) I he proporuons ef Diirer's lct1er A ore
T l IE IMPERIAL CAPITAL
was the letter used on the monuments of
Ancient Rome to proclaim the might of the
based on a subdinded <quare, 1111h the
<er!ft based on compass-dra,..n circles
108
I MPER/11/ C tP/7,1 / s
\I ] l 1
\El ll'll \.r\ \/\
THE TRAJAN COLU.'1 The Imm on chc cop /me ore Father Catich
I he /mer .\, like the:'\
This mscnpuon on the base of the Trajan 11 5 e<ncm~res (-1 • mchl'S) anJ .\I, has a pomtcd
incc the Renaissance, Imperial
Column 111 Rome. cue in A.D. 112-3, I'> 2.74 h19h. reJucm9 to 9.6 ape'- "form c!f lmperral
metre'> (9 feet) wide and 1. 15 merres (3 feet crn11merrts (3' r, mches) on Capital le tter ha,·e been tudicd,
<.upual more J1Uiculr to
9 inche'>) high. The inscription, commemoraung the bottom /me probdblJ con1truc1 chan the
analyzed, imprO\·ed, and recreated by
J J
che battles ofTraJ,lll against Gem1any and Daci,1. rnJicatrn9 the relatne rommon scr!f£J orj1a1-
begim w ith the phrase ··sES ATl!'. POPVLl'S 1mporwnce ef che worJ, countless scholars and calligrapher .
hcm/c,/ le11er ( p. 113)
Q VER Oi\IANVS'"(''The Senate and People of However, it is only through the
R o me"). T he ktte rs were originally colo ured T H E AR CI I 0 1· CON~ I AN I INE
red so that they would stand o ut from the T his monument da tes fro m A. ll. 315. som e 200 pioneer ing work of a modern scholar,
background. W ords are sepa rated by a m edial years after the T rajan Column (11b1we). In som e the late Fathe r E.M. Catich, that \\'C
inrcr-pmnr and the horizontal stroke over ways, ic marks che dcgcncranon of R ome, since
can now fullv understand the ductu
cercam letters indicates their use as numeral\. many of the statue~ .md rehcf, on the column J
ha\'C been scavenged from earlier work. The of the hand. His analvsis of Ro man
J
letters are square-cue 111 shallow relief. letter construction was demo n tratcd
The 1<orJs '°'11 :'\ AT\'S POP\'L\ ' Originally. the groove~ would have housed
QVERO.\I A:-.; \ ''> • haie been abbreviareJ to bronze letters - the circul.ir fixmg holes can on 19 le tters of the alphabet in his
. P. Q. R ... unJ r<le9ateJ to the second /me still be seen 1m1<le c.1ch letter. de finitive \\'Ork, The Origin if the Serif,
published in 1968. These methods
arc interpreted for all 26 letters in
the fol lowing pages (pp. 110 119).
Spon taneous let ters
The g reat strength and beauty of
the Imperial Capital lie in the fact
that the le tter can be written "ith
spontane ity, the tool and hand
determining the form, and one letter
part re lating naturally to the next.
In much modern work, excessive
pre-planning can have the effect of
making the le tters appear laboured.
H oweve r, the methods explained in
~~~ ~·the foll o wing pages will enable the
mode rn scribe to work in the ame
way as his o r her Roman forebears
J
109
ROMAN &_ L ATE R OMAN S CRIPTS
11 0
IMPERIAi CAPITALS : B RUS /I STROKES
1. To create the top right serif 2. Continue moving che brush 3. Continue to rotate che brush on
of C, E, F, C, S, and T, hold the horizontally, mainuinmg the angle of its left corner until the edge is 90° co
brush in an upright position and 30° until the brush approaches che end the arm. Finally, move it downwards
begin the horizontal stroke with of the arm. Ac this poim, begin to slightly and "edge ofI", gemly lifting
Bottom arm and right the brush edge on the letter at 30°. ro tate the brush on its right corner. the brush from the surface.
serif on C, E, L, and Z
Bottom serif
on S
Tire a11gle of
the bmsl1 edge
011 the letter is
about 150°
1. To create the bottom am1 and right 2. On reaching the end of the stroke, 1. The bottom serif of the Sis the 2. Twirl the brush co 30° and curve to
serif on C, £, L, and Z, begin with the r.vi rl the brush co the vertical, then only bottom serif on the left side the right and upwards. Work carefully,
angle of the brush edge on che letter move upwards and edge off, finishing of a letter. Begin at the tip of the for the first part of the stroke will be
at about I 50°, and move co the right. on the lefr comer of the brush. serif, moving the brush downwards. obscured by your hand.
~.,.,,..,,..
Straight and curved •
" manipulated" strokes
~,,.
serif - used 011/y 011 S
bottom am1 ofE, L, a11d Z ~.
111
ROMAN &_LATE ROMAN S CRIPTS
011c.•11·111wi1l1lr
Five siem
111id1/is
Six s11•111 Seven stem
111id1lrs
Ni11es1c111
111id1lrs
Nine s1e111
a!~~~~!~~~~;:~i~s:~i~~~~::~.~~~~
9.5 $/c'll/
1mltl1s
F P Z
L TD RC 0 W the fourth . The frequently changing
brush angles are represented by a
s ,",,,I....··~"',., CT
Gu
Letter weight
v
le i' generally a~sumcd
elm the weight - the
Letter proportions
rclatio111hip between
When writing a series of Imperial Capitals, it is
item width and stem
height - of the Trajan frc>111twolsjoi1~ essential to kn ow the relative width of one Imperial
J
Capi rnl to another. The width of a letter - including
letter i1 I0: I. A balance
serifs - is measured in stem widths. T he apparent
y
of 11: I is generally
comidcred acceprablc, discrepancy in weight between rounded and straight
although the acmal letters is optical: rounder letters appear lighter than
letter weight is straight ones. To our modern eyes, this can be
JbOUI 9.5: I. 111r.fille1/ir111'1'en 1/ie _ ] ( displeasing and the effect is "corrected" by the
serif 1111d Siem of <111 addition of extra weight to the curved strokes.
lmp;·nal C111111,1I ""' lie Arguably. the original weight differences give the
sl\~luly f111/er tlia11 1/1is Imperial inscriptions a more natural rhythm than
that achie,•ed in more formal modern work.
Numerals
Although Arabic numerals were not
imroduced into Europe until the
13th cemury, avoiding their use in
fa,·our of Roman numerals can be an
mcumbrance in modern calligraphy.
Ar,1bic numerals can be drawn using
1"234 5678 9 0
Stroke order
for numerals 2
a similar ducms to the Impenal
12 3
Capital letters and can be contained
within the capital height. The 0 is
usually a narrow numeral, bur if
u~ed singly, it can be made wider, J
rcmnbling a letter 0 (p. 116).
112
I MPERIAL CAPITALS : C ONSTRUCT/Of\'
A
Fla1-headed A Serifed A
ran be filled
efrer 1/ri• /mer
is co111ple1ed
Imperial Capita] A
Al1hough most Roman .rls were flat-
headed, all of the .rls on the Trajan
mscnpnon (pp. I 08- I 09) are pointed.
When building che pointed serif. it is
essemial co draw che apex first. You will
In modem ll'l>rk, 1/1t rrossbar norice rhar a small gap is left between
~( 1/1r A rends t<> ht' posi1io11ed che fim and the second strokes.
lc•u'Cr 1ha11 1/1is Hi\lorically. on stone-cue lcrcers. chi~
gap could be cradicaced with a
771t' 11:(1 ft)! I.\ chisel. For the brush-drawn
11/wcl)'.<ll1i1111cr letter. the gap can be left
rh1111 1/1c r(~/11 lc)! as it is or it can b~ filled
·in \\~th the brush.
Ill p11s1-l~mnissmue limes, n11 The 1hird srrokt' 1if the A '""
i1111er seri( was i11d11derl 011 1/ie a/11•m111i11cly be dr111m1 as a
~~111 I~~ ·~r 1/11· A - rhis is cm11i111wrio11 <f the first stroke
0111i11ed i11 modem u~>rk
.. ,
T11•is1 1he lm1sh from 30°
o 90° w draw the 1op
erif1if 1he C
Imperial Capital C
The cop and bortom rrokes of the
Care pulled Out horizontally and do
not CUr\'C inwards. The rwo serifed
The axi.< cif 1/1e left ef , T11m tire lm1.1h cll'ff 1111d 111•1s1 arms arc very similar in comtruction
till' cir< i.1 bdo111 the fmm 150° le• 1h1• 1•e111<c1l 1<> co those on chc E (p. 114). wh teh
hori::o111al _ _ _ _ _ _ __,,..
dr11w1/1c /1111111111.<1•r!( ~ should be used as a model. The onh·
difference is that the arms on rhe c'
arc cun·ed, not straight. R eml'mbcr
~
~-·~t
to rum the brush over to 150° for
the boccom stroke .
113
ROMAN &..LATE R OMA SCRJPTS
11re L is co11stnutedfrom
tire stem a11d foot of tire E
Imperial Capital G
For practical purposes, the G is th e
C (p. 11J) combined with the upper
half of the stem of the I (p. 115).
The top serif is a manipulated stroke
similar to the top arm of E (above).
114
IMPERIAL CA PITALS: CONSTRUCTION
Imperial
Capitals H, I , and j
The H, I, and J arc very
alike in their basic form.
As a modem letterform,
the J can be partly your
own invention - for
instance, the tail can be
extended and edged off
with a fine hairline stroke.
The I is the basis for all the
serifed, stemmed lette~
in the hand. Th~ H is
constructed from two /s.
Imperial Capital K
The ann and leg of the K connect to
the stem with a point. It is acceptable
to leave a small gap between am1
and lcgjuncmre and the stem. This 1s
preferable to connecting the leg to a
point on the lengch of the an11. Alter
the angle of the brush o n the third
stro ke to finish at the horizomal.
Imperial Capital M
Although mon: commonly
flat-to pped. the pointed
,\,f is used on rhe Trajan
inscription. The first and
second strokes of rhe .\! arc
always rhe thickest. and the
third and fourth always the
thinnest. In classic usage.
the first and last le~ incline
inwards, but never as steeply
as rhe inner V (p. I I If).
II S
ROMA &_LATE R 0 111A1\· CAPITALS
lmperial Capital N
Tirt gap be1t1'tt11 tire The first and last I~ of
serif a11d tire top of the !\'arc slightly thinner
tire secoi1d stroke carr than the diagonal stroke;
be filled after tire /e11er in modern work, they
is completed are often drawn as thinly
as the crossbar of the A
(p. 11 J). Note the slight
curve at the bottom of
the diagonal, caused by
sweeping the brush from
T11m tire bnislr to the diagonal to the vertical.
firrislr at tire vertical - - - - 'w r T he N can be drawn either
nat-roppcd or serifed.
Imperial Capitals
0 and Q
The same ductus is used for
Tire axis of1/re the bowl of the Q as for the
riglrt arc is above key lertcr 0. The srress of
tire lrorizo11tal - - - - each letter is below centre
left and above centre right,
creating a diagonal axis that
is compatible with the
natural sweep of the wrist.
The tail of the Q sweeps
well below the baseline
and, because of its frequent
occurrence in Latin text.
attractively breaks the
formalfry of an otherwise
bilinear script.
Imperial Capital P
Although the bowl of the P appears ro
be smaller than that on the corresponding
letter R, they are, in f.ict, the same size.
The illusion is caused by the absence
rrot join tire stem of the connecting stroke to the
stem of the P. In modern usage, a
connecting bar is often added, and
in cype it nearly always is. The bowl
finishes just below the centre line.
116
IMPERJAL CAPITALS: CONS TRUCTION
3
T1111sr the brush from 30°
~~ ( to 90° to complete the serif
4 Imperial Capital S
The curved strokes of the S often
present a rather awesome prospect co the
beginner. In fuct, once the £has been
mastered (p. 1'14), the S should no t prove
difficult. The Trajan S has a forward lean.
Co111menre 111 the which slightly interferes with the Oow of
tip of serif, twist rl1e the script. The tail serif is the only part
brush backwards, of the lette r that may require additional
and pull ir along practice. It is the only arm serif that is
the baseline constru cted tip first, and aggravated
by the hand obscuring the first stroke.
For th is reason, it is essential to draw
the tail of the serif as the second stroke,
while the hand "remembers" where
the first stroke finished.
2
...,r-'J
Tlie righr arm of rite T is
exactly rl1e same as rl1e top
arm of the E (p. I 14)
Imperial Capital T
The cross stroke of the Tis an extremely
elegant shape w ith subtle changes of
angle between serifs, and a gradual
swelling of the arm leading into and
away from the serifs. The arm starts
with a slight downwards movement
with the edge of the brush twisting
back to 30° before moving along the
arm and finishing at 90°. On an
inscription, the initial j uncture
would be filled in by the chisel.
117
ROMAN &_LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS
Imperial Capital U
In Latin. the character
V was used to represem
boch U and fl sounds.
In medie\·al scripcs. the
fl often cook the forn1
of a {.; :by abouc the 1-tch
cemury the cwo lecccrs
were differenriaccd and
used separacely. le is a
maner of personal opinion
as co whac cxtcm chc
Imperial Capical scripc
should be ada pced. to
languages ocher chan Larin.
771e bot10111 serf( of 1'1e U A I 1/w rttd 1?( '"" Sl'(Olld strokt',
rn11 be c>111i11ed, 111i1lt 1/11• s111C'ep 1/11• br11slt ro 1/11' r·(~ltt ,,,,d
curve sweepi11,~ up 10 meei r~~1· •?0.wi1lt <l Jf11r stroke
1/re ri.J!lll 11er1icnl mokc
Imperial Capital V
The first stroke of che I' begins in
the same way as a \'ertical scroke and
finishes wich che apex of an .\/. The:
change of brush angle.' is rdlccccd in
che slight turn at the bottom of the
Sl(~lttly t111is1 1/1e bms/1 '" stroke. The V can end in a Aat base
Jl11islr 111 t/1e llll.J!le c>f 1he when used wich flat-headed A . .\/,
seco11d stroke _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___..,
and !\', brn make sure this base is no
wider than the thin stroke.
6 7
Imperial
made 11arro11't'r by Capital W
repla<i11,1~ the crossed The lercer II' firsc
ce111re strokes with a appeared in che I lch
si11,11/e poi1111•d apex cemury. In principle,
it is compmcd of
two Vs, which can
either cross one
anocher or join in
a single apex in th e
centre of the lem.:r.
118
IMPERIAL CAPITALS: C ONSTRUCTION
Imperial Capital X
The letter X appears wich relacivc
frequency in Latin inscriptions, used as
a numeral to represent I 0. The slope
is more inclined than that of the A
and ideally, the cop v-shape should be
smaller than the boccom one co make
the letter optically correct - balanced
and not cop heavy. There is no senf
on the right inner leg.
Imperial Capital Y
The letter Y was used by the Romans
for words of Greek derivation, and 11
appears only occasionally in Larin
inscriptions. This construction is
based on a Greek inscription of
the letter Upsilon. It is also correct
to include an inner serif, as on the
letter X (above).
Imperial Capital Z
thicker tlra11 111ost dia,~01111/
The Z is an interesting construction,
strokes ;,, tire srript
which combines the cop arm of the
T and the bottom arm of the £,
separated by an awkward diagonal
stroke - awkward in the sense that a
T11m the bnish over and twist stroke moving to the left is naturally
from 150° to 90° to draw the thin (see A, p. 113). However, a thin
bouom stroke stroke would make che letter appear
inordinately light, and so the brush
is held near to the horizontal to
create a thick diagonal.
119
SCRIPT R 1-11·Rt.sc1:. Cn i RT
a b c d e J: Cf h l
I l.1lfU11odl k. l m N 0
a b G lJ e t: b h 1 J F- l m
lmul.1r
IN\Ul r\R & Majmcuk l-1 0
NA I ION1\I
b c 0 e- 3 h 1 ~ L m
SCRl l'I'> ill'lll.ir
d Minu,cule tJ 0
CAROLIN!
&: EAR!'
b c d e f g h t
C.1rol11H"
M111mcuk ~ k L m n 0
a b (, d c f s b t
GOJlll(
SCRI PT\
EJrh·
Cotlu~ k. 1 tn n 0
a b r b c f g h 1 J k I m n
/ /
I t·xwr.1
Qu.1dr.u.1
0
a b c b c f g h 1 J
Tcxtur.1
l'rt·,ci>m
/
h r m n 0
f m n 0
~ 4' <C lP f q: '5 VJ J 'l {l !, 2lt ~t <D
U.1,t.ml
C.1pit.1I'
13.lt.mle (l; l3
~ 6
c 8 c f ~ 6 {; J
b t f £L 6 t• J' K,
"/ [ Tf{; n 0
1 itt ti 0
Fr.1ktur
a b c b " f g b 1
• .
~ l m n 0
" '
Roru11c.l.1
11:\11 ·" &
HU\11\Nl\l
Roru11c.l.1
C.1p1tal, AI; & 1' £f ~ £:J 1 '] 1!t ( ~ lf? e
StRll'I\
. .
I Iu 111.111 i't
a b c d e f g h l J k L m n 0
Millll\Cllk
. .
lt,1lic a b c d {, f g 6 l J k L m n 0
1111111.1111\t
C.1p11.11, A B c D E F G H I J K L M N 0
.
l'O\ I - ( opp<'rpl.m:
RL' \I\'·"( I
{)/t (} d e d ff i 71 J/ f t m n {Y
&f 91 ~ BJ 0 g;;g 8-C J J 8C ~ J!£ c/f/&
S< Rll'I\
( :oppt•q1l.1t<:
C1pit,1J,
120
SCJHl'T R t.FER/ \Cf- CHART
p q R s T u x J ~
I arm •emon of the <.reek Unnal 1111h ruJ1mcmar,1
""cnJcrsanJJe>ecnJa,: 111<CJ/>,1 thecar!1 (hTl'tr..m Church
p Q R. s T y x z
y I c1tc Romon cop11al1 re'"" d for non Chm11un Je /me
m<Jnthcr1pH; a 111nc (Qnu11mn9 letter"' t>.:n
( z u ?C y z
t>/ lJncwl mcorp<JTUtwH d't<1..·nJcrs anJ
p q r I more cunire /Orm
Jc~cnJen: the lctttr/<lfllh <Jrc the bd\h ,,/ mmu\f. ulc /euen
E 1 fZ ( -r; u r ,., I
( unHe.form '!{the lnw!t1r .11ajuMulc ll"tt.•tl /Clr cl<1Cumentw)
u,>rk: conrmucJ to />c u1d m lrclanJ rnro rhe .!0th ccnw~1
.
p q 1 5 ( r: u x y z RcfornicJ llol/ ll11<tcJI: Nc1bf,.heJ h<1nJ c>/ thc lrunfoh
l.mp1rc: the m,,J,.J {<>r I jth ·rcnm~1 H11mc1n11t 1/muxu/c
.t
(ompre\.\eJ 1·cn1on
JJ q r g f t u (J w 1 J1 l
r 11!!1 compre1u·d <.c•thtc l<ttcr_fr,>m the ,·.ir£1 13th
u•mur:,1: charcJdt"Tl/eJ ~1 J111monJ urmmJ/\ ,,/ mm11m
•
p q r g f r u v w J J1 l
/ 11 m ""P' o/ 1hc <)J1<1drat<1: cha((ICtCrl/ccl I>) .flat f'ccr
c>n mm11m: l.hCJ /Or ptc!\l tJJ<! mumtfcr1p1 ll'r.'lfk
Ji) a
1t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3f 1lj r •lc«,mf'Z'!) m9 <tip1t<J/, ,,,, I cuura nunuw ul.."'
-P q r 5
f t u g ~~ 1'• a I <un11 c Goth1t 'c "/ll mcJ on~1.Jor 'crn11c ulc.1r i.1nJ
Jt'<.Umcntar,,1 nork
~ ~ '!{_ 6 ~ 'V ~ ~ ~ ~
'
(c1p11c1/ ft'llcr> med 1111h l>cnwrJ mmu1<1t/l'1, m<luJm9
ti><"< m rhc llJt,trdc <111cl hakwr h<1n1l1
v q t' ..S
,.f
t 11' l} w l'
I
~
(1rrmdn, ldteftd,tdrJ "'"P' nuh '"'"!.' Tt•\lutd /.:uturo: n11h
\chuubachcr, 11 rem<1m,-.I m u>c unrrl the m1J .!0th c<nlUf)
p q r s [ t u w x y
v z Rc11cms<1nce hand mf111cncccl b; the Carulmc l/11Jll\C11le:
thf lcttcrfornh arc the ~l\l\ for
mufh mod1..•rn rnmm9 ~l.,Je
p q r s f t u v w ~ y ~
(u!'HC form cfthr llumcJm\t llmu,,u/t. ,,,,.J m
m,,Jcrn t}pe.for tt\I In fWTCnthrs1l anJ annt1tolltm
p Q R
----
5 T u v w x v-2J . laompan) m9 ((Jp1tt1!\ for I lumam't ancl l1e1/n
mm111culcs: pcn-dre111n ,fm>cltlCC> o/ lmp<'rtc1! C<1f>11<1/,
jJ rt v ,J
I t iv ~ w z,
JI ;;·
I \lrcmc.fom1 of <llr,1H• "'"f' n11h llk.l\t J..·11...·r, lmkt.·J:
Jmc cJ from lta/1, anJ mfl11l'll(eJ b) «'f'/"''1'/~tc <'ngr•JC mg
Ill
GLOSSARY
Ampersand The character & denoting the lower than the ascender line. Expanded letter A style of
word "and". lettering in which the characters
Capsa A container for storin g and inter-letter spaces arc wider
Anthropomorphic decoration A style of scrolls. ( than is usual.
letter decoration that incorporates imagery of
Compressed letter A style of /-/airlines are draivn with the Filigree Elaborate decoration
human forms.
corner ef the pen nib and eftcn in the fonn of fine, curved lines.
lettering in which the characters
taperfrom a thicker stroke
Ap ex The pointed tip of a letter, as in A. and inter-letter spaces are
narrower than is usual. Fille t The name given co the
Arch The portion of a lower-case letter filled angle that is forn1ed between a stroke and
formed by a curved stroke springing from the Conjoined A ccm1 used to describe letters its serif.
stem, as in Ir and 11. that are joined together.
Floriated Decorated with images offlqwers.
Arm A horizontal stroke to uching the letter Copperplate An extremely slanted script with
at only one end, as in E and F. distinctive flourishes chat developed from letter Folio A leaf of a manuscript. Also refers co the
engraving on thin plates page n um ber.
Ascender The upper of copper.
srem of a lower-case Fret patte rns Ornamental designs that can
letter, as in /1. d. and k. Counter Any space be used to fom1 the border of a page or can be
within a letter, either fully woven into the text. The simplest fret patterns
Ascender lin e A or partially enclosed. arc composed solely of scraighc lines.
writing line to which the
upper tcms oflctters rise. C rossbar The G il d ing The application of gold leaf co the
horizontal stroke on a wriring surface.
Axis In Roman Imperial letter, as in t and H. Also
Capitals. this is the known as the "bar". Gothic sc ripts The generic term for hands
imaginary line that passes written between about 1200 and 1500.
through the thickest points Cross stroke A
of a lctccr. Also known as horizontal mark essential Gouache Watercolour mixed w ith a type
the "stn:ss" of the letter. Cadels are ornate Gothic Copitol leuers
co the letter, made eith er of c halk co achieve an opaque effect.
from left to right or right
that were 0T19inally used 11·t1h basrard texr scrlp1s
Baseline The writing to left, such as on the H airlin e A fine line used co link letters,
line on which the main letters E. F, and T. tenninatc strokes, fill large counrers, and
body of the lercer sirs. decorate letters.
C ursive A rapid fom1 of '''riring, using
Bastard script A Golhic script of mixed clements such as linking and loops. Half r A fom1 of the letter r, the spine of
Texcura and cursive elements. which is provided by the previous letter.
De lux e A cenn used to describe the highest
Bilinear The tern1 used co describe a script grade of manuscript writing. Headline The line to which the uppem1ost
that is writte11 between. and adhering to, two point of a letter - excluding its ascenders or
im agi nary writing lines. Descender The lower stems ofletters suc h as descenders - rises. Also known as the "waistline".
p, q, andf
Blac k Letter See Textura. " Hierarchy of scripts" The name given co
Descender line The line on which a letter's th e code of practice whereby different scriprs
Bookhand The generic term for scriprs used descender should rest.
in books before the age of printing. Bookhands
include Uncial and Caroline Minuscule. D isplay capitals Decorated capitals
used in the introductory word or
Bowl The curved stroke arcached co the letter words of a cex't but not singly as vcrsals.
seem chat creates an enclosed space (counter), a~
in letters b. d. and g. Also known as "bow". Downstroke A stroke chat is
directed downwards.
Bracketed serif A type of serif that forms a
fil let with the stroke of a letter. Duc tus The directio n and order of
the strokes used to constru ct a letter.
Built-up letters Letters chat are o utlined and
Ira/re scrip1 is characterized by linked lmers
filled, or constructed a sectio n at a time. Ear A small stroke lhat projects from the
with a d1sonc1frejorll'ord slam
top of the letter g.
Burin A pointed cool used in copperplate
engraving. E dge off A term used with reference :o appearing in the same manuscript adhere co a
brush-drawn letters co describe the technique srricc order of use: the most regal hand is used
Cade! An ornare Gothic capital letter of removing the edge of the brush from the for the titles and important details, the next most
consm1cccd from a series of interlacing pen strokes writing surface, with the left corner lifted last. formal script for the first sentence, and so on.
written with the minimum number of pen Iifrs.
Edge on Th e technique of gradua ll y placing Historiated The tenn used co describe initial
Capital heig ht The heigh t of a majusculc the full edge of the brush onto the surface, wi th letters chat are decorated with the h uman figures
(capirnl) letter. the righ t corner touc hing th e surface first. described in the text.
122
GLOSSARY
illu m ination Originally, the tem1 refe rred M ovabl e type Individu al letters made from Stipple To engrave, paint, or write in dots.
only co gilded decoration, but it is now used metal that can be inked and printed in any order.
co desc ribe any fom1 of cexc decoration . " Straight" pen A pen with the nib cut
Palaeo graphy The study of the history of obliquely co the shaft, faci litating che drawi ng of
Insular Originating from the Latin word for handwriting and doc umencs. an upright ste m. When positioned horizontally,
"isla nd". chis tenn is applied by palaeographers it will produce a greater contrast in thick and
co indicate a shared culture between Ireland and P ap yru s The earl iest fom1 of paper, made th in strokes, an effect known as "shading".
northern Britain, free from Continental influence.
Stroke Any straight
Interlace A form of decoration in which lines or curved line that
weave in and out of each oth er. has been penned or
painted.
Inter-letter space The space between
characters. Tail A diagonal line
that connects to th e
Interlinear gloss Words written in the letter at one end, as
interlinear space of the main text co provide a in Qand )'·
commentary o n the text or a translation of its
contents. T erminal A stroke
that does not end with
Int erlinear sp ace The space berwecn the a serif.
baseline of one line of cext and che headline
of the line below it. Text script A script
that is particularly
Italic A Humanist style of writing in which suitable for pages of
che oval-shaped, linked le tters slant co the right. text. owi ng co its
A manuscript is a book or documenr wrillen by hand claricy and lack of
Lead ing m inim The name given to the first decorati on. Also known as
minim of a letter. as in 111 and 11 . from the stem of th e papyrus plant. "body text" or "text hand".
Letterform T he shape of a letter. Parchment A writing su rface made from Textura From the Latin word for " woven",
mammalian ski n, usually sheepski n or goatskin. this is the name given to a style of Gothic sc ript
Liga ture The linking of letters by one or characterized by dense, compressed characters
more strokes. Quill A writing implement made from the tai l and minimal interli near space.
or wing feather of a bird, such as turkey or goose.
Thom sign The Anglo-Saxon sign resembling
R eed pen A writing tool made from a a y that was used to represent th e "th" sou nd.
hollow-stemmed marsh plant.
U ncial A late R oman script wi th rudimentary
Rom an T he Latin alphabet. T he term is also ascenders. T he name means "inch high".
used to describe any plain, up right letter.
U pper case Sec m ajuscule.
Rubri cated Originating from th e Latin word
ruber for " red", this describes letters in a heading Vellum A cype of writing surface made fro m
I Vhere rhe bowls eflerrers are combined, the or wi thin a passage of text that are colo ured red. calfskin.
le11crs are referred 10 as "conjoined"
Rune Any letter in the ancie11t Gennanic Versa! A built- up ornamental capital letter
Link The stroke chat conneccs the top and alphabet. The characters contain no curved used to open verses and paragraphs.
bottom of th e minuscule g. strokes and very few horizontal strokes.
Lo op The enclosed space in an ascender o r Sable A very fine pointed brush, made from
descender, as in/-!· the tail hairs of the sa ble, a dark-furred arcti c
mammal.
Lo w er case See minuscule.
Serif A short, decorative stroke used co finish off
M ajuscule A bilinear sc ript in which th e the stroke of a letter. Many different types exist,
leccers are of eq ual height. A capital letter. including the bracketed serif and the wedge serif.
Mfoim A downstroke that is as caU as the "Slanted " p en A pen with the nib cut at Waistline See headline.
body height of the script. right angles to the shaft. Held ac an angle, the
position of che nib is "slanted" to the stem. W eight T he rela ti onship of a letter's nib width
Minim height T he heigh t of a minuscule to its heigh t.
letter, excl uding th e ascender and descender. S pur A small projection off a main stroke.
Also known as ·'x height" or "body heigh t". Word space T he amount of space berween
S tem T he main vertical stro ke of a letter. It wo rds.
Minuscule Any non-capital letter. Minuscule ca n be drawn at an angle for a slanted script,
scripts "co ntain letters of uneven height because and can be the main diagonal stroke of th e Zoomorphic decoration A scyle of decoration
of the ascenders and descenders. letter, as in J\I and Z. incorporati ng imagery of an imal forms.
123
818l/OGRAPNY
Bibliography
The Decorated Le//er, JJG. Alexander/Thames and Hudson, London, 1978
The Golde11 Age <if E11glish Ma1111scrip1 Painli11g 1200-1500, Ri chard Marks
and N igel Morgan/Book Club Associates, London, 1981
Tire Book <if Kells, Selected and introduced by Peter Brown/ Thames and
H udson, 1980
711e Arr of Calli)?raplry, Western Europe a11d America, Joyce Irene Whalley/
Bloomsbury Books, London, 1980
Medieval Calligraphy, Its History and Tec/111iq11e, Marc Drogin / George Prior
Associated Publishers Ltd., London, 1980
The Origi11 of 1l1e Serif, Edward M. Catich/ Catich Callery, St. Ambrose
University, Iowa, 1968
Masters of tire Italic Le11er, Kathryn A. Atkins/ Pengui n Press, Lo ndon, 1988
Books of Ho11rs a11d their Ow11ers, John Hartham / Thames and Hudson, 1977
Lettering Old and New, Translated by Dr. W.E. Walz/ Batsford, London,
c.1930
Oma111e111al Alphabets a11d Initials, Alison Harding/ T hames and Hudson, 1983
124
INDEX
125
..
127
A CKXOl l'LEDG.11£1\'TS
College, Dublin p30: ti: Tara Brooch. arional Pages 74-75: Fraktur & Schwabacher
Acknowledgments Museum of Ireland, Dublin; b, tr (detail): Lind11famc
Go1pds f29 COTT Nero DIV f29. BL pJ I: t: MS
p74: d (dr1i1il): M Lat 2° f384 '" 13erhn.
Staacsbiblio1hck 7U Berlin - Prcu6ischer Kuhurbesirz
COTT Nero DIV f5v, 13L; b: C11l111ml Dmm1posi1io11, - Handschriftcnabteilung pp74-75: 11: MS 64/ 35v &
PICTURE CREDITS Denis Brown, 1993 36r. 13ayc rische St.1atsbibliothek, Miinchcn p75: t, r
E,·ery effort has been made io tracc thc coprrighr (derail): Rudolf Koch, Go1pd of Sr. Matthew, 1921,
holder.; and Wt' apologize in ad,·ance for any Pages 34-35: Insular Minuscule OfTenbach / Klin~por-Muscum der S1adt Offenbach
un1111e1111onal omiS\iom. \V,· \\Ould be pleased 10 p34: tr: Lindisfarne Prio11•. photo: Andy W1llia1m: rr am Main
mien 1he appropriall' ackno" led1t111e111 in any (1let.1il): Bede1 Commcntan· on the Book of Prowrb1.
1Ubscquc111 edition of il111 pubhc.mon. MS 819 folio 29/ 130: l><r. iH'I (1/e1ail). b (derail): Roy.ii Pages 80-81: Cadels
2 Axx fl 7 Prayer-book. c 11gli1h Mercian. Bl p35: p80: D54/ 107 fr380 Page de Gard..-, B p81: I: MS
Key: t: cop ii: bonom r: n·ntrc r: ri~ht I: left I (tlrrai/), tr/, lid (tlc111i/): I listori<1 Ealesi11stim Cmis Ashmolean 789 fol. 4v/ 130; Ir: Initial Leiter. Spcedball
A11gforu111COTTT1 ll C I I f5v, 13L; bw 7711· Spirit Textbook 1952. R o11 F. George: br: A11 example of
Abbreviations: o(.\ le11 11.71- end. ll'idsitlr. 11 .1-13 fol 84b, fine initi.111 from a book by Thomas Wc1ron in 1682,
AA: Anriem Art and Arcl1i1,•rture Collenion
DL: 13,. Pcnnission of the 13riti\h Librarv, London i~cproduced by l'ennMion of the Dea11 .111cl Speedball Textbook 1952, R oss F. George
BN: c' Cliche Bibliorh<·qu<' .111onale d~ France. Pam Chapter of Exeter
BO: Thc Bodkian Librm-. Oxford Pages 8-1-85: Rotunda
IK: 11..ona. Rome • Pages 38- 39: Caroline Minuscule p84: b: MS.I .4929- 1866 f.27r Verona A11t1phoncr.
VA: B> Coun.:sy ofilw Board ofTnisrees ofrhe p38: b: Arch. S. Pietro I) 182 fol. 159,., Ba\C1<'1ca11m mid-15th century. VA p85: 1: L.2384- 1910 [203r
V1ctona and Alben Mml'um. I ondon 1)182f159v/ Foto B1hl1otec.1 Vaticana/ IK p39: 1/: Epistle 13ook. lt.1l1.1n 13ook of Hour.;, VA: b: Sheer
Sally-Anne Rca\011: Ir: C'lc111tl Co11cep1io11.<fr1>111 : lb1ll'I', of primed Rotund.1. Author's own copy
Ja cket: Calligraphy by Ca rol Kcn1p back jacket: ii: iii verse. Sheila Wa1c1'\: 11: Moatiev Grandv.11 Bible
Add 4213 f73. BL: Ir: Work1hcer. Author's own ADD/ MS I054(i f25 13-26, UL Pages 90-91: Human ist Minuscule
COJl)': tr: Harl 2904 136. 131 : ff (</1•t,1il): R eid MS 64 f. p90: /J: l~eid MS 64 VA p91: 1: MS L1721 - 1921
33. VA: /1: Historia &r/1•,i,1'1ir<1 Gruis .'11(elon1111, COl '1 Pages 42-43: Foundational Hand f96v-97r. VA: r: MS 186 fol 21r. The Rcciorand
Tlb Cll fk BL p42: l>r. I (derail): I larl 2')04 201v. 13L p43: ti: Fellows of Exl'ter College. Oxford: /I: Petrarch's
Worksheet. Au1hor\ o\\ n copy: tr: Phot0!,'1'.1ph of Annotanon. Auihor's own cop}'
Pages 2- 3 Edward John1ron, I lolhurne Mmeum a11d C:r.ith
p2: Rml MS. 64 f. 33. VA p3: Mctz Ponrifical. early Study Cemre. 13.uh: ii: Ed"ard Johnston\ Wincl1c\ter Pages 94-95: h alic
I.Jth century. MS. 298.f I38v/ h11wi llia111 Mu1eum. Formal Writing Shl'ct C.778. Holbu rn c Mml'tllll .111d p94: b: MS LI 485- 1946 Francesco Moro: Alphabet
Univcr1i1y of Cambridge Crafts Study Ce111re, II.uh 1'.agc, VA p95: 1/: Skrift Katalog, C hri<topher Haanes,
0110; 1r (de111il): MS L1769- 1952 f.113r. VA; b: Lat
Pages 4-5 Pages 46-47: Early Gothic Class E38. William Morris manuscript. BO
pp4-5: Add 42130 20h· (d,•1J1l). UL p46: r: Winche,1,·r Bihlc. AA: l1r: C07 6131'1. UI
p47: /II: .\lt>r.1/it1 illj1>/1. I 1b XVll- XXXV. MS 17J. Pages 102-103: Copperplare
Pages 6-7: Introduction fo 4 I. Biblio1h~que Mu111c1p.1lc dl' Di.Jon: tr: The p 102: <. b: /111• l '1111i·~,1/ />eu111a11, Do\'Cr Pubhcariot1>
p6: 1/: l3em1s of Lit>ban.1. Sp.1111. c.1 no. Scriptorium l'apn Maker, Dowr l'ubhc:.nio111 Inc.. "" Yori.. l11c.. New York p103: 1, rr: 111e l '11i1'f1's11I Pt'lt1111111.
111 the l o\\'er of the Mon.1,tcr'Y ofT,1\'ara. The Do,•er P11blic.mo11' l11c.. cw York: d: Copperpbte
Picrpo111 Morgan Libr.1ry. e;,. York. M.429. f. 183 Pages 50-51: Textura Quadrata workshop. 1·010111,1\ I11dex: b: Coppcrpbte typeface
p50: b: Mctz l'o111ific1l. Earl y 14th ccmury. MS 298 dcsig11. David I l,irri1
Pages 8-11: The Development of Western Script 1138v/ Fitzwilli.1111 M11'eu111, Univcrsiry of CJ111lmdgc
p8: r: Terracona Marker. 111'cnhcd wi1h 0 can \Cripe. pSI: t , I {detail): Ch1cl1c,1cr C.1thcdral, I knry VIII Pages 108-109: Imperial Capitals
haly. rhc Trmtees of tht• llrnhh Museum. London: (ll11hop Shaboum<· .1,l..111g 1lcnry VIII to rn11fin11 thc p108: 1: I cncnn~ from 0111l1ej11s1 Shap11~~ ~( Lcum.
I• (dr"111): Inscription on 1he lhsc of the Colonna diancr for Ch1chl-;1cr Cathcdr.11). Foroma1 Index: Albrl'chr Diircr. Dm·cr Publicatio111 l11c.. cw York:
Traa.111.1. Monti. Rome IK p9: 1: Charlcmagnl' wnh b: MS Rawl lnurg.c. 40 fol 40\'/ UO b. < lde1i1i/J: App1a11 War: Inscription. De Luca.
Alcum. l\lbry fa·am l'anur<' I 1br.1ry: b: Msc. Patr. 5 Rome/IK pl09: t: lnscnp1ion on the B.11c of
f. Iv. ~1.1.mb1bliothek l3.1111b,·rg p I 0: 1 (derail): M 102. Pages 54- 55: Tcxtura P rescisus Colonna Tr.11an,1. Monti. R omc/ IK: b: Tlw Arch
f. I v-2. The Picrpom Morgrn L1br.1ry. 1 ew York: b: p54: Judgemcm ofSolo111011. The Piapon t Mor~.111 ofConqan1111c, De Luca, Romc/ IK
f'ro111i,pi<·c,· oftra n<brion of l'l111y\ atural Hi1mry. Lib1·.1ry. •cw York, M.102. f. I v-2 p55: d (tl1·t11il):
147]. Bibl iotcca 1'vkdicca I :llll'l'l17i.ma. Florcncc p 11 : Add 42 130 201\', Ill.: r: MS l)ourc 366 fol 154r/ ll0 Pages 124-127: Bibliography & Index
1: J\.h.l.H 9474. B : b: />l1<>rnix. Drni1 Brown, 1993 p124: I !dew/): MS 2981. Magdalen<.' Colk·gc.
Pages 58-59: Gothic Capitals & Versals Cambndge pl26: MS Lu 2° f384 v, 13,•rlm.
Pages 16-17: Rustic Capirals p58: MS 2981. Sm ofC.1pnak M.1gdalcnc Collcge. Stamb1bhothek 111 Berlin - Preu6ischcr
ppl6-17: tr. I ldrtmlJ. b fl/r111rl1: VA r 3867 f.3,., Cambridge p59: ti: M'> 55 G ,·ol3 F52V. U1ble of~t. Kulturbesm - I b11d1chriftenabteilung
V,·iwhm Romant11 Ecloi.:;1 11 & 4. Uihliotec,1 Va.111. Bibliothct1uc Mun1np.1lc cl' Arm: r (tl1·MilJ: M~
Apo,iohc.1 V,nican,1/ IK: c M,. Uodl. 218. fol.62r. 2981. Seti of C:.1p1tak M.1gd.1le1w Collt·g<'. Special photography:
BO pl7: i>r: i'<•ter H.1ll id,t)'. Q1101.11ion from Virgil: C.1111bridgc: Iii: MS.8.)- 1972 fl r. Fi11willia111 Michael Dunning: p6: tr
Eclogu<' VII, 43 x 31.5 cm. 1983. hl.ack ink on Musc11n1. U111vc1'\i1y of Ca n1bridgc Peter Hay111.111: p I 7: l>r
cream p.1pcr. tr:msla1ion by tht• 'crihe
Pages 62--{)3: Lombardic Capitals Author's acknowledgments:
Pages 20-21: Square Capicals p62: b (detail): Wmcl1c,1cr U1blc. Ezekiel. 121h Cl'llllll")'. To my wifl' .111cy who untiringly typed and
p20: u: The Parchnwlt ~ lakcr. Dm·er Publicauon' AA p63: Larin 12<148 f I''· UN correcied my manuscnpt pages. To M1s1 Pemberton
Inc. ;-.;e\\ York: c: ln;cnpuon .n Jn Sebastiano IK and rhl' staff of 1hc Bodleian Library for thl'lr kmd
pp20-2 I: /1 (dm1i/): Pon11tin.1 Con1111is>ione de Pages 66-67: Basrard Secretary help beyond 1hc call of dury. and to L11 Bro" n and
Louise Candl"h of Dorling Ki11dersley "ho stopped
Archcologia Sacra/ IK p2 I: t: 1'0111iticia Co111111i1\IOlll' p66: rr: Kant' Mcd1<•vJ I MS 21 folio 6r, Crem•1llc
me straying wo far fro1n the chosen path. And finally
de Archcologia Sacra/ IK K.111e Collection of Med1ev.1l Manuscript1, to fami ly and friend, who h;1ve also suffered a little
M.111u,c1ipr' Di vi1ion. Dcp.1 rtmc111 of Rarc llook, .111d with me owr 1he Ja,1 years.
Pages 24-25: Uncial & Artificial Uncial SpcciJI Collcctio111. l'rn i.t·ton U11ivcrsity Lihr.aric':
p24: r: MS E Mmco 100 t7\'/130: /1: Ceolfrid Bibk bl: E Mus 35 f98/ l30 p67: Englill1 Genc111, MS Dorling Kinderslcy would like to thank:
AA p25: 1, I>!detail): COTT VE~I' A I 30\'- 3 I. 131 Bodley 596 f2r BO Janos Maril)· and S.1lly-A11ne Reawn for 1he1r
arrwork1: Richard Uml for the index: Jane Cmer.
Pages 28- 31: Insular Majusculc Pages 70-71: Batardc Stephen Crouchcr.•md Mark Joh111011 J),1,·1es for
p28: rhe Book of Kelli MS 58 fol. 4th'. The Board p70: 11: MS Doun· 267 L16r/ 130 p71: t, r (1/1•1i1i/J: cbign al'1't.111ce: Loi I lenderson and Hckn Castle for
ofTmury College. Dublin p29: br (dm1i/): Tlw Uook Je.111 Froissan·1 Chro11idc, 14th ccmury. 131 : bl: editorial aS1i11.111cc: Jo. Simon. Liz, and I ouise for
of Kell, MS 58 fol. 179v, rh,· Bo.1 rd of Triniry R oy 16 Gill ffi. Il l their hand1: .md to Morag Hislop for .111 her hdp.
128