UNIT III

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

The process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the solar
photovoltaic (PV) effect. Photovoltaic solar cells convert sunlight directly into solar power
(electricity). They use thin layers of semi-conducting material that is charged differently
between the top and bottom layers. The semi-conducting material can be encased between
a sheet of glass and/or a polymer resin.

When exposed to daylight, electrons in the semi-conducting material absorb the photons,
causing them to become highly energised. These move between the top and bottom
surfaces of the semi-conducting material. This movement of electrons generates a current
known as a direct current (DC). This is then fed through an inverter, which converts the
power to alternating current (AC) for use in your home.

FACTS ABOUT PV SYSTEMS

 Multifunctional Land Use: PV systems can cover a wide area (1 Megawatt of
Power= 6-8 Acres of Land). While they generate energy from the sun, they can also
provide shade for parking structures and/ or shade crops that need to be protected
from direct sunlight.
 Photovoltaic Cells Work On Cloudy Days: Contrary to popular belief, PV
systems work while the sun is blocked by clouds, as the rays still penetrate and are
then absorbed by the PV cells.
 Sunlight for an Hour = Sunlight for a Year: It’s calculated that the amount of
sunlight on the earth within an hour’s time can provide enough energy for the world
for an entire year.
 PV Cells Face South in the USA: In order to get optimal sunlight, PV cells
should face south in the USA, as the equator lies south of the 50 states where the
sun is most intense around the globe.
  The Sun is Powered by Hydrogen: The sun is currently powered by constantly
burning hydrogen, and when it runs out of hydrogen, it will start to consume its
supply of Helium.

BASIC PRINCIPE: Solar panels consist of a number of layers, typically glass,

then a protection layer and a front contact layer covering individual solar cells
switched in series. Beneath those, there are metal back contacts which conduct
the electricity and are laminated to waterproof the cells and insulate it from
excess heat. Finally, there is a protective back layer of glass, metal or plastic.

Types of solar panel

Different types of solar PV installations require slightly different components. However in the
next two sections we have explained in detail all the main components that will make up
your solar PV array and provide you with 100% renewable, free electricity.

The solar panel is the key component of any solar photovoltaic system, which takes the
sun’s energy and converts it into an electrical current. There are three main types of solar
panel (as well as the hybrid version) currently in commercial production, all of which are
based on silicon semiconductors:

MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS

This type of solar cell is made from thin wafers of silicon cut from artificially-grown crystals.
These cells are created from single crystals grown in isolation, making them the most
expensive of the three varieties (approximately 35% more expensive than equivalent
polycrystalline cells), but they have the highest efficiency rating – between 15-24%.

POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS

This type of solar cell is also made from thin wafers of silicon cut from artificially grown
crystals, but instead of single crystals, these cells are made from multiple interlocking silicon
crystals grown together. This makes them cheaper to produce, but their efficiency is lower
than the monocrystalline solar cells, currently at 13-18%

AMORPHOUS SOLAR CELLS

These are the cheapest type of solar cell to produce, are relatively new to the market and
are produced very differently to the two other types. Instead of using crystals, silicon is
deposited very thinly on a backing substrate.

There are two real benefits of the amorphous solar cell; firstly the layer of silicon is so thin it
allows the solar cells to be flexible, and secondly they are more efficient in low light levels
(like during winter).

This, however, comes at a price; they have the lowest efficiency rating of all three types –
approximately 7% – 9%, requiring approximately double the panel area to produce the
same output. In addition, as this is a relatively new science, there is no agreed industry-
wide production technique, so they are not as robust as the other two types.

HYBRID SOLAR CELLS

This is not a type of solar cell in its own right; instead it is a combination of both amorphous
solar cells and mono crystalline solar cells. These are known as HIT solar cells (Hetero
junction with Intrinsic Thin Layer – a bit of a mouthful!), and have higher efficiency ratings
than any of the other three types of solar cell alone. In addition, they are also better suited
in sunnier climes, where temperatures often exceed 25 0C, creating up to 10% more
electricity.
We think in many cases polycrystalline cells are the most suitable option, as they
provide value for money while still also being relatively efficient.

Solar PV inverters

All the electricity produced by the solar panels is produced as direct current (DC), which
differs from the electricity that is distributed through the grid and we use in our homes,
which is alternating current (AC). For this reason most solar photovoltaic systems are now
connected up with some type of inverter, which changes the DC to AC, allowing the
individual to sell the electricity back to the grid (in grid-tied systems) or to be used easily in
homes.

There are 2 major types of inverter that can be installed in your solar photovoltaic system:

1. STRING INVERTERS  (ALSO KNOWN AS CENTRAL INVERTERS)

These are used in grid-tied systems where the solar panels are wired together in series,
which is known as a string of panels. Each string of panels is connected to a string inverter,
which converts the DC current to AC for use in the home and selling back to the grid. You
can imagine each string as a mini power station, producing electricity.

The main issue with string inverters is that if one of the panels in the string fails or produces
less electricity (from things like shading), this impacts the output of all the panels. They will
all operate at the output of the worst panel, so a small amount of shading or debris on your
solar array can disproportionally reduce the total output of your entire solar photovoltaic
system.

They also have relatively short lifespans when compared to micro inverters.

The benefits include simple wiring and that you can use thinner wires within your solar PV
system, so less copper is used which makes the system cheaper. Buying one string inverter
(which is normally the case of most home solar PV systems) is also considerably cheaper
than buying multiple micro inverters.

2. MICRO INVERTERS

These are a newer technology and service each solar panel individually, so each panel
requires its own micro inverter and acts as an individual power station.  As a result, micro
inverters do not suffer the same performance reduction as a result of shading because any
power reduction in a particular solar panel is handled by one micro inverter, having little
effect on the combined power output from the entire solar photovoltaic system.

Micro inverters are much more expensive than the string inverters. However much of this
cost is offset by the increased performance (25% more power produced using micro
inverters) and the fact that they are more reliable than string inverters (warranties for micro
inverters are up to 25 years).
 MATERIALS USED FOR SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

 Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
 Organometallics (soluble platinum)

Advantages of solar PV

 PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV

panels there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is
environmentally friendly.
 Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and abundant!
 Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight
 Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with distributed
power generation – DPG is indeed the next generation power network structure!
 Solar panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to continue
reducing for the next years – consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly
promising future both for economical viability and environmental sustainability.
 Photovoltaic panels, through photoelectric phenomenon, produce electricity in a
direct electricity generation way
 Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low, almost
negligible, compared to costs of other renewable energy systems
 PV panels have no mechanically moving parts, except in cases of sun-tracking
mechanical bases; consequently they have far less breakages or require less
maintenance than other renewable energy systems (e.g. wind turbines)
  PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all; consequently, they are a
perfect solution for urban areas and for residential applications (see solar panels
for home)
 Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling, PV panels can
provide an effective solution to energy demand peaks – especially in hot summer
months where energy demand is high.
 Though solar energy panels’ prices have seen a drastic reduction in the past
years, and are still falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic panels are one of
major renewable energy systems that are promoted through government subsidy
funding (FITs, tax credits etc.); thus financial incentive for PV panels make solar
energy panels an attractive investment alternative.
 Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground without
any interference to residential lifestyle.

Disadvantages of Solar PV

 As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not

shining at night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy weather.
 Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar
energy panels less reliable a solution.
 Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct
electricity (DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power
network.
 For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,
Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus
increasing the investment cost for PV panels considerably
 In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large areas
for deployment; usually the land space is committed for this purpose for a period
of 15-20 years – or even longer.
 Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared to
the efficiency levels of other renewable energy systems.
  Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they
are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily; additional insurance costs are
therefore of ultimate importance to safeguard a PV investment.

LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

THE FACTORS ON WHICH QUALITY OF PV CELL DEPEND

1) Irradiance:
We’ve talked about irradiance before, but it bears repeating since it’s not exactly an
everyday word.

You just don’t hear people say, “Hi. how are you? Wow, that irradiance outside is killer
today.

More sunlight = more electricity.

If only sunlight was constant. The fact is that irradiance varies throughout the day.

The angle of the sun, passing clouds, hazy weather, and air pollution can affect irradiance levels.
however, the total energy received by the system from the sun remains relatively constant from
year to year.

Typically, energy from the sun only varies between 5-10% of the average in a given year
consequently, quality solar energy output projections can be made based off of past years

2) Temperature:
Here’s an interesting fact about solar power: the warmer solar cells get, the less efficient
they are.

This may be surprising, but think about walking through air versus walking through
water in a pool. You move pretty quickly with only air around you. You’re not quite as
quick walking through water because of the resistance

ame goes for those little electrons. The hotter the cell material is, the more resistance
there is and the slower the electrons can move through it.
This means that production goes down because not as many electrons can get through
the circuitry in the same amount of time as before.

This is another situation where quality matters.

High quality panels are designed to maintain performance levels in extreme heat. Lower
quality panels lose efficiency and produce less energy. What a bummer.

We can’t imagine making a huge investment only to watch it under perform on a

Summer afternoon when it should be creating lots of free electricity.

3) Shading:
This is a no-brainer: shaded solar panels produce less electricity.

One thing to consider is that shading varies seasonally.

As the angle of the sun changes through the year, trees and other barriers may become
shading issues in different seasons. It all depends on the size, height, and proximity of
surrounding barriers.

Properly designed solar systems minimise or eliminate shading. Under some

circumstances, it is not possible to avoid all shading, so proper design will minimize it
during peak mid-day production periods.

You’ll want to pay attention to the effects of adding future roof-top structures (like putting
up an enormous Santa in a sleigh with eight reindeer around x-mas time).

You’ll also want to keep an eye on the trees on your and your neighbours properties to
ensure that they don’t create shade blocking the performance of your panels. If they
are, simply trim them back to gain the maximum light coverage for your panels.

4) Soiling:
This is another no-brainer. Dirty solar panels produce less electricity.
The term “soiling” sounds fancier than it is. All it refers to is dust, dirt, and other debris
settling on the surface of the solar panels.

This blocks sunlight from reaching the solar cells and reduces solar system
performance. I am sure that you get the picture.

In areas with frequent rain, soiling is not usually significant. Areas that experience long
periods of dry weather, experience more soiling during the summer.

Rapid soiling can also occur on systems located near construction sites and other
places that produce dust.

Cleaning the system may be undertaken to keep things looking nice and with some
frequency to get the maximum advantage solar panels offer and PowerVault structure
in a maintenance program with all commercial solar installations to take that worry away
from our clients.

5) Snow
Snow blocks production of solar energy until plowed or melted. (Seriously, we’re just
being thorough).

Because snow limits energy production, the effects of snow should be incorporated into
any energy estimates.

In general, assumptions for performance degradation may range from a minimum of 8%

performance degradation (for early spring and late Autumn months) to a maximum of
30% (for mid-winter months) for systems in installed in alpine regions.

COMPONENTS OF BALANCE OF SYSTEM

FACTORS AFFECTING PV SYSTEMS

Energy efficiency factors must be carefully considered while designing any solar PV
systems if you want to get the best out of your efforts and investment. If you have
appliances that are not very energy efficient you will need a rather large PV system (and
large dent in the bank balance too!). It does not make much sense, even if you are filthy
rich. An alternate power source such as solar is considered because fossil fuel is dirty
and is not ever lasting (looking at the galloping pace of increase in energy consumption
across the globe). Therefore, you would like to use it in the best possible manner.

However, even after you have replaced the electrical load with the most efficient
appliances, you still have to keep in mind inefficiencies of the PV system which are
always lurking around. Hence, it pays to have knowledge of different factors that can
potentially degrade your system, so that you can make efforts to minimize them right at
the planning stage. Here are 6 important considerations.

1. Cable Thickness
We generally have electrical appliances working at 220V which is significantly higher
compared with the usual PV system DC voltages of 12V, 24V or 48V. For the same
wattage much higher currents are involved in the PV systems. This brings into picture
resistance losses in the wiring.

Let us see how it can be significant.

20 meter is the length of cable between the panel and the charge controller. A typical
cable with 1.5 sq mm cross section has resistance of about 0.012 ohms per meter of
wire length. So a 20 meter long wire will offer resistance of 20 x 0.012 = 0.24 ohms.

If it is a 24V system and a 10 ampere current is flowing through this wire, then from the
Ohm’s law (V = IxR), we can calculate voltage drop across this wire: 2.4V. It means the
voltage at the charge controller end of the cables will be 2.4V less than the voltage
produced by the panels if a 10 Amp current is flowing. This 10% voltage drop is clearly
unacceptable.

What if we use a 6 sq mm cross section cable which has a resistance of 0.003 ohms
per meter. The total resistance for 20 meter long cable will now be 0.06 ohms; and the
voltage drop, 10×0.06 or 0.6V. It is 2.5% voltage drop for a 24V system which might be
acceptable. But what about the increased cost of thicker cable? Likewise, there would
be wiring all around and careful attention must be paid to know the impact on overall
system efficiency. Thus, cable length and size needs careful attention right at the
planning stage.

Another way to reduce resistance loss is to raise the system voltage, to say 48V. It will
still give the same watt as above (48V x 5A = 240W). Doubling the system voltage
reduces the voltage drop by 1/4th.
While the size and length of the cables is a matter of system design and installation, for
the quality of cables the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in India
specifies that cables adhere to IEC 60227 / IS 694 or IEC 60502 / IS 1554 (Part I & II). It
pays to familiarize what these specification standards say.

2. Temperature
Solar cells perform better in cold rather than in hot climate and as things stand, panels
are rated at 25˚C which can be significantly different from the real outdoor situation. For
each degree rise in temperature above 25˚C the panel output decays by about 0.25%
for amorphous cells and about 0.4-0.5% for crystalline cells. Thus, in hot summer days
panel temperature can easily reach 70˚C or more. What it means is that the panels will
put out up to 25% less power compared to what they are rated for at 25˚C. Thus a
100W panel will produce only 75W in May/June in most parts of India where
temperatures reach 45˚C and beyond in summer and electricity demand is high.

Solar panels are tested under laboratory conditions, called STC (Standard Test
Conditions): at an Irradiance (light) level of 1000W/m 2 with a temperature of 25˚C. But in
the real world these conditions are constantly changing so the panel output is different
from the lab conditions. So, another specifications are reported, called NOCT (Nominal
Operating Cell Temperature). It is the temperature reached by open circuit cells in a
module under the following conditions:
Irradiance (light) falling on the solar panel at 800W/m 2; Air temperature of 20ºC; Wind
speed at 1m/s; and the panel is mounted with an open back (air can circulate behind
panel).
Most good quality panels available today in India have NOCT values of 47±2˚C. Lower
the NOCT the better it is expected to perform in hotter climates.

Temperature coefficient of the rated watt power, P max, is another important parameter.
Example: EMMVEE solar panels have NOCT of 48±2˚C and temperature coefficient of
rated power -0.43% per K. Moser Baer panels have NOCT of 47±2˚C and temperature
coefficient of rated power -0.43% per K for panels up to 125W p; their higher power
panels have NOCT of 45±2˚C and temperature coefficient of rated power -0.45% per K.

3. Shading
Ideally solar panels should be located such that there will never be shadows on them
because a shadow on even a small part of the panel can have a surprisingly large effect
on the output. The cells within a panel are normally all wired in series and the shaded
cells affect the current flow of the whole panel. But there can be situations where it
cannot be avoided, and thus the effects of partial shading should be considered while
planning. If the affected panel is wired in series (in a string) with other panels, then the
output of all those panels will be affected by the partial shading of one panel. In such a
situation, an obvious solution is to avoid wiring panels in series if possible.

4. Charge Controller and Solar Cell’s IV Characteristics

An inherent characteristic of solar silicon cells is that the current produced by a
particular light level is virtually constant up to a certain voltage (about 0.5V for silicon)
and then drops off abruptly. What it means is that mainly the voltage varies with light
intensity. A solar panel with a nominal voltage of 12 volts would normally have 36 cells,
resulting in a constant current up to about 18 volts. Above this voltage, current drops off
rapidly, resulting in maximum power output being produced at around 18 volts.

When the panel is connected to the battery through a simple charge regulator, its
voltage will be pulled down to near that of the battery. This lead to lower watt power
(watt = Amp x Volt) output from the panel. Thus, the panel will be able to produce its
maximum power when the battery voltage is near its maximum (fully charged). So it
helps to design a system in such as way that the batteries normally don’t remain less
than full charged for long. In times of rainy or heavy clouded days a situation may occur
when the batteries remain in the state of less than full charge. This would further pull
down the panel voltage; thus degrading the output further.

This is also where an MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) Charge Controller comes
into picture. It tries keeping the panel at its maximum voltage and simultaneously
produces the voltage required by the battery. A basic charge controller simply prevents
damage of batteries by over-charging, by effectively cutting off the current from the solar
panels (or by reducing it to a pulse) when the battery voltage reaches a certain level. On
the other hand, a Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) controller performs an extra
function to improve your system efficiency.

What does the MPPT Controller Do

Besides performing the function of a basic controller, an MPPT controller also includes
a DC to DC voltage converter, converting the voltage of the panels to that required by
the batteries, with very little loss of power. In other words, it attempts to keep the panel
voltage near its Maximum Power Point, while supplying the varying voltage
requirements of the battery. Thus, it essentially decouples the panel and battery
voltages so that there can be a 24 volt system on one side of the MPPT charge
controller and panels wired in series to produce 48 volts on the other. Thus, offering the
ability to provide some charging current even in dull conditions when a simple controller
would not help much.
5. Inverter Efficiency
When the solar PV system is catering to the needs of the AC loads an inverter is
needed. As things stand, in real world nothing is 100% efficient. Although inverters
come with wide ranging efficiencies but typically affordable solar inverters are between
80% to 90% efficient.

6. Battery Efficiency
Whenever backup is required batteries are needed for charge storage. Lead acid
batteries are most commonly used. All batteries discharge less than what go into them;
the efficiency depends on the battery design and quality of construction; some are
certainly more efficient than others.

The energy put in a battery during charging E in can be given as

Ein  =  ICVC ΔTC   where  IC is the constant charge current at voltage V C for time duration
ΔTC
Likewise after it is discharged at a constant current I D, at a voltage VD during a time ΔTD ;
the delivered energy is
Eout = IDVD ΔTD
Now writing the energy efficiency as Ein/Eout = ICVC ΔTC / IDVD ΔTD
There are two types of efficiencies: voltage efficiency (V D / VC) and coulomb efficiency
(ID ΔTD / IC ΔTC)
Since lead acid batteries are usually charged at the float voltage of about 13.5 V and
the discharge voltage is about 12 V, the voltage efficiency is about 0.88. In average the
coulomb efficiency is about 0.92. Hence, the net energy efficiency is around 0.80

A lead-acid battery has an efficiency of only 75-85% (this includes both the charging
loss and the discharging loss). From zero State of Charge (SOC) to 85% SOC the
average overall battery charging efficiency is 91%- the balance is losses during
discharge. The energy lost appears as heat which warms the battery. It can be
minimized by keeping the charge and discharge rates low. It helps keep the battery cool
and improves its life.
Here we did not include losses in the electronic circuit of the battery charger which may
vary between 60% and 80%. Thus, the overall efficiency of the battery system can be
much lower.

MPPT

An MPPT is basically an efficient DC to DC converter used to maximise the power

output of a solar panel. The first MPPT was invented by a small Australian company
called AERL way back in 1985, and this technology is now used in virtually all grid-
connect solar inverters and many solar charge controllers.

The functioning principle of an MPPT solar charge controller is rather simple - due to
the varying degree of sunlight (irradiance) landing on a solar panel throughout the day,
the panel voltage and current continuously changes. In order to generate the most
power, the maximum power point tracker sweeps through the panel voltage to find the
‘sweet spot’ or the best combination of voltage and current to produce the maximum
power. The MPPT is designed to continually track and adjust the voltage to generate
the most power no matter what time of day or weather conditions (Note, only high-end
MPPT controllers will detect partial shading, or be able to track multiple power points).
Using this clever technology, the solar panel efficiency increases and the amount of
energy generated is up to 30% more than a PWM solar charge controller.
solar pv energy conversion system:

Definition: The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor device that converts the light into

electrical energy. The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of light
incident on it. The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage producing capability.

he electrons of the semiconductor material are joined together by the covalent bond.
The electromagnetic radiations are made of small energy particles called photons.
When the photons are incident on the semiconductor material, then the electrons
become energised and starts emitting.

The energises electron is known as the Photoelectrons. And the phenomenon

of emission of electrons is known as the photoelectric effect. The working of the
Photovoltaic cell depends on the photoelectric effect.
Construction of Photovoltaic Cell
The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon,
selenium and gallium are used for making the PV cells. Mostly silicon and
selenium are used for making the cell.

Consider the figure below shows the constructions of the silicon photovoltaic
cell. The upper surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type
material so that the light can easily enter into the material. The metal rings
are placed around p-type and n-type material which acts as their positive
and negative output terminals respectively.

The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor material make the single unit of

the PV cell. The mono-crystal cell is cut from the volume of the semiconductor material.
The multicell are obtained from the material which has many sides.

The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell is very less.  The
magnitude of the output voltage is 0.6v, and that of the current is 0.8v. The
different combinations of cells are used for increasing the output efficiency. There are
three possible ways of combining the PV cells.

Series Combination of PV Cells

If more than two cells are connected in series with each other, then the
output current of the cell remains same, and their input voltage becomes
doubles. The graph below shows the output characteristic of the PV cells
when connected in series.

Parallel Combination of PV cells

In the parallel combination of the cells, the voltage remains same, and the
magnitude of current becomes double. The characteristic curve of the
parallel combination of cells is represented below.
Series-Parallel Combination of PV cells
In the series-parallel combination of cells the magnitude of both the voltage
and current increases. Thereby, the solar panels are made by using the
series-parallel combination of the cells.

The solar module is constructed by connecting the single solar cells. And the
combination of the solar modules together is known as the solar panel.
Working of PV cell
The light incident on the semiconductor material may be pass or reflected through it.
The PV cell is made of the semiconductor material which is neither a complete
conductor nor an insulator. This property of semiconductor material makes it more
efficient for converting the light energy into electric energy.

When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons of the material starts
emitting. This happens because the light consists small energise particles called
photons. When the electrons absorb the photons, they become energised and starts
moving into the material. Because of the effect of an electric field, the particles move
only in the one direction and develops current. The semiconductor materials have the
metallic electrodes through which the current goes out of it.
Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of silicon and the resistive load is
connected across it. The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor
material. These layers are joined together to form the PN junction.

The junction is the

interface between the p-type and n-type material. When the light fall on the junction the
electrons starts moving from one region to another.

How Solar Cell Install on the Solar Power Plant?

Maximum power point tracker, inverter, charge controller and battery are
the name of the apparatus used for converting the radiation into an electrical
voltage.
Maximum Power Point Tracker – It’s a special kind of digital tracker that
follows the location of the sun. The efficiency of the PV cell depends on
the intensity of sunlight fall on it. The power of the sun varies with the
time because of the movement of the earth. So for absorbing the maximum
light, the panel needs to be moved along with the sun. Thereby the
maximum power point tracker is used with the solar panel.

Charge Controller – The charge controller regulates the voltage drawn

from the panel. It also protects the battery from the overcharging or
overvoltage.

Inverter – The inverter converts the direct current into the alternating
current and vice versa. The conversion is essential because some of the
appliances require ac supply for their work.
Classification of solar cell:
1. Based on thickness of active material
a. Bulk material cells
b. Thin film cells
2. Based on junction structure
a. P-n Junction cell
b. P-N hetro junction cell
c. Metal semi conductor junction cell
d. P-N multi junction cell
e. P-I-N semi conductor junction cell
3. Based on the type of Active material
a. Amorphous Silicon Cell
b. Polycrystalline Silicon Cell
c. Single Crystal Silicon Cell

Photovoltaic solar energy applications

The energy obtained through photovoltaic generators and their applications is greatly
diverse.

If a general classification is established, it can be said that it is divided into two large
sections:

 Isolated systems
 Grid connection

some examples are detailed below:

Isolated systems

 Telecommunications
 Rural electrification
 Agricultural applications
 Used with livestock/cattle
 Street lighting
 Signage
 Control
 Rural development

A short analysis of each of them has been made below, elaborating the previous
sections:

Telecommunications:

 Mobile phone
 Radio and television repeaters
 Roadside S.O.S. posts
 Remote control
 Remote control for irrigation systems
 Telemetry
 Radars
 Radiotelephony in general and for militaries or forest surveillance posts
 Rural telephones via satellite
 Microwave
 Public telephone booths
 Communication stations
 Radio links
 TRUNKING systems
 Radio and communication coverage in railway tunnels

There are two kinds of stations for mobile phones, BTS calls, made up of a photovoltaic-
diesel hybrid system, with a photovoltaic peak power of 6 Kwp, in which the function of
the generator is only for support.
The second kind of installations are called RF calls, which only function with rotating
photovoltaic panels and an installed peak power between 0.6 Kwp and 1.8 Kwp.

The remote controls and telecommands with radio transmission are often used in
applications related to water, tanks, risks, flowmetres and, in general, for collecting and
controlling any kind of data.

Rural electrification:

 Temporary housing
 Permanent housing
 Centralised electrification with individual consumption control per house, in rural
areas
 Refuge and mountain lodge electrification
 Aid stations. (lighting, medication and vaccine preservation with refrigerators)
 Schools and community centres
 Police stations and borders
 Religious facilities (chapels, missions, etc.)

Rural electrification currently has all of the commodities that a conventional

electrification system can have since the incorporation of new sine wave inverters,
allowing for the use of any appliance.

One of the most important applications is currently the electrification of small rural areas
with centralised systems. The advantages with respect to one installation per house are
the following:

 Lower installation cost

 Lower maintenance costs
 Higher level of user friendliness
 Higher security of the facility
 Greater total return
To manage the energy, an energy limiting electronic device is installed in each of the
houses that is programmed to be able to supply energy to the user every day. That
being said, the device has to be intelligent enough to be able to increase the assigned
energy, if the batter status is good or bad. To simplify and not perform complicated
electrical wiring, the communication between the energy limiting device and the
inverters is made along the same 220 Vac line, with small changes in frequency that do
not affect the operation of the system in any way.

The second greatest inconvenience is the power of the inverter and its efficiency
against small charges. This was resolved with the installation of several inverters in
parallel, with one of them (the master) being that which acts on the control of the rest
(the slaves), so that if the power consumed is less than the sum of the power of all the
inverters, it orders some of them to stop until they adapt to the consumed power.
Another great advantage is that all of the inverters have the capacity to act as masters
and as slaves. With this, the electrical supply is secured against possible failures in
some of them.

Agricultural applications

 Water pumps both in DC and AC (with battery)

 Direct drive water pumps (without battery)
 Warehouse electrification
 Risk controls
 Greenhouses (automation of windows and lighting)

One of the most important applications in agriculture, for its simple installation and
above all for its zero maintenance and complete automation, are the direct drive water
pumps, made up of a field of photovoltaic panels, an electronic device and the entire
system of controls and pump sensors.

The aforementioned electronic device has the capacity to obtain the maximum
performance of the panel in low flow pumps. In high flow pumps, it has a second
function, which is to convert the continuous current of the photovoltaic panel into
alternating current.

The main advantage of the direct drive pumps is that they coincide with the radiation
curve and the water demand curve. They allow for water extraction in rural
environments, where the possibility to install a conventional line does not exist due to its
high cost.

A second application in the agricultural sector has been the electrification of risk
controls and solenoid valves, which has allowed for a better distribution and saving of
water. They are mostly systems based on the risk of leaks or low pressure.

Used with livestock/cattle :

 Water pumps to provide water to the livestock/cattle

 Farm electrification. (lighting, motors, shearing machines, etc.)
 Milking systems and milk refrigeration
 Fence electrification

The direct drive pumps, detailed under farmland applications, are at the cattle farms, a
highly important location.

The manufacture of high power inverters has made it possible to undertake works at the
cattle farm, supply electrical energy to milking systems, preserve milk (cold tanks) and
clean pumps, as well as to light up warehouses, power motors for the distribution of
animal feed, fans, automation of shutters for cattle warehouses and greenhouses. The
motors of the aforementioned equipment, originally and to achieve a higher
performance at the facility, were installed in DC. Then, thanks to the new high
performance inverters, the motors are now in AC, obtaining a greater operational safety
in the event of failure since an alternating motor is easy to obtain, while a continuous
one is specially produced.

The installed inverter, to provide more safety to the system, is modular with several
power stages so that they can be repaired without the system running out of power.
Lighting:

 Billboards
 Public streetlights
 Bus stops
 Tunnel, cave, etc. lighting

Public lighting, through photovoltaic systems, is presented as one of the most economic
solutions to light the entrances of the towns, road junctions, rest areas, etc.

A new type of street light is currently being installed, which does not require any
maintenance, by integrating long life stationary batteries with gelled electrolytes (over
300 streetlights in the Canary Islands).

Signage:

 Lighthouses and marine buoys

 Air beacons and radio beacons
 Road signs to indicate curves, obstacles, roundabouts, etc. in cities and on
roadways using LEDs
 Time and temperature indicators on public roads
 Railway crossings
 Oil rigs

The use of the ESF has allowed for the automation of lighthouses, as well as an
increase in buoy safety, where acetylene gel was previously used, significantly reducing
maintenance.

For aviation use, panels to supply the beacons and road signs on the runways are being
used. The Madrid and Balearic airports stand out for their easy identification of facilities.

Another wide application, which has recently been added to road safety with a great
importance, is the labelling of roundabouts, curves, traffic signs, obstacles, etc. through
the use of high luminosity LEDs, which, because of their low consumption, makes it
possible to make a small photovoltaic installation.

Control:

 Flowmetres and anemometers

 Activation of valves (solenoid valves)
 Controls, weather stations and earthquakes
 TV cameras to control and measure traffic
 Monitoring and automation of gates
 Fibre optic signal repeaters
 Environment metering stations
 Gas and oil pipeline control
 Data collection
 Control and remote operation of reservoirs
 Cathodic protection

In this section, it is currently worth mentioning that works are being performed on the
river basins to control the flow and quality of the water, where the photovoltaic systems
are found, as well as those that are more economic and secure for these types of
applications.

The photovoltaic installations have shown high reliability in greatly important

applications and large projects, such as the gas and oil pipelines, where they are
responsible for providing electrical energy to the control, communication, valve
activation and cathodic protection systems. This previous application is also used on
bridges.

Other applications:

 Chlorination through dosing pumps

 Purification through lagooning by supplying clean-grille motors and flowmetres
 Oxygenators for the water through compressors
 Salt water desalination (reverse osmosis)
 Scales to weigh lorries. (landfills, industrial centres, etc.)
 Systems to detect fires by means of infrared cameras
 Infrared perimeter security systems
 Surveillance and access control (video intercom, opening and closing of gates,
remote control)
 Ionisation for lightning rods
 Power supply for didactical uses at universities, professional colleges, etc.
 Sailing vessels and motor homes
 Recreational area equipment

The second largest group of the photovoltaic systems are those connected to the
electricity grid:

Systems connected to the electricity grid

It is one of the latest and most innovative applications of the photovoltaic systems,
consisting of the installation of a photovoltaic field and inverter capable of transforming
the energy supplied by the panels and pumping it into the electricity grid.

The inverter in this type of installation is the central nucleus inverter and must provide
certain protections against situations that may occur in the electricity grid, such as:

 Out-of-range voltage
 Grid cut
 Discrepancy in the grid
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a
particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a detailed description of its
solar energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics
(more importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the device’s
output performance and solar efficiency.

Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity. With
increasing demand for a clean energy source and the sun’s potential as a free energy
source, has made solar energy conversion as part of a mixture of renewable energy
sources increasingly important. As a result, the demand for efficient solar cells, which
convert sunlight directly into electricity, is growing faster than ever before

Photovoltaic ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely from silicon that has been
processed into an extremely pure crystalline form that absorbs the photons from
sunlight and then releases them as electrons, causing an electric current to flow when
the photoconductive cell is connected to an external load. There are a variety of
different measurements we can make to determine the solar cell’s performance, such
as its power output and its conversion efficiency.

The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the

relationship between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V
characteristics curve. The intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell
controls the current ( I ), while the increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces
its voltage ( V ).

Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals
power, so we can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the
voltage for a photovoltaic device.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the
operation of a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current
and voltage at the existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide
the information required to configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its
optimal peak power point (MPP) as possible.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV
cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the
product of current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all
voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained
for a given radiation level.

With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at
its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar
cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short
circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across
the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its
maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.

Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit
current ( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ).
In other words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the
maximum current at closed circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates
any electrical power, but there must be a point somewhere in between were the solar
cell generates maximum power.

However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power
reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell
generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green
rectangle. This is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a
photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in the I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from
the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90)Voc and Imp ≅
(0.85–0.95)Isc. Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature,
the actual output power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.
Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell
or panel. But many photovoltaic arrays are made up of smaller PV panels connected
together. Then the I-V curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar
cell I-V characteristic curve as shown.

Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel
combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the
array panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases
and if connected together in parallel then the current increases. The electrical power in
Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of
the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar panels are connected
together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of
the array.

Solar Array Parameters

 VOC = open-circuit voltage: – This is the maximum voltage that the array
provides when the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit
condition). This value is much higher than Vmp which relates to the
operation of the PV array which is fixed by the load. This value depends
upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.

 ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current provided by the PV

array when the output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit
condition). This value is much higher than Imp which relates to the normal
operating circuit current.

 MPP = maximum power point – This relates to the point where the
power supplied by the array that is connected to the load (batteries,
inverters) is at its maximum value, where MPP = Imp x Vmp. The
maximum power point of a photovoltaic array is measured in Watts (W) or
peak Watts (Wp).
 FF = fill factor – The fill factor is the relationship between the
maximum power that the array can actually provide under normal
operating conditions and the product of the open-circuit voltage multiplied
by the short-circuit current, ( VOC x ISC ) This fill factor value gives an idea
of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the
more power the array can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.

 %eff = percent efficiency – The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the

ratio between the maximum electrical power that the array can produce
compared to the amount of solar irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency
of a typical solar array is normally low at around 10-12%, depending on
the type of cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin film)
being used.

Battery Energy Storage Systems:

Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) are a sub-set of Energy
Storage Systems (ESSs). Energy Storage System is a general term
for the ability of a system to store energy using thermal, electro-
mechanical or electro-chemical solutions. A BESS typically utilizes
an electro-chemical solution.

Characteristics of a Battery Energy Storage System

Round-trip Efficiency — Indicates the amount of usable energy that can be discharged
from a storage system relative to the amount of energy that was put in. This accounts for
the energy lost during each charge and discharge cycle. Typical values range from 60%
to 95%.

Response Time — Amount of time required for a storage system to go from standby
mode to full output. This performance criterion is one important indicator of the flexibility
of storage as a grid resource relative to alternatives. Most storage systems have a rapid
response time, typically less than a minute. Pumped hydroelectric storage and
compressed air energy storage tend to be relatively slow as compared with batteries.

Ramp Rate — Ramp rate indicates the rate at which storage power can be varied. A
ramp rate for batteries can be faster than 100% variation in one to a few seconds. The
ramp rate for pumped hydroelectric storage and for compressed air energy storage is
similar to the ramp rate of conventional generation facilities.

Energy Retention or Standby Losses — Energy retention time is the amount of time
that a storage system retains its charge. The concept of energy retention is important
because of the tendency for some types of storage to self-discharge or to dissipate
energy while the storage is not in use.

Energy Density — The amount of energy that can be stored for a given amount of area,
volume, or mass. This criterion is important in applications where area is a limiting factor,
for example, in an urban substation where space could be a limiting constraint to site
energy storage.

Power Density — Power density indicates the amount of power that can be delivered
for a given amount of area, volume, or mass. In addition, like energy density, power
density varies significantly among storage types. Again, power density is important if
area and/or space are limited or if weight is an issue.

Safety — Safety is related to both electricity and to the specific materials and processes
involved in storage systems. The chemicals and reactions used in batteries can pose
safety or fire concerns.

Life span — measured in cycles.

Depth of Discharge (DoD) — Refers to the amount of the battery’s capacity that has
been utilized. It is expressed as a percentage of the battery’s full energy capacity. The
deeper a battery’s discharge, the shorter the expected life time. Deep cycle is often
defined as 80% or more DoD.

Ambient temperature — Has an important effect on battery performance. High ambient

temperatures cause internal reactions to occur, and many batteries lose capacity more

rapidly in hotter climates.

Classification of BESS by Battery Types

BESSs intrinsically use electro-chemical solutions which manifest in some of the

following Battery Types:

1. Lithium-ion — these offer good energy storage for their size and can be charged/
discharged many times in their lifetime. They are used in a wide variety of consumer
electronics such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, electronic cigarettes and digital cameras.
They are also used in electric cars and some aircraft.

2. Lead-acid — these are traditional rechargeable batteries and are inexpensive compared
to newer types of batteries. Uses include protection and control systems, back-up power
supplies, and grid energy storage.
3. Sodium Sulfur — uses include storing energy from renewable sources such as solar or
wind.

4. Zinc bromine — uses include storing energy from renewable sources such as solar or
wind.

5. Flow — flow batteries are quite large and are generally used to store energy from
renewable sources.

Why is BESS gaining popularity?

All types of BESS offer pros and cons in terms of capacity, discharge duration, energy
density, safety, environmental risk, and overall cost. However, Li Ion batteries are by far
the most widely used in BESS systems these days.

Decreasing costs

A major factor in the rapid increase in the use of BESS technology has been a 50%
decrease in costs of energy storage over the last two years. While costs are still high
compared to grid electricity, the cost of energy storage has actually been plummeting for
the last 20 years.

Storage systems at the utility customer level can also result in significant savings to
businesses through smart grid and Distributed Energy Resource (DER) initiatives, where
cars, homes and businesses are potential stores, suppliers and users of electricity.

Security of supply
Storage technologies are also popular because they improve energy security by optimizing
energy supply and demand, reducing the need to import electricity via inter-connectors,
and also reducing the need to continuously adjust generation unit output.

In addition, BESS can provide system security by supplying energy during electricity
outages, minimizing the disruption and costs associated with power cuts.

Financial incentives

Many governments and utility regulators are actively encouraging the development of
battery storage systems with financial incentives, which is likely to lead to further growth.

Risks involved in using BESS

While the use of batteries is nothing new, what is new is the size, complexity, energy
density of the systems and the Li-ion battery chemistry involved — which can lead to
significant fire risks.

Thermal runaway

‘Thermal runaway’ — a cycle in which excessive heat keeps creating more heat — is the
major risk for Li-ion battery technology. It can be caused by a battery having internal cell
defects, mechanical failures/damage or over voltage. These lead to high temperatures, gas
build-up and potential explosive rupture of the battery cell, resulting in fire and/or
explosion. Without disconnection, thermal runaway can also spread from one cell to the
next, causing further damage.

Difficulty of fighting battery fires

Battery fires are often very intense and difficult to control. They can take days or even
weeks to extinguish properly, and may seem fully extinguished when they are not.

Failure of control systems

Another issue can be failure of protection and control systems. For example, a Battery
Management System (BMS) failure can lead to overcharging and an inability to monitor
the operating environment, such as temperature or cell voltage.

Sensitivity of batteries to mechanical damage and electrical transients

Contrary to existing conventional battery technology, some batteries are very sensitive to
mechanical damage and electrical surges. This type of damage can result in internal
battery short circuits which lead to internal battery heating, battery explosions and fires.
The loss of an individual battery can rapidly cascade to surrounding batteries, resulting in
a larger scale fire.

What is a Lead-acid Battery?

The Lead-acid battery is one of the oldest types of rechargeable batteries. These
batteries were invented in the year 1859 by the French physicist Gaston Plante.

Lead-acid batteries can be classified as secondary batteries. The chemical reactions

that occur in secondary cells are reversible. The reactants that generate an electric
current in these batteries (via chemical reactions) can be regenerated by passing
current through the battery (recharging).

The chemical process of extracting current from a secondary battery (forward reaction)
is called discharging. The method of regenerating active material is called charging.

Sealed Lead Acid Battery

 The sealed lead-acid battery consists of six cells mounted side by side in a single
case. The cells are coupled together, and each 2.0V cell adds up to the overall
12.0V capacity of the battery.

 Despite being relatively heavy, lead-acid batteries are still preferred over other
lightweight options owing to their ability to deliver large surges of electricity
(which is required to start a cold engine in an automobile).

 A completely charged lead-acid battery is made up of a stack of alternating lead

oxide electrodes, isolated from each other by layers of porous separators.

 All these parts are placed in a concentrated solution of sulfuric acid. Intercell
connectors connect the positive end of one cell to the negative end of the next
cell hence the six cells are in series.

Chemical Reaction for Discharging

When the battery is discharged, it acts as a galvanic cell and the following chemical
reaction occurs.

Negative:
Pb(s) + HSO4– + H2O(l) –> 2e– + PbSO4(s) + H3O+(aq)
Positive:
PbO2(s) + HSO4–(aq) + 3H3O+(aq) + 2e–  –> PbSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

Lead sulfate is formed at both the electrodes. Two electrons are also transferred in the
complete reaction. The lead acid battery is packed in a thick rubber or plastic case to
prevent leakage of the corrosive sulfuric acid.

Lead Acid Battery Charging

The sulfuric acid existing in the lead discharge battery decomposes and needs to be
replaced. Sometimes, the plates change their structure by themselves. Eventually, the
battery becomes less efficient and should be charged or changed.
When car batteries spend considerable durations of time in their discharged states, the
lead sulfate buildup may become extremely difficult to remove. This is the reason why
lead-acid batteries must be charged as soon as possible (to prevent building up of lead
sulfate). Charging of the lead batteries is usually done by providing an external current
source.

A plug is inserted which is linked to the lead-acid battery and chemical reaction
proceeds in the opposite direction. In cases where the sulfuric acid in the battery (or
some other component of the battery) has undergone decomposition, the charging
process may become inefficient. Therefore, it is advisable to check the battery
periodically.

Chemical Reaction for Recharging

The chemical reaction that takes place when the lead-acid battery is recharging can be
found below.

Negative:

2e– + PbSO4(s) + H3O+(aq) –> Pb(s) + HSO4– + H2O(l)

Positive:

PbSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) –> PbO2(s) + HSO4–(aq) + 3H3O+(aq) + 2e–

While recharging, the automobile battery functions like an electrolytic cell. The energy
required to drive the recharging comes from an external source, such as an engine of a
car. It is also important to note that overcharging of the battery could result in the
formation of byproducts such as hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. These gases tend to
escape from the battery, resulting in the loss of reactants.

Lead Acid Battery Advantages

 Mature technology

 Relatively cheap to manufacture and buy (they provide the lowest cost per unit capacity
for rechargeable cells)

 Large current capability

 Can be made for a variety of applications

 Tolerant to abuse

 Tolerant of overcharging

 Wide range of sizes and specifications available

 Many producers worldwide

Lead Acid Battery Disadvantages

 Fails after a few years use lifespan typically 300 - 500 cycles

 Cannot always be used in a variety of orientations

 Corrosive electrolyte (can cause burns to people and corrosion on metalwork)

 Lead is not environmentally friendly

 Acid needs disposing of with care

 Not suitable for fast charging

 Must be stored in charged state once electrolyte introduced

 Typical charging efficiency only around 70%

1. What is in a lead acid battery?

Ans: The negative plate is made up of lead and the positive plate lead dioxide in the
fully charged state. Concentrated sulfuric acid is the electrolyte, which retains most
of the chemical energy.

2. How a lead acid battery is made?

Ans: Utilizing lead alloy ingots and lead oxide, the lead battery is made of two
chemically dissimilar lead-based plates immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid.

3. How do you maintain a lead acid battery?

Ans: Apply a fully saturated charge of 14 to 16 hours to keep lead acid in good
condition. If this is not permitted by the charge cycle, give the battery once every few
weeks a fully saturated charge.

4. Is a lead acid battery wet or dry?

Ans: Different versions of the lead acid battery are wet cell (flooded), gel cell, and
absorbed glass mat (AGM). There are two styles of the wet cell; serviceable and
maintenance-free. Both are electrolyte-filled and are basically the same.

5. What type of battery is lead acid?

Ans: Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the plate of the battery, react to
lead sulfate in the electrolyte with sulfuric acid. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely
divided, amorphous state, and when the battery recharges easily returns to lead,
lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid.
Lead-acid battery maintenance rules
1. Watering is the most neglected maintenance feature of flooded lead-acid
batteries. As overcharging decreases water, we need to check it frequently. Less
water creates oxidation in plates and decreases the lifespan of the battery. Add
distilled or ionized water when needed.
2. Check for the vents, they need to be perfected with rubber caps, often the rubber
caps sticks with the holes too tightly.
3. Recharge lead-acid batteries after each use. A long period without recharging
provides sulfating in the plates.
4. Do not freeze the battery or charge it more than 49-degree centigrade. In cold
ambient batteries need to be fully charged as fully charge batteries safer than the
empty batteries in respect of freezing.
5. Do not deep discharge the battery less than 1.7V per cell.
6. To store a lead acid battery, it needs to be completely charged then the
electrolyte needs to be drained. Then the battery will become dry and can be stored
for a long time period.

Construction and
working of dry cell:
The Dry Cell was discovered by French Scientist G. Leclanche in 1868. It is the most
common cell which is the improved version of Leclanche Cell. It is a portable cell and
free from liquid. This is why, it is called dry cell as it do not contain any liquid. Dry Cell is
widely used in our day to day life in torch, clock, toys etc.

Construction of Dry Cell

The construction of dry cell is shown in figure below. As can be seen from the figure,
Zinc Container acts as cathode i.e. negative electrode while carbon rod acts as positive
electrode or
anode.
Carbon rod is placed in the middle of Zinc container. It shall be noted that carbon rod is
covered with crushed coke and Manganese dioxide and kept in canvas bag. Here the
mixture of coke and Manganese dioxide acts as depolarizer. Depolarizer is basically a
substance used in a cell to prevent build-up of hydrogen gas bubbles. A battery
depolarizer takes up electrons during discharge of the cell and hence depolarizer is
always an oxidizing agent.
In Dry Cell, electrolyte is paste of sal ammoniac and Zinc Chloride. Sal Amminiac is a
mineral composed of Ammonium Chloride NH 4Cl. Electrolyte is filled in between the
positive plate i.e. carbon rod and negative plate which is zinc container. Zinc chloride is
added in sal ammoniac paste to keep the paste wet. Upper portion of cell is covered
with saw dust and pitch compound and a small hole is kept intentionally for venting of
cell.
Working Principle of Dry Cell
When dry cell is externally connected with wire, following reactions take place,
Zn + 2NH4 Cl = ZnCl2 + 2NH3 + H2
Here NH3 and H2 are in the form of ions.
Ammonia dissolves in water and after saturation it comes out. It shall be noted here
that, H2 reaches to anode i.e. toward the carbon rod and there it reacts with MnO 2 to
makes water.
2MnO2 + H2 = Mn2O3 + H2O
Normally the emf of dry cell is 1.5 V and its internal resistance lies in between 0.1 to 0.5
ohm. These cells are used in portable equipment like Transistor, Torch, TV remote,
remote bell push etc.

Advantages of a dry cell are as follows -

( 1 ) Dry cells are availbale in different sizes and powers to suit different requirements.

( 2 ) Unlike liquid primary cells, these cells can be fitted in a device without any risk of
leakage or spilling of chemicals.

( 3 ) Dry cells are easy and safe for transportation.

Disadvantage of a dry cell are -

( 1 ) They can't be recharged
( 2 ) continuous use of dry cells tends to reduce the output voltage

Applications of a dry cell

1. calculators
2. cameras
3. clocks
4. watches
5. portabe electronics gadgets
6. radio

00:0000:00
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
For 50 years, portable devices relied almost exclusively on nickel-cadmium
(NiCd). This generated a large amount of data, but in the 1990s, nickel-metal-
hydride (NiMH) took over the reign to solve the toxicity problem of the otherwise
robust NiCd. Many of the characteristics of NiCd were transferred to the NiMH
camp, offering a quasi-replacement as these two systems are similar. Because of
environmental regulations, NiCd is limited to specialty applications today.

Invented by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, the nickel-cadmium battery offered

several advantages over lead acid, then the only other rechargeable battery;
however, the materials for NiCd were expensive. Developments were slow, but in
1932, advancements were made to deposit the active materials inside a porous
nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements occurred in 1947 by absorbing the
gases generated during charge, which led to the modern sealed NiCd battery.

For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios,
emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. In
the late 1980s, the ultra-high capacity NiCd rocked the world with capacities that
were up to 60 percent higher than the standard NiCd. Packing more active
material into the cell achieved this, but the gain was shadowed by higher internal
resistance and reduced cycle count.

The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries, and
the airline industry stays true to this system, but it needs proper care to attain
longevity. NiCd, and in part also NiMH, have memory effect that causes a loss of
capacity if not given a periodic full discharge cycle. The battery appears to
remember the previous energy delivered and once a routine has been
established, it does not want to give more. 

Advantages
Rugged, high cycle count with proper maintenance

Only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with little stress

Good load performance; forgiving if abused

 Long shelf life; can be stored in a discharged state, needs
priming before use

Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory

control

Good low-temperature performance

Economically priced; NiCd is the lowest in terms of cost per

cycle

Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options

 

Relatively low specific energy compared with newer

systems

Memory effect; needs periodic full discharges and can be

rejuvenated
Limitations
Cadmium is a toxic metal. Cannot be disposed of in landfills

High self-discharge; needs recharging after storage

Low cell voltage of 1.20V requires many cells to achieve
high voltage

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research on nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the
metal-hydride led to the development of the nickel-hydrogen (NiH) instead. New
hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s eventually improved the stability issues
and today NiMH provides 40 percent higher specific energy than the standard
NiCd.

Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. The battery is more delicate and

trickier to charge than NiCd. With 20 percent self-discharge in the first 24 hours
after charge and 10 percent per month thereafter, NiMH ranks among the highest
in the class. Modifying the hydride materials lowers the self-discharge and
reduces corrosion of the alloy, but this decreases the specific energy. Batteries
for the electric powertrain make use of this modification to achieve the needed
robustness and long life span.
 
Consumer Applications
NiMH has become one of the most readily available rechargeable batteries for
consumer use. Battery manufacturers, such as Panasonic, Energizer, Duracell
and Rayovac, have recognized the need for a durable and low-cost rechargeable
battery and offer NiMH in AA, AAA and other sizes. The battery manufacturers
want to lure buyers away from disposable alkaline to rechargeable batteries.
Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries.

30–40 percent higher capacity than a standard NiCd

Less prone to memory than NiCd, can be rejuvenated

Advantages Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control

Environmentally friendly; contains only mild toxins

Nickel content makes recycling profitable

Wide temperature range

Limited service life; deep discharge reduces service life

Requires complex charge algorithm. Sensitive to overcharge

Limitations Does not absorb overcharge well; trickle charge must be kept low

Generates heat during fast charge and high-load discharge

High self-discharge
Coulombic efficiency only about 65% (99% with Li-ion)

Comparison of alkaline, reusable alkaline, Eneloop and NiMH

 Self-discharge Runtime
Capacity
Battery type Voltage Capacity after Estimated photos
AA cell
1 year storage on digital camera

NiMH 2,700mAh, rechargeable 1.2V 50% 600 shots

Eneloop* 2,500mAh, rechargeable 1.2V 85% 500 shots

2,800mAh; 95%
Regular alkaline 1.5V 100 shots
non-rechargeable 10 year shelf life

Reusable alkaline 2,000mAh; lower on subsequent recharge 1.4V 95% 100 shots

Lithium 2,500–3,400mAh Very low

1.5V 690 shots
(Li-FeS2) (non-rechargeable) 10 year shelf life

Nickel-iron (NiFe)
After inventing nickel-cadmium in 1899, Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner tried to substitute
cadmium for iron to save money; however, poor charge efficiency and gassing
(hydrogen formation) prompted him to abandon the development without securing a
patent.

In 1901, Thomas Edison continued the development of the nickel-iron battery as a

substitute to lead acid for electric vehicles. He claimed that nickel-iron, immersed in an
alkaline electrolyte, was “far superior to batteries using lead plates in sulfuric acid.” He
counted on the emerging electric vehicle market and lost out when gasoline-powered
cars took over. His disappointment grew when the auto industry used lead acid as the
battery for starter, lighting and ignition (SLI) instead of nickel-iron. 

Nickel-zinc (NiZn)
Nickel-zinc is similar to nickel-cadmium in that it uses an alkaline electrolyte and a
nickel electrode, but it differs in voltage; NiZn provides 1.65V/cell rather than 1.20V,
which NiCd and NiMH deliver. NiZn charges at a constant current to 1.9V/cell and
cannot take trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. The specific energy is
100Wh/kg and can be cycled 200–300 times. NiZn has no heavy toxic materials and
can easily be recycled. Some packaging is available in the AA cell format.

In 1901, Thomas Edison was awarded the U.S. patent for a rechargeable nickel–zinc
battery system that was installed in rail cars between 1932 and 1948. NiZn suffered
from high self-discharge and short cycle life caused by dendrite growth, which often led
to an electrical short. Improvements in the electrolyte have reduced this problem, and
NiZn is being considered again for commercial uses. Low cost, high power output and
good temperature operating range make this chemistry attractive.

Nickel-hydrogen (NiH)
When research for nickel-metal-hydride began in 1967, problems with metal instabilities
caused a shift towards the development of the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH). NiH uses
a steel canister to store hydrogen at a pressure of 8,270kPa (1,200psi). The cell
includes solid nickel electrodes, hydrogen electrodes, gas screens and electrolyte that
are encapsulated in the pressurized vessel.

NiH has a nominal cell voltage of 1.25V and the specific energy is 40–75Wh/kg. The
advantages are long service life, even with full discharge cycles, good calendar life due
to low corrosion, minimal self-discharge, and a remarkable temperature performance of
–28°C to 54°C (–20°F to 130°F). These attributes make NiH ideal for satellite use.
Scientists tried to develop NiH batteries for terrestrial use, but low specific energy and
high cost worked against this endeavor. A single cell for a satellite application costs
thousands of dollars. As NiH replaced NiCd in satellites, there is a move towards long-
life Li-ion
 Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Characteristics
1.2 Volt secondary cells using an alkaline chemistry with energy density about double
that of lead acid batteries.
Invented in 1899 but only introduced in volume in the early 1960's
They use nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)2 for the positive electrode (cathode), cadmium Cd as
the negative electrode (anode) and an alkaline potassium hydroxide KOH electrolyte.
Their small size and high rate discharge capacity made portable tools and other consumer
applications practical for the first time.
The cells are sealed and utilise a recombinant system to prevent electrolyte loss and
extend the useful life.
 
Once the battery of choice for low power portable products they have lost market share to
the newer Nickel Metal Hydride and Lithium batteries.
 
Advantages
Low internal resistance (less than half the equivalent NiMH cells)
High rate charge and discharge rates possible
Up to 10C discharge rates for short periods typical
Flat discharge characteristic (but falls off rapidly at the end of the cycle)
Tolerates deep discharges - can be deep cycled.
Wide temperature range (Up to 70°C)
Typical cycle life is over 500 cycles.
Charging process is strongly endothermic-the battery cools during charging. This makes
it possible to charge very quickly, as the I2R heating and endothermic chemical reaction
counteract each other.
Rapid charge typically 2 hours, but can be as low as 10 to 15 minutes.
The coulombic efficiency of nickel cadmium is over 80% for a fast charge but can drop
to below 50% for slow charging.
The sealed nickel-cadmium cell can be stored in the charged or discharged state without
damage. It can be restored for service by recharging several charge/discharge cycles.
The electrolyte is commonly availalable, low cost potassium hydroxide KOH.
Available in a large variety of sizes and capacities.
 
Shortcomings
A major drawback of this technology is its susceptibility to memory effect.
Originally, the terms memory effect or memory problem was coined to describe a cyclic
memory problem where the NiCad battery would "remember" the amount of discharge
for previous discharges and limit the recharge life of the battery. The problem is less
prevalent with modern Ni-Cd batteries, which are designed to avoid cyclic memory
issues.
The memory effect is caused by a change in crystalline formation from the desirable
small size to a large size which occurs when a NiCad battery is recharged before it is
fully discharged. The growth of large crystals increases the cell impedance and can
eventually prevent the battery from discharging beyond that point and/or cause rapid self-
discharge of the battery.
The growth of large crystals can be avoided by either completely discharging it each time
it is used or by using a NiCad battery charger which has a built-in discharge circuit.
Memory effect can sometimes be reversed by putting the battery through several
complete discharge and recharge cycles which helps to recover the smaller crystal
formations. This is called reconditioning.
NiCad batteries are also prone to damage by overcharging.
Low cell voltage of 1.2 Volts compared with primary alkaline cells 1.5 Volts and only
quarter of the capacity of the alkaline cells.
Self re-sealing safety vents must be incorporated to prevent damage due to overheating
and pressure build up.
Cadmium is a high cost heavy metal and its use in consumer products is now deprecated
on environmental grounds.
The
Gradually being phased out in favour of Nickel metal hydride and Lithium
technologies which have superior energy density characteristics and performance
characteristics.
 
Charging
Run down fully once per month to avoid memory effect.
Do not leave battery in charger.
Slow charging method: Constant current followed by trickle charge.
Rapid charging method uses Negative delta V (NDV) charge termination.
 
Applications
Motorised equipment
Power tools
Two way radios
Electric razors
Commercial and industrial portable products
Medical instrumentation
Emergency lighting
Toys
 
Costs
Relatively inexpensive for low power applications but between three and four times more
expensive than lead acid for the same capacity.

Nickel Cadmium Battery Working Principle

A nickel-cadmium cell has two plates. The active material of the positive plate
(anode) is Ni(OH)4 and the negative plate (cathode) is of cadmium (Cd) when
fully charged. The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) with a
small addition of lithium hydrate which increases the capacity and life of the
battery. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.2.
Since the voltage produced by a single cell is very low, many cells are connected
in series to get the desired voltage output and then this arrangement is known as
the nickel-cadmium battery.
In these batteries, the number of positive plates is one more than that of negative
plates. The container of this battery is electrically connected to the positive
plates.
Nickel Cadmium Battery Working Principle

When the cell is fully charged, its positive plate is of Ni(OH)4 and its negative
plate is of cadmium (Cd).
 
Discharging: When the cell discharges, the potassium hydroxide (KOH) is
dissociated into potassium (K+) and hydroxyl (OH–) ions.
 
The hydroxyl ions go to cathode and potassium ions go to the anode. The
following chemical reaction takes place during discharging.
 
At cathode: Cd + 2OH —–> Cd(OH)2
At anode: Ni(OH)4 + 2K ——> 2KOH + Ni(OH)2

Thus, the anode is converted from Ni(OH)4 to NI(OH)2 and cathode is converted

from cadmium (Cd) to cadmium hydroxide [Cd(OH)2]. The strength of the
electrolyte remains the same.
 
Charging: When the battery is put on charging, the hydroxyl (OH-) ions move
towards the anode, whereas the potassium ions (K+) move towards the cathode.
The following chemical reaction takes place during the charging:
At anode: Ni(OH)2 + 2OH —–> NI(OH)4
At cathode: Cd(OH)2 + 2K —–> Cd + 2KOH
 
Thus anode and cathode regain their previous chemical composition without
changing the strength of electrolyte.

Electrical Characteristics of Nickel Cadmium Battery

  The EMF of a fully charged cell is 1.4 V which decreases to 1.3 V rapidly. The
average EMF of the cell is 1.2 V which reduces to 1.0 V when discharged.
 

 The internal resistance of the cell is very less, even lesser than a lead-acid
battery. Due to low internal resistance these can be operated at very high charge
and discharge currents efficiently and safely.

 The ampere and watt-hour efficiencies of the cell are about 80% and 65%
respectively.

Advantages of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 It has a very long (about 20 years) active life.
 Since the specific gravity of the electrolyte (KOH) does not change. It can be
stored indefinitely in either a discharged or charged state without suffering any ill
effects.
 It can withstand peak rates of discharge and charge up to 20 times the normal
operating time.
 They have very low open circuit losses.
 The effect of high discharge rate and low operating temperature is very low on
the capacity of the battery as compared to any other type of rechargeable
battery.

Disadvantages of Nickel Cadmium Battery

 It is very expensive.
 The EMF developed by a fully charged cell is only 1.2 V against 2 V of the lead-
acid cell.
 Its ingredients are harmful for ecosystem. Therefore, its production and utilization
is banned in some countries.
Applications of Nickel Cadmium Battery
 These are used in small portable electrical appliances.
 

 The energy density of nickel-cadmium batteries is high. Also,

these are lighter and more compact. Therefore, these are preferred in
applications where weight and size of the battery are very important like in
airplanes and helicopters. There these are used to start the engine.

Small Nickel Cadmium Cells

The various advantages of nickel-cadmium cells, like longer life, low maintenance, low
internal resistance, etc. prompted scientists to develop these cells in small sizes.
 
Since EMF developed by these cells 1.2 V which is very near to the EMF developed by
dry cells (1.5), therefore these cells have been developed by scientists of the same size
that of small carbon-zinc or dry primary cells (called pencil cells).
 
Today these small sizes nickel-cadmium cells are used in cordless electric appliances
such as electric shavers, hearing aids, photography equipment, etc.
 
The ingredients of small nickel-cadmium cells are the same as that of a larger type. The
plates are woven in the form of a screen and a paste of active material is pressed into
the spaces within the screen. A separator is placed between the positive and negative
plates and rolled in the form of a cylinder. The complete assembly is placed into a cane
for protection.
 
The negative plate is connected with the body of the cane which forms the negative
terminal. An insulated button is placed at the top to which the positive plate is connected
and forms the positive terminal.
 
Though the initial cost of a nickel-cadmium cell is very high as compared to a carbon-
zinc primary cell (i.e. dry cell) yet it is less expensive in the long run. This is because
nickel-cadmium can be recharged and has a very long life whereas the dry cell (primary
cell) can not be recharged and has to be discarded when it is discharged.

Is Lithium-ion the Ideal Battery?

For many years, nickel-cadmium had been the only suitable battery for portable
equipment from wireless communications to mobile computing. Nickel-metal-
hydride and lithium-ion emerged In the early 1990s, fighting nose-to-nose to gain
customer's acceptance. Today, lithium-ion is the fastest growing and most
promising battery chemistry.
The lithium-ion battery

Pioneer work with the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis but it was
not until the early 1970s when the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries
became commercially available. lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the
greatest electrochemical potential and provides the largest energy density for
weight.

Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries failed due to safety problems.

Because of the inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging,
research shifted to a non-metallic lithium battery using lithium ions. Although
slightly lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is safe, provided
certain precautions are met when charging and discharging. In 1991, the Sony
Corporation commercialized the first lithium-ion battery. Other manufacturers
followed suit. 

The energy density of lithium-ion is typically twice that of the standard nickel-
cadmium. There is potential for higher energy densities. The load characteristics
are reasonably good and behave similarly to nickel-cadmium in terms of
discharge. The high cell voltage of 3.6 volts allows battery pack designs with only
one cell. Most of today's mobile phones run on a single cell. A nickel-based pack
would require three 1.2-volt cells connected in series.

 
Lithium-ion is a low maintenance battery, an advantage that most other
chemistries cannot claim. There is no memory and no scheduled cycling is
required to prolong the battery's life. In addition, the self-discharge is less than
half compared to nickel-cadmium, making lithium-ion well suited for modern fuel
gauge applications. lithium-ion cells cause little harm when disposed.

Despite its overall advantages, lithium-ion has its drawbacks. It is fragile and
requires a protection circuit to maintain safe operation. Built into each pack, the
protection circuit limits the peak voltage of each cell during charge and prevents
the cell voltage from dropping too low on discharge. In addition, the cell
temperature is monitored to prevent temperature extremes. The maximum
charge and discharge current on most packs are is limited to between 1C and
2C. With these precautions in place, the possibility of metallic lithium plating
occurring due to overcharge is virtually eliminated.

Aging is a concern with most lithium-ion batteries and many manufacturers

remain silent about this issue. Some capacity deterioration is noticeable after one
year, whether the battery is in use or not. The battery frequently fails after two or
three years. It should be noted that other chemistries also have age-related
degenerative effects. This is especially true for nickel-metal-hydride if exposed to
high ambient temperatures. At the same time, lithium-ion packs are known to
have served for five years in some applications. 

Manufacturers are constantly improving lithium-ion. New and enhanced chemical

combinations are introduced every six months or so. With such rapid progress, it
is difficult to assess how well the revised battery will age. 
 

Storage in a cool place slows the aging process of lithium-ion (and other
chemistries). Manufacturers recommend storage temperatures of 15°C (59°F). In
addition, the battery should be partially charged during storage. The
manufacturer recommends a 40% charge.

The most economical lithium-ion battery in terms of cost-to-energy ratio is the

cylindrical 18650 (size is 18mm x 65.2mm). This cell is used for mobile
computing and other applications that do not demand ultra-thin geometry. If a
slim pack is required, the prismatic lithium-ion cell is the best choice. These cells
come at a higher cost in terms of stored energy.

Advantages

 High energy density - potential for yet higher capacities.

 
 Does not need prolonged priming when new. One regular charge is all
that's needed.
 
 Relatively low self-discharge - self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-
based batteries.
 
 Low Maintenance - no periodic discharge is needed; there is no memory.
 
  Specialty cells can provide very high current to applications such as power
tools.

Limitations

 Requires protection circuit to maintain voltage and current within safe

limits.
 
 Subject to aging, even if not in use - storage in a cool place at 40% charge
reduces the aging effect.
 
 Transportation restrictions - shipment of larger quantities may be subject to
regulatory control. This restriction does not apply to personal carry-on
batteries.
 
 Expensive to manufacture - about 40 percent higher in cost than nickel-
cadmium.
 
 Not fully mature - metals and chemicals are changing on a continuing
basis.

The lithium polymer battery

The lithium-polymer differentiates itself from conventional battery systems in the

type of electrolyte used. The original design, dating back to the 1970s, uses a dry
solid polymer electrolyte. This electrolyte resembles a plastic-like film that does
not conduct electricity but allows ions exchange (electrically charged atoms or
groups of atoms). The polymer electrolyte replaces the traditional porous
separator, which is soaked with electrolyte.
The dry polymer design offers simplifications with respect to fabrication,
ruggedness, safety and thin-profile geometry. With a cell thickness measuring as
little as one millimeter (0.039 inches), equipment designers are left to their own
imagination in terms of form, shape and size. 

Unfortunately, the dry lithium-polymer suffers from poor conductivity. The internal
resistance is too high and cannot deliver the current bursts needed to power
modern communication devices and spin up the hard drives of mobile computing
equipment. Heating the cell to 60°C (140°F) and higher increases the
conductivity, a requirement that is unsuitable for portable applications.

To compromise, some gelled electrolyte has been added. The commercial cells
use a separator/ electrolyte membrane prepared from the same traditional
porous polyethylene or polypropylene separator filled with a polymer, which gels
upon filling with the liquid electrolyte. Thus the commercial lithium-ion polymer
cells are very similar in chemistry and materials to their liquid electrolyte counter
parts. 

Lithium-ion-polymer has not caught on as quickly as some analysts had

expected. Its superiority to other systems and low manufacturing costs has not
been realized. No improvements in capacity gains are achieved - in fact, the
capacity is slightly less than that of the standard lithium-ion battery. Lithium-ion-
polymer finds its market niche in wafer-thin geometries, such as batteries for
credit cards and other such applications.

Advantages

 Very low profile - batteries resembling the profile of a credit card are
feasible.
  Flexible form factor - manufacturers are not bound by standard cell
formats. With high volume, any reasonable size can be produced
economically.
 Lightweight - gelled electrolytes enable simplified packaging by eliminating
the metal shell.
 Improved safety - more resistant to overcharge; less chance for electrolyte
leakage.

Limitations

 Lower energy density and decreased cycle count compared to lithium-ion.

 Expensive to manufacture.
 No standard sizes. Most cells are produced for high volume consumer
markets.
 Higher cost-to-energy ratio than lithium-ion

Restrictions on lithium content for air travel

Air travelers ask the question, "How much lithium in a battery am I allowed to
bring on board?" We differentiate between two battery types: Lithium metal and
lithium-ion. 
Most lithium metal batteries are non-rechargeable and are used in film cameras.
Lithium-ion packs are rechargeable and power laptops, cellular phones and
camcorders. Both battery types, including spare packs, are allowed as carry-on
but cannot exceed the following lithium content: 
- 2 grams for lithium metal or lithium alloy batteries 
- 8 grams for lithium-ion batteries 

Lithium-ion batteries exceeding 8 grams but no more than 25 grams may be

carried in carry-on baggage if individually protected to prevent short circuits and
are limited to two spare batteries per person. 

Restrictions on shipment of lithium-ion batteries

 Anyone shipping lithium-ion batteries in bulk is responsible to meet

transportation regulations. This applies to domestic and international
shipments by land, sea and air. 
 
 Lithium-ion cells whose equivalent lithium content exceeds 1.5 grams or 8
grams per battery pack must be shipped as "Class 9 miscellaneous
hazardous material." Cell capacity and the number of cells in a pack
determine the lithium content. 
 
 Exception is given to packs that contain less than 8 grams of lithium
content. If, however, a shipment contains more than 24 lithium cells or 12
lithium-ion battery packs, special markings and shipping documents will be
required. Each package must be marked that it contains lithium batteries.
 
 All lithium-ion batteries must be tested in accordance with specifications
detailed in UN 3090 regardless of lithium content (UN manual of Tests and
Criteria, Part III, subsection 38.3). This precaution safeguards against the
shipment of flawed batteries. 
 
 Cells & batteries must be separated to prevent short-circuiting and
packaged in strong boxes.
classification of solar pv systems
[A] PV Direct System

These are the simple most of solar PV systems, with the fewest components : the Solar
Panels and the load. Because they don’t have batteries and are not hooked up to the
grid, they only power the loads when the sun is shining. They are appropriate for a few
applications e.g. water pumping or attic ventilation fan.

[B] Off-Grid System

Also referred to as stand-alone systems, it is designed to be independent of the power

grid. Batteries are used to store energy when the sun is not an available during cloudy
days or at night. This type of system will require regular attention to battery electrolyte
levels and terminal corrosion. 

 Independence from the utility grid

 Not subject to the terms/policies of the utility company
 Rate increases, blackouts, or brownouts do not apply
  In remote areas, it is cost effective than extending a grid
 Encourages energy efficiency
 Batteries require maintenance and has limited life
 More components means more complexity
 Batteries decrease system efficiency
 It is more expensive than a grid-direct system
 When the batteries are fully charged, potential power from the PV array is not
utilized
 If the PV system fails, back-up electricity is required to run load
 Most off-grid systems use a backup generator for non-sunny days. They are
expensive, noisy, dirty, and require fuel and regular maintenance

[C] Grid Tied System

These are most common type of PV systems. They are also known as on-grid, grid-tied,
grid-intertied, or grid-direct systems. They generate solar electricity and route it to the
loads and to the grid, offsetting some of electricity usage. System components
comprised of the PV array and inverter. Grid-connected system is similar to regular
electric powered system except that some or all of the electricity comes from the sun.
The drawback of these batteryless systems is that they provide no outage protection—
when the utility grid fails, these systems cannot operate.)

 grid-tied-system
 Increased design flexibility because the system does not have to power all of the
home’s loads
 It is less expensive compared to stand-alone or grid-tied with battery backup
systems
 It requires the least amount of maintenance
 If the system produces more than the loads need, then the extra energy is
exchanged with the utility grid
 Grid-direct systems have a higher efficiency because batteries are not part of the
system
 Higher voltage means smaller wire size
 Electricity costs are fixed for the life of your system
 There is no power to the home when the grid goes down
 Paperwork requirements for interconnection, incentives, and rebates
[D] Grid-tied with battery-backup system

This type is very similar to an off-grid system in design and components, but adds the
utility grid, which reduces the need for the system to provide all the energy all the time.

 grid-tied-with-battery-backup
 Designated loads have power when the grid goes down
  If the system produces more than the home needs, then the extra energy is sold
back to the utility- not lost as in a stand-alone systems after the batteries get full
on a sunny day
 Batteries require maintenance
 Requires rewiring circuits from main service panel to a separate subpanel
 More components mean more complexity
 Batteries decrease system performance because of their efficiency losses
 More expensive than a grid-direct system
 Typically only provides modest backup – usually not all of the loads are backed
up
 Requires paperwork for interconnection, incentives, and rebates

[E] Hybrid system

Hybrid system tries to combine multiple sources of power to maximize availability of

power. It may source energy from sun, wind or diesel generator and back it up with
battery.

 Multiple sources of generation allows for complementary sources and backup.

For instance, when it is sunny out the PV array will charge the battery; if it is
cloudy and windy, a wind turbine can charge the batteries
 Array size and battery bank capacity can typically be reduced and not having to
oversize for periods of no sun
 More complex system design and installation
 Multiple power sources can increase upfront expenses
 Wind turbines and generators require regular maintenance.
Types of Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System
Solar Photovoltaics convert daylight into electricity and can be used in Grid-Tied Solar
PV Systems where renewable electricity is fed directly into the properties power supply,
excess electricity being exported (sold) to energy companies using the National Grid
and in Off-Grid situations where electricity is generated and stored in batteries for use
locally.

Grid-Tied Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

If your building is already connected to the mains power network or a connection to the
national grid would be easy and not too expensive to arrange, a Grid-Tied Solar
Photovoltaic system is often the most cost effective PV System to install.

A Grid-Tied PV system offers the potential to make a profit on the energy you generate,
whilst significantly reducing your energy bills and making a contribution to lowering CO2
emmissions.

Any excess electricity is automatically exported to the grid, at night and in winter the grid
connection is used in the normal way. Essentially a grid connected solar PV system
provides a second source of power directly into the properties consumer/distribution
unit.

Grid-Tied Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Equipment

Below is an overview of what equipment is needed in a typical Grid-Tied Solar PV

installation.

 Solar PV Panels / PV Modules - The head end of a PV system that converts

daylight into electrical current. As well as traditional Solar Panels, Solar PV
 panels can also be integrated into building materials where you may have
traditionally used glass such as into canopies, skylights and balconies.
 A Grid-Tie Inverter - Is used to convert DC power into AC power ready for use
locally and for export to the grid.
 Cables & Accessories - Used to safely connect the various components, cables
should be specified in relation to the maximum load current and the potential
operating temperatures.
 Isolators - Used to disconnect parts or all of the system for maintenance and/or
in an emergency.
 Mounting System - There is a wide choice of mounting systems. Solar PV
panels and moduless can be mounted onto roofs (bolted on top or integrated
within) Free Standing Frames and Building Integrated PV solutions are also
available.
 Monitor - Used for measuring how much energy is being generated.
 Generation Meter - A generation meter monitors and displays how much
electricity has been generated in kWhrs,

Off-Grid Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

An Off-Grid Solar PV System is self contained and uses batteries to store and release
electricity when the Solar PV Panels aren't active such as at night. An Off-Grid PV
solution is ideal for remote buildings, application specific functions such as for powering
machinery, temporary solutions, pumps, boats, pretty much anywhere where mains
electricity isn't available and or isn't needed.

Off-Grid Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Equipment

 Solar PV Panels / PV Modules - The head end of the system that converts
daylight into electrical current.
 Power Inverters - Used to convert DC power provided by Solar panels and
stored in batteries into AC Electricity to be integrated into the buildings electrical
system.
  Charge Controller - Used to prevent damage to batteries through overcharging
and reverse current.
 Cables & Accessories - Used to safely connect the various components.
 Isolators - Used to disconnect parts or all of the system for maintenance and/or
in in an emergency.
 Monitor - Used for measuring how much energy is being generated.
 Batteries - Used to store and release power.
 Mounting System - Used to install Solar panels on a roof or other suitable
structure.

Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

 If you were thinking that there is nothing stopping you from having both types of
system installed at the same time you would be absolutely right. A Hybrid system
gives you all the benefits of both systems with the added benefits from protection
from power cuts and outages (from either solar or mains), coupled with the ability
to live independently of fossil fuels whilst supplying others with clean, green
energy.
 A Hybrid Solar PV System would utilise a connection to the grid enabling power
to be exported and also use batteries to protect against power cuts and store
power for use locally.
 Please note that as with all grid connected PV systems, in hybrid systems we
need to protect against islanding, this is where the PV system would continue to
generate and export power to the grid even if the mains power was unavailable.
For safety the PV system will disconnect itself from the grid if mains power
becomes unavailable, hybrid systems will continue to supply power to the
property in the event of a power cut.

Solar & Wind Powered Water Pumps

  Solar Pumps, Wind Pumps or a combination of the two can be used for moving
water from boreholes, wells, lakes and streams to difficult to reach buildings and
fields, for irrigation, livestock and drinking water.

Batteryless Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems

 This is where energy generated is supplied directly to appliances. This kind of

power system is common powering water pumps, road signs and electric fences.
 From simple stand alone systems through to complicated monitored and
engineered systems. Being able to generate electricity locally opens up many
opportunities in the areas of security, animal management and providing power
to remote areas.

Solar PV Balcony Systems

 Generate electricity utilising the limited space available outside apartment

complexes and flats. Systems are suitable for retrofit as well as new build.
Available in a wide choice of sizes, styles and colours Solar PV Balconies can be
designed to either make a bold statement or to blend in with the surroundings.
The PV Modules we use have the same structural properties as safety glass and
the supports are made using anti corrissive aluminium.

Free Standing Solar PV Systems

In many cases the simpliest solutions are the best. What's simpler then mounting a
series of Solar PV Panels (a PV array) on a frame or pole, facing the Solar array
towards the sun and starting to generate your own electrical power?

Following the design principle of keeping things simple some of the most cost effective,
best performing and most efficient PV systems are based on Free standing Solar PV
Arrays. Systems range from small portable PV arrays to power machinery and tools
through to ultra efficient, high power Solar PV Trackers .
Thin Film Photovoltacs (PV)

If you have access to flat roofspace a cost effective, quick to install and fast payback
energy solution is a Thin Film Photovoltaic Roofing system that generates electricity.

Types of Solar PV Systems

 1. PV (Photovoltaic) Direct System:
 
These are called the most simple of solar PV systems, with the fewest
components: the load and the Solar Panels. Because they are not hooked up
to the grid and they don’t have batteries, also they only power the loads
when the sun is shining. They are appropriate for a few applications e.g. attic
ventilation fan or water pumping.

2. Off-Grid System: 

Off-Grid System is also referred to as stand-alone systems, it is designed in

such a way that it is independent of the power grid. Batteries are used to
store energy when the sun is not available at night or during cloudy days.
This type of system will require regular attention to terminal corrosion and
battery electrolyte levels. The characteristics of this system are:
 
 It is Independent of the utility grid
 It is not subject to the policies/ terms of the utility company
 Rate increases, brownouts, or blackouts do not apply
 It largely encourages energy efficiency
 Batteries have limited life and require maintenance
 More complexity because of more components
 System efficiency decreases due to batteries
 Compared to a grid-direct system, it is more expensive
 Potential power from the PV array is not utilized when the batteries are
fully charged
 Back-up electricity is required to run load when the PV system fails
 For non-sunny days most off-grid systems use a backup generator.
 They are expensive, dirty and noisy. They also require regular
maintenance and fuel.

 
3. Grid-Tied System :
Grid-Tied System is the most common type of PV systems. They are also
known as on-grid, grid-intertie, grid-tied or grid-direct systems. They
generate solar electricity and route it to the grid and to the loads, offsetting
some of the electricity usages.
The system components are comprised of the PV inverter and array. The
grid-connected system is quite similar to the regular electric powered system
with the exception that some or all of the electricity comes from the sun.
These battery-less systems provide no outage protection which is their
drawback. So these systems cannot operate when the utility grid fails. The
characteristics of Grid-Tied System are:
 As the system does not have to power all of the home’s loads design
flexibility Increases
 As compared to stand-alone or grid-tied with battery backup systems, it
is less expensive
 Least amount of maintenance required
 If the system produces more than what the loads need, then the extra
energy produced is exchanged with the utility grid
 It has a higher efficiency because batteries are not part of the Grid-
direct systems
 Higher voltage leads to smaller wire size
 For the life of your system electricity costs are fixed
 When the grid goes down, there is no power to the home
 Paperwork requirements for interconnection, rebates, and incentives

 4. Grid-Tied With Battery-Backup System :
 

In terms of components and design, this type of system is very similar to an

off-grid system but adds the utility grid, which in turn reduces the need for
the system to provide all the energy at all times. The characteristics of grid-
tied-with-battery-backup are:
 when the grid goes down, designated loads have power
 If the system produces more than the home requires, then the extra
energy produced is sold back to the utility- it is not lost after the batteries get
full on a sunny day as in the case of a stand-alone systems
 Maintenance is required for the batteries
 Rewiring circuits from main service panel to a separate subpanel is
required
 More complexity because of more components
 Because of the efficiency losses of the batteries system performance
decreases
 Compared to a grid-direct system, it is more expensive
 It typically only provides modest backup – generally, not all of the
loads are backed up
 Requires paperwork for interconnection, rebates, and incentives
 
5. Hybrid system:

this type of system tries to combine multiple sources of power to maximize

the availability of power. It may store energy from the sun, diesel generator
or wind and back it up with battery. The characteristics of the hybrid system
are:
 Multiple sources of generation allow for backup and complementary
sources. For instance, if it is cloudy and windy, a wind turbine can charge the
batteries; when it is sunny out the PV array will charge the battery.
 Battery bank capacity and array size can typically be reduced and
without having to oversize for periods of no sun.
 More complex installation and system design.
 An increase in upfront expenses because of multiple power sources.
 Generators and wind turbines require regular maintenance.

Method of power tracking system in PV:

Types of Solar Tracking Systems

Solar tracking systems can be classified by the mode of their motion. 

There are axes for a moving surface: two horizontal axes and one vertical axis. 

The surface can be rotated around each axis (tilted) to get the right angle for
receiving the maximum sunlight. 

When movement or adjustment of the surface happens by rotating around one axis,

it is called single-axis tracking. 

On the other hand, when the rotation of the surface happens around  two
axes simultaneously, it is called dual-axis tracking.

Application of Single-Axis Tracking System:

Single-axis trackers usually move from the east to the west and follow the Sun’s
direction. 

Single-axis trackers have only one angle that is used as the axis of rotation. This
type of tracker can increase electricity production by more than 30%. 
These trackers provide an efficient, simple, and low-cost way to improve the
functioning of solar installations.

Also, these trackers can optimize the performance of the Sun during the summer
and spring seasons, when the Sun is in a higher position in the sky. 

The usefulness of single-axis trackers, however, drops as they move farther

towards the North. It is because the variance of the solar angle is higher between
the summer and winter seasons. 

Also, the performance drops during the other times of the year for the horizontal
position of the Sun. At higher latitudes, vertical axis trackers work better. 

This way, solar arrays or panels can track the position of the Sun during winter as
well as summer.

Now, let us talk about different types of single-axis trackers such as horizontal,
vertical, tilted, and polar aligned.

Horizontal Single-Axis Solar Tracker (HSAT)

Horizontal single-axis solar tracker rotates from east to west throughout the day on
a fixed axis which is parallel to the ground. 

This type of tracker is considered the most cost-effective tracker geometry in many
applications. 

Single-axis horizontal trackers can follow the Sun’s movement from the morning to
evening across the sky.
An HSAT structure may be supported at many points along the rotating axis and
therefore requires less complexity and less material for construction than other
tracking geometries. 

The horizontal tracking geometry is more preferred as it reduces the structural

material requirements by keeping the modules at a relatively low profile to the
foundation. 

Also, no special connection is needed to rotate the system about its center of
gravity.

Horizontal Tilted Single-Axis Solar Tracker (HTSAT)

This type of single-axis solar tracker is similar to the HSAT. However, the device is
installed at a certain tilt. 

Tilted-axis tracking systems are relatively more complex than horizontal single-axis
trackers and usually require a concrete foundation.  

HTSATs are tilted upward and toward the south or the northern hemisphere and
rotate the panels from east to west throughout the day to track the Sun’s
movement.   

Because HTSATs are more complex, they may be expensive. Also, the potential
requirement to have a concrete foundation adds up cost.  

Generally, HTSATs is not scalable, which means the mechanical components are
not shared between units. Due to this, the cost per panel may not be lower in larger
arrays.

Vertical Single-Axis Solar Tracker (VSAT)

Vertical single-axis solar trackers or VSATs rotate from east to west following the
Sun throughout the day. 

These systems are often installed in high-altitude or mountainous locations. 

The profile of VSATs is not parallel to the ground, because of which it is easier for
these trackers to maintain a consistent angle of solar incidence when the Sun is
lower in the sky. 

This is particularly beneficial in northern latitudes, for example, between 40° and
55°. However, unlike planar horizontal arrays, vertical field layouts need to
accommodate the taller profile of the vertical tracker and spread units out to avoid
self-shading and energy losses. 

As a result, vertical single-axis trackers tend to have a relatively lower power

density per acre.

Vertical-Tilted Single-Axis Solar Tracker (VTSAT)

This type of tracker is similar to a horizontal, tilted single-axis tracker. The only
difference is that the tilt is parallel to a horizontal position and rotates on a vertical
axis. 

These trackers can also improve energy harvest compared to horizontal trackers.
However, due to the optimal tilt angle, the tilted single-axis trackers are subject to
increased wind loading compared to horizontal units. 

In VTSTATs, structural requirements are higher, and as a result, more steel and
concrete are used compared to a horizontal array.
Advantages of Single-Axis Solar Tracking System
Single-axis trackers have a single degree of flexibility that serves as an axis of
rotation, which is generally aligned along a North-South path. Major advantages of
single-axis trackers include:

 Single-axis trackers are more reliable.

 Single-axis has a longer lifespan than dual-axis trackers.

 Single-axis trackers are cheaper than dual-axis trackers because they have a
simple mechanism and operate at a low cost.

 Single-axis trackers are ideal for companies with a lower budget or generally
cloudy areas.

 Single-axis trackers are nearly 32.17% efficient compared to a fixed solar

tracker mount panel. 

 These trackers follow the Sun from East to West, providing consistent power
output all day long.

 The trackers generate 15-16% higher annual power as compared to a static

station of the same installed capacity.

 Single-axis trackers provide the highest density of PV panel placement per

square.

 The payback period is lesser for the investment of the solar project, and a
significant increase in profits.

Installation of a solar tracking system may require some additional parts and gears
to add to the solar panel system, and they require maintenance from time to time as
well.   
Disadvantages of Single-Axis Solar Tracking System
 Energy output is lower by single-axis tracker during sunny conditions compared to
dual-axis trackers

 Limited technological upgrade.

Application of Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System

Dual-axis trackers have two rotation axis degrees, which are called the “primary
axis” and the “secondary axis.” 

The rotational axis can move downwards or upwards to adjust with the angles of the
Sun throughout the day.  

Dual-axis tracking allows for the most accurate orientation of the solar device and is
said to provide 40% more output through energy absorption. However, these solar
trackers are more complex and expensive.  

Dual-axis trackers continually face the Sun as they can move in two different
directions. There are two types of altitude-based dual-axis trackers — tip-tilt and
azimuth-altitude. 

Typically, dual-axis tracking is used to orient a mirror and redirect sunlight along a
fixed axis towards a stationary receiver. 

As these trackers track the sun’s path vertically and horizontally, they help obtain
maximum solar energy.

Azimuth-altitude dual-axis trackers can solve both issues. However, these trackers
can be expensive and add nearly $3,500–$6,500 to the solar installation cost. 
The function of dual-axis trackers depends on vertical and horizontal pivots, which
are controller-guided similar to solar telescopes. These are quite costly, and their
usage is generally limited to solar energy systems of commercial grade. 

The accurate tracking of dual-axis solar trackers is also used in a focused solar
application, such as mirrors that direct sunlight receivers and convert sunlight into
heat. 

Advantages of the Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System

 Dual-axis trackers follow the Sun continually and provide constant power
output throughout the day. 

 These solar trackers provide a reasonable solution in cases of the limited

power capacity of the connection to the grid.

 Dual-axis trackers need smaller space and provide an opportunity to use the
remaining area around for other additional purposes such as car parking,
gardening, and others. 

 These trackers generate 45-50% higher power output per year, as compared
to a static station of the same installed capacity;

 Dual-axis trackers provide the optimal solution for areas that may hinder solar
productivity. Some of these areas could be a complicated structure of the
ground, complicated relief, stone protrusions, descent towards the North, and
others.

 The payback period on investment is lower in the case of dual-axis trackers.

Also, there will be a significant increase in profits during their lifespan. 

Disadvantages of Dual-Axis Tracker

 Dual-axis trackers have higher technical complexity, which makes it
potentially vulnerable to glitches. 
 These trackers have a shorter lifespan and lesser reliability.

 Low performance in cloudy or overcast weather

Other Types of Solar Trackers:

Passive Trackers
Passive solar trackers use a compressed gas fluid with a low boiling point that
rotates to one side or the other to make the tracker move in response to an
imbalance. 

As this type of orientation is not precise, it is not suitable for certain types
of concentrating photovoltaic (PV) collectors but works fine for common PV panel
types.

Active Trackers
Active trackers, on the other hand, use motors and gear to direct the tracker by a
controller, responding to the solar direction. 

Because the motors consume energy, they need to be used when it is necessary.

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Charge Controller Working

Principle

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) charge controllers eliminate much of the energy
loss found in the other types of controllers and produce efficiencies up to 30% over non-
MPPT controllers. They are the most widely used type of charge controller, especially in
larger systems.

The MPPT tracks the voltage and current from the solar module to determine when the
maximum power occurs in order to extract the maximum power. The MPPT then adjusts
the voltage to the battery to optimize the charging. This results in a maximum power
transfer from the solar module to the battery. MPPT charge controllers normally use
PWM in their operation.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is the process for tracking the voltage and
current from a solar module to determine when the maximum power occurs in order to
extract the maximum power.

In Figure 1, the blue curve is the current-voltage characteristic for a certain solar

panel under a specified condition of incident light. The red curve is the power showing
where the peak occurs, which is in the knee of the I-V curve (blue dot) at I MMP and VMMP.
If the incident light decreases, the curves shift down.

The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) charge controller incorporates PWM and a
DC to DC converter.

A simplified block diagram of the functional concept is shown in Figure 2. The Maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) can be implemented in several ways, so the figure
illustrates only the basic functions.
The purpose of the DC to DC converter is to isolate the DC input from the DC output so
the output can be adjusted for maximum power. The MPPT control typically employs a
microprocessor.
 

The output current of a solar module varies directly with the amount of light (irradiance) as
shown in Figure 3a

The maximum power that can be delivered will be greater at a higher irradiance, by

reducing the load and maintaining the voltage at a constant level.
For changing temperature, the output voltage changes inversely, while the current
remains relatively constant, as illustrated in Figure 3b.

Notice how the maximum power point (MMP) (blue dot) changes in both cases. The
function of MPPT is to keep the operating point of the solar module at the maximum
power point as the I-V curves change with changes in light or temperature.

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) operates using an algorithm, which is basically a
series of steps or procedures that is used to accomplish a desired result. Various
algorithms are used in MPPT, but we will focus on just one called the Perturb and
Observe Algorithm.

Perturb and Observe MPPT Algorithm

The Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm is a procedure in which a variable is changed
(perturbed) and the effect of the change on another variable is monitored (observed).
(P&O is also known as the hill-climbing method.)
 The graphs in Figure 4 illustrate points along the I-V curve and the power curve that
could be used in applying the P&O algorithm
One method for moving the solar module output voltage along the I-V curve is to vary
the load on the module incrementally until the maximum power point (MPP) is located.
An I-V curve is shown in Figure 4a.
The Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) starts by setting a load value and
measuring the module output voltage V 1 and the current. The power (P 1) at V1 is
calculated.

Next, the load is increased and P 2 is calculated for V2. P2 is compared with P1 and,
because P2 is greater than (>) P1 we are still on the uphill side of the MPP on the power
curve shown in Figure 4b.

The MPPT then moves the module output voltage to V 3 and calculates P3. P3 is greater
than P2, so we are still climbing the power curve toward the MPP.

The next measurement at V4 shows that P4 is greater than P3.

Finally, the measurement at V 5 shows that P5 is equal to or less than (≤) P 4, which
indicates that the MPP has been passed and we are on the downhill side of the power
curve. At this point, the MPPT reverses back to V 4 and then goes back and forth
(oscillates) between V4 and V5 on either side of the MPP.
The accuracy of this approach depends on the size of the voltage increments between
each measurement. Smaller increments result in more accuracy and give a result
closer to the actual MPP.

The flow chart in Figure 5 further illustrates the simplified P&O algorithm. Inverters
come in many sizes and shapes. A typical Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
charge controller is shown in Figure 6.
MPPT Charge Controller Working

Figure 7 is a block diagram of an MPPT charge controller.

First, the MPPT microprocessor tracks and sets the solar module output at the
maximum power point. The DC to DC converter consists of the DC to AC converter, the
transformer, and the AC to DC converter.
The purpose of these blocks is to convert the V MPP to AC voltage and transformer-
couple the AC voltage to the AC to DC converter, where the AC is converted back to a
DC voltage.
As you know, a transformer is an electromagnetic device that works only with AC and
isolates its input electrically from its output. The reason for the isolation is to allow the
output DC voltage to be controlled independently of the voltage from the solar module.
The transformer can also step the AC voltage up or down, depending on what is
required by the system.
The Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) microprocessor then adjusts the PWM
switching regulator to produce the proper voltage required by the battery.
Maximum Power Point Tracking
When a solar PV module is used in a system, its operating point is decided by the load
to which it is connected. Also since solar radiation falling on a PV module varies
throughout the day, the operating point of module also changes throughout the day.
When a PV system is deployed for practical applications, the I-V characteristics keeps
on changing with insolation and temperature. For example the operating point of a PV
module and a resistive load for 12 noon, 10 am and 8 am will vary from each other, and
under all the operating conditions it is desirable to transfer maximum power from a PV
module to the load. In order to receive maximum power, the load must adjust itself
accordingly to track the maximum power point. In order to ensure the operation of PV
modules for maximum power transfer a special method called Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) is employed in PV systems. MPPT is not the same as the mechanical
tracking (sun tracking) of solar PV modules. In sun tracking method, PV modules are
mechanically rotated so the radiation is maximum while in the case of MPPT, electronic
circuitry is used to ensure that maximum amount of generated power is transferred to
the load. Figure below shows the maximum power point curve.

Block Diagram of MPPT

The maximum power tracking mechanism makes use of an algorithm and an electronic
circuitry. The mechanism is based on the principle of impedance matching between
load and PV module, which is necessary for maximum power transfer. Generally MPPT
is an adaptation of DC to DC switching voltage regulator. The impedance matching is
done by using a DC to DC converter. Using a DC to DC converter the impedance is
matched by changing the duty cycle of the switch. Coupling to the load for maximum
power transfer may require either providing a higher voltage for higher current. A buck
boost scheme is commonly used with voltage and current sensors tied into a feedback
loop using a controller to vary the switching times. Buck converter can also be used.
The block diagram of an MPPT algorithm is shown in below figure.
The power from the solar module can be calculated by measuring the voltage and the
current. This power is an input to the algorithm which then adjusts the duty cycle of
the switch, resulting in the adjustment of the reflected load impedance according to the
power output of PV module. For instance the relation between the input voltage(Vi) and
the output voltage (Vo) and the impedance of load (R L) reflected at the input side (Ri) of
a buck type DC to DC converter can be given as,

Vo =Vi × d

Ri = RL / d2

Where d is the duty cycle. By adjusting the duty cycle, Ri can be varied which should be
same as the impedance of solar PV module (R PV) in a given operating condition for
maximum power transfer.

The power output of a PV system is given by,

P=V×I

With incremental change in current and voltage, the modified power is given by,

P + δP = (I + δI) × (V + δV)
This after ignoring small terms simplifies to,

δP = (δV × I) + (δI × V)

δP must be zero at break point. Therefore at peak point the above expression in the
limit becomes,

dV / dI = -V / I

It may be noted here that dV / dI is the dynamic impedance of the source, which is
required to be equal to negative of static impedance, V / I .

Strategies for operation of an MPPT

There are three possible strategies for the operation of an MPPT. They are:

1. By monitoring Dynamic and static impedances: A small signal current is

periodically injected into the array bus and the dynamic as well as static bus
impedances (Zd and Zs respectively) are measured. The operating voltage is then
adjusted until the condition Zd = - Zs is achieved.
2. By monitoring power output: From the shape of a PV characteristic, it is clear
that the slope, dP / dV is zero at maximum power point. This property is utilized to
track the minimum power point. Voltage is adjusted and power output is sensed. The
operating voltage is increased as long as dP / dV is positive. That is, voltage is
increased as long as we get increased output. If dP / dV is sensed negative, the
operating voltage is decreased. The voltage is held unaltered if dP /dV is near zero
within a preset dead band.
3. By fixing the output voltage as a fraction  of Voc: This method makes use of
the fact that for most PV cells the ratio of the voltage at maximum power point to
open circuit voltage, is approximately constant (say k). For high quality crystalline
silicon cell, k=0.72. 
Algorithms for MPPT

Algorithms for MPPT are various types of schemes that are implemented for obtaining
maximum power transfer. Some of the popular schemes are  incremental conductance
method, system oscillation method, hill climbing method, modified hill climbing
method, constant voltage method. Other MPPT methods include those which use state
space approach with the tracking power converter operating in Continuous Conduction
Mode (CCM) and the another one which is based on a combination of incremental
conductance and perturb and observe method. Energy extracted from the PV source
through MPPT should be either utilized by a load or stored in some form for example,
energy stored in a battery or used for electrolysis to produce hydrogen for future use
in fuel cells. In view of this grid connected PV systems are very popular as they do not
have any energy storage requirements since the grid can absorb any amount of PV
energy tracked.

Some of the popular and most commonly used MPPT schemes are explained below:

Constant voltage method: The ration of VMPP and Voc is a constant approxiately equal

to 0.78.  Here array voltage is represented by V MPP  and the open circuit voltage is
represented by Voc.The sensed PV array voltage is compared with a reference voltage
to generate an error signal which in turn controls the duty cycle. The duty cycle of the
power converter ensures that the PV array voltage is equal to 0.78 × Voc. Also Voc can
be determined using a diode mounted at the back of the array (so that it has the same
temperature as the array). A constant current is fed into the diode and the resulting
voltage across the diode is used as the arrays Voc which then utilized in tracking V MPP.

Hill climbing method: The most popular algorithm is the hill climbing method. It is
applied by perturbing the duty cycle ‘d’ at regular intervals and by recording the resulting
array current and voltage values, thereby obtaining the power. Once the power is
known, a check for the slope of the P- V curve or the operating region (current source or
voltage source region) is carried out and then the change in d is effected in a direction
so that the operating point approaches maximum power point on the power voltage
characteristic.The algorithm of this scheme is described below along with the help of
mathematical expressions,

In a voltage source region, ∂PPV / ∂VPV > 0 = d = d + δd (i.e., increment d)

In the current source region, ∂PPV / ∂VPV < 0 = d = d - δd (i.e., decrement d)
At maximum power point, ∂PPV / ∂VPV = 0 = d = d or δd = 0 (i.e., retain d)

As per the above equations if ∂P PV / ∂VPV is graeter than zero (Pnew > Pold) the duty cycle
is increased (d = d + δd). This means that the slope is positive and the module is
operating in the constant current region. In case of the slope being negative (P new < Pold)
the duty cycle is reduced (d = d - δd), as the operating region in this case is the constsnt
voltage region. This algorithm can be implemented using a microcontroller.

Incremental conductance method: In the Incremental conductance method, the

maximum power point by matching the PV array impedance wit the effective impedance
of the converter reflected across the terminals of the array. While, latter is tuned by
increase or decrease in the duty cycle value. The algorithm can be explained as follows:

For voltage source region, ∂IPV / ∂VPV > - IPV / VPV = d = d + δd (i.e., increment duty cycle)
For current source region, ∂IPV / ∂VPV < - IPV / VPV  = d = d - δd (i.e., decrement duty cycle)
At maximum power point, ∂IPV / ∂VPV = d = d or δd = 0 

Incremental conductance MPPT method: Off-grid PV system are usually

using batteries to supply loads at night. Although the fully charged battery pack voltage
may be near to the maximum power point voltage of the PV panel's, this is not true at
sunrise when the partial discharge of the battery takes place.At a certain voltage  below
the maximum voltage of the PV panel, charging takes place and this mismatch can be
resolved using an MPPT. In case of a grid connected PV system, all the delivered
power from solar modules will be sent to the grid. Therefore, the MPPT in a grid
connected photovoltaic system will always try to operate the PV modules at its
maximum power point.
Photovoltaic System Using Buck-Boost Converter based on
MPPT:

Buck Converter
A Buck converter is used to step down voltage of the given input in order to achieve required output.
Buck converter are mostly used for USB on the go, point of load converters for PCs and laptops,
Battery Chargers, Quad Copters, Solar Chargers, power audio amplifier. These converters are
designed to have efficiency of 90% or higher, resulting in low power loss.

Inductors are critical components in buck and boost circuits. New developments in
winding and core technologies are making it advantageous to specify buck and boost
inductors at higher power levels, higher frequencies and higher ripple current.
When specifying an inductor for buck, the first item to determine is the minimum
inductance. It is done by taking the inductor ripple current into account, the switch
ON/OFF switch times, frequency of operation, voltage drop across the rectification (or
rectified) device, and the maximum input voltage.
MPS Industries designs these inductors with a wide range of core materials and
construction methods based on cost, performance, and size considerations. Inductors
have an inherent DC resistance (DCR) which impacts the performance of the output
stage. This could also be changed or minimized by winding with different wire types
such as magnet wire, litz wire, or Helical edge wound flat wire.

Boost Converter

A boost converter steps up given DC voltage at the output according to the

requirements. Applications for this topology includes hybrid electric circuits, solar power
systems, LED driver, LED back light and flash light.
 Inductors used in Boost converters come in many shapes and sizes, with a wide
range of power levels. These requirements determine whether the boost is best
designed to operate in CCM or DCM. In DCM, the inductor current ramps up from zero
when the switch is on and fully discharged back to zero again before the next switching
period. But in a non-synchronous CCM boost, the inductor’s current is always greater
than zero when current is ramping up, as well as when ramping down and discharging
the inductor’s stored energy into the output capacitor and load.

Inductors could be manufactured/designed with gapped ferrite, powdered cores

with distributed air gap, or amorphous cores in various shapes and sizes. While these
are clearly not the only alternatives for this type of inductor, they are the most favorable
when the design objective is to develop the smallest and lowest cost alternative for
medium to high power and operating at high ripple values at frequencies above 10 kHz.
The choice of core requires an examination of a number of variables including loss
density, saturation flux density, and cost. Amorphous, nanocrystalline, MPP, etc. cores
are notably more expensive than the ferrite and powdered cores. Similarly, litz wire is
significantly more expensive than solid wire and copper foil. Heat dissipation is also a
significant factor in determining which combination of materials is best.

We make sure inductances are met for each of the custom designs and losses are
determined by summing core losses, as well as AC/DC winding losses.

Inverting Buck-Boost Converter

Negative voltages are needed in many electronic designs. A very easy and low-cost
method of obtaining the negative voltage is the polarity-inverting topology.

The polarity inverting buck-boost converter is a very basic power conversion topology
like the buck topology and the boost topology. Each of these basic topologies is built
with one active switch, a passive switch (a diode) and an inductor. The simplicity of the
polarity-inverting topology is one of its biggest advantages. This topology needs very
few power stage components thereby reducing the cost and development complexity.
So, polarity inverting topology reverses the polarity of the input voltage but allows the
output voltage to be higher or lower than the absolute of the input voltage.

Compared to the buck and the boost topologies, the inverting topology has the
main energy storing element, the inductor, connected between the switch node and
ground. The inductor always prevents current from changing instantaneously.

Hence the inductor silences the noise on a specific node. The polarity-inverting
topology is noisy on the input side as well as on the output side. Noisy nodes require
good capacitive filtering to reduce the ripple voltage. In the polarity-inverting topology,
both, the input node as well as the output node require capacitors to minimize voltage
ripple and noise
Buck – boost converter is “a DC to DC converter which either steps up or steps down
the input voltage level”. The step up or step down of input voltage level depends on the
duty ratio. Duty ratio or duty cycle is the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage in the
circuit. Buck – bust converter provides regulated DC output.

When it is in buck mode, the output voltage obtained is less than input applied voltage.
In this mode, the output current is more than input current. However, the output power is
equal to the input power. When it is in boost mode, the output voltage obtained is more
than the input applied voltage. In this mode, the output current is less than input current.
However, the output power is equal to the input power. To operate the buck – boost
converter, the two switches will operate simultaneously. When switches are closed,
inductor stores energy in a magnetic field. When switches are open, the inductors get
discharged and give the supply to the load. The inductors in the circuit do not allow
sudden variations in the current. The capacitor across the load provides a regulated DC
output. There are several formats that can be used for buck-boost converters:

+Vin, -Vout: This configuration of a buck-boost converter circuit uses the same number
of components as the simple buck or boost converters. However this buck-boost
regulator or DC-DC converter produces a negative output for a positive input. While this
may be required or can be accommodated for a limited number of applications, it is not
normally the most convenient format.
When the switch in closed, current builds up through the inductor. When the switch is
opened the inductor supplies current through the diode to the load. +Vin, +Vout: The
second buck-boost converter circuit allows both input and output to be the same
polarity. However to achieve this, more components are required. The circuit for this
buck boost converter is shown below.

In this circuit, both switches act together, i.e. both are closed or open. When the
switches are open, the inductor current builds. At a suitable point, the switches are
opened. The inductor then supplies current to the load through a path incorporating both
diodes, D1 and D2.
 STC
The industry standard against which all PV modules are rated and can be
compared is called Standard Test Conditions (STC). STC is a defined set of
laboratory test conditions which approximate conditions under which solar
panels, or PV modules, might be used. Although there are other standards that
offer better real-world approximations, STC offers the most universal standard.
The same standard is also used to evaluate potential installation locations, since
it is the basis for values. STC includes three factors:
1. Irradiance (sunlight intensity or power), in Watts per square meter falling
on a flat surface. The measurement standard is 1 kW per sq. m. (1,000
Watts/m2)
2. Air Mass refers to “thickness” and clarity of the air through which the
sunlight passes to reach the modules (sun angle affects this value). The standard
is 1.5.
3. Cell temperature , which will differ from ambient air temperature. STC
defines cell testing temperature as 25 degrees C

A MOVING TARGET

Two groups of conditions which can boost voltage—and change the MPP—in a PV or
solar electric system include over-irradiance and temperature effects . Over-irradiance
is just a fancy way of saying sunlight with an intensity above the standardized STC
value of 1,000 Watts per square meter.

Over-irradiance can occur in several ways:

1. Reduced “Air Mass” . This means less energy-robbing atmosphere for sunlight to
pass through. This condition could occur at high altitudes, for example.
2. Edge-of-cloud effect. This effect occurs as a cloud shadow passes out of the
incoming sunlight’s pathway to the solar panels. Refraction can concentrate the sunlight
while the edge of the shadow passes by. The result is a boost in module voltage output.
3. Ambient sunlight reflection. Strong reflections from nearby bodies of water and
even a surrounding carpet of snow on a bright, winter day can produce a boost of solar
intensity that can affect voltage.

Advantages of Buck Boost Converters:

➨Buck converter offers most efficient solution with smallest external components.
➨It performs step-up or step-down of voltage using minimum components.
➨It offers lower operating duty cycle.
➨It offers high efficiency across wide input and output voltage ranges.
➨It is less expensive compare to most of the converters.

Disadvantages of Buck Boost Converters:

➨Input current and charging current of output capacitor is discontinuous as it results in

large filter size and more EMI issues.
➨Output is inverted which results in complex sensing and feedback circuit. As sensed
voltage is negative, inverting op-amp is needed for feedback and closed loop control.
➨High gain can not be achieved with this converter type as efficiency is poor for high
gain (i.e. very small duty cycle or large duty cycle).
➨There is no isolation from input side to output side which is very critical for many
applications.
➨Transfer function of the converter contains right half plane as zero which introduces
control complexity. Hence it is very difficult to control such converter type.

Applications of Buck boost converter

 It is used in the self regulating power supplies.

 It has consumer electronics.
 It is used in the Battery power systems.
 Adaptive control applications.
 Power amplifier applications.

Modes of operation of Buck Boost converter

The Buck Boost converter can be operated in two modes
a) Continuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor never goes to
zero i.e. inductor partially discharges before the start of the switching cycle.
b) Discontinuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor goes to zero
i.e. inductor is completely discharged at the end of switching cycle.

Circuit analysis of Buck converter

Assume in the entire analysis that the current swing (maximum to minimum value)
through inductor and voltage swing through capacitor is very less so that they vary in a
linear fashion. This is to ease the analysis and the results we will get through this
analysis are quite accurate compared to real values.

Continuous conduction mode

case-1: When switch S is ON

When switch in ON for a time t on, the diode will be open circuited since it does not allow
currents in reverse direction from input to output. Hence the Buck Boost converter can
be redrawn as follows
During this state the inductor charges and the inductor current increases. The current
through the inductor is given as

                      
Assume that prior to the opening of switch the inductor current is I’ L, off. Since the input
voltage is constant
                                           
Assume the switch is open for ton seconds which is given by D*Ts where D is duty cycle
and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch on
state is given as

Case 2: When switch is off

When switch in OFF the diode will be forward biased as it allows current from output to
input (p to n terminal) and the Buck Boost converter circuit can be redrawn as follows
The inductor now discharges through the diode and RC combination. Assume that prior
to the closing of switch the inductor current is I’’ L, off. The current through the inductor is
given as     

                                
Note the negative sign at the front end of equation signifies that the inductor is
discharging. Assume the switch is open for toff seconds which is given by (1-D)*Ts where
D is duty cycle and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the
end of switch off state is given as

In steady state condition as the current through the inductor does not change abruptly,
the current at the end of switch on state and the current at the end of switch off state
should be equal. Also the currents at the start of switch off state should be equal to
current at the end of switch on state. Hence
                                          
Since D < 1, Vout can be greater than or less than Vin.For D>0.5 the Buck boost
converter acts as boost converter with Vout >Vin.For D<0.5 the Buck boost converter acts
as buck converter with Vout >Vin.

Assuming no losses in the circuit and applying the law of conservation of energy
                                                            Vout*Iout = Vin*Iin

This implies Iout/Iin = (1-D)/D, Thus Iout > Iin for D<0.5 and Iout < Iin for D<0.5 . As the duty
cycle increases the output voltage increases and output current decreases. 

Discontinuous conduction mode

As mentioned before the converter when operated in discontinuous mode the inductor
drains its stored energy completely before completion of switching cycle. The current
and voltage wave forms of Buck Boost converter in discontinuous mode is shown in the
figure below
The inductor in discontinuous mode drains all the current which it piled up in charging
interval of same switching cycle. The current through the inductor is given as
 Maximum Power Point Tracking Technique
A PV Panel consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections.
Series connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas
the parallel connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array. Typically,
Solar Panel has converting efficiency of 8 to 15 % of the Incident Solar Irradiance into
electrical energy.

I-V characteristics of a Solar panel is as shown in the fig 1. below.

At the open circuit voltage VOC and the short circuit current ISC, the power
generated is zero.

The Maximum power (Pm) is generated at a point where the product Vm*Im is
maximum and this point is called as Maximum Power Point. Maximum power point
tracking technique is used to improve the efficiency of the solar panel.

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point, few of the most
popular techniques are

1) Perturb and Observe (hill climbing method)

2) Incremental Conductance method

3) Fractional short circuit current

4) Fractional open circuit voltage

5) Neural Network

6) DC-Link Capacitor Droop Control Technique

Perturb & Observe Method

The P&O algorithm is also called “hill-climbing”.  Hill-climbing involves a perturbation

on the duty cycle of the power converter and P&O a perturbation in the operating
voltage of the DC link between the PV array and the power converter. In this method,
the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last increment in the power are used
to decide what the next perturbation should be.   As shown in fig.2 on the left of the
MPP incrementing the voltage increases the power whereas on the right decrementing
the voltage increases the power.   If there is an increment in the power, the perturbation
should be kept in the same direction and if the power decreases, then the next
perturbation should be in the opposite direction. Based on these facts, the algorithm is
implemented. The process is repeated until the MPP is reached. This technique holds
good when irradiance is constant and it can track MPP in the wrong direction for
dynamic changes in atmospheric condition.

Fig.2 PV panel characteristic with MPP operating points

Incremental Conductance Method

In this method, the MPP can be tracked by comparing the instantaneous conductance I/V to
incremental conductance dI/dV

At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0 (zero).

(dP/dV) MPP=d(VI)/dV

0=I+VdI/dVMPP

dI/dVMPP = – I/V at MPP

dI/dVMPP > – I/V at left of MPP

dI/dVMPP < – I/V at right of MPP

Here we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due
to change in irradiance is eliminated. However, the complexity and the cost of
implementation increases.

The techniques so far discussed are the most popular one and presently in use. The
selection adapting any of these differ in many aspects such as required sensors,
complexity, cost, range of effectiveness, convergence speed, correct tracking when
irradiation and/or temperature change, hardware needed for the implementation or
popularity, among others.
Perturb and Observe algorithm
Conventional Perturb & Observe algorithm has been extensively used due to ease of
implementation as explained in the flowchart in Fig. 9. This is a continuous process of
observation and perturbation till the operating point converges at the MPP. The
algorithm compares the power and voltages of time (K) with the sample at a time (K-1)
and predicts the time to approach to MPP. A small voltage perturbation changes the
power of the solar panel if the power alteration is positive, voltage perturbation is
continued in the same track. But if delta power is negative, it indicates that the MPP is
far away and the perturbation is decreased to reach the MPP.  Thus, in this way the
whole PV curve is checked by small perturbations to find the MPP that increases the
response time of the algorithm. Conversely, if the perturbation size is enlarged, it
generates steady state oscillations about the MPP. Many researchers have proposed
modifications in the P&O algorithm to overcome the response time problem and steady
state oscillations.
Incremental conductance algorithm
Hill Climbing Algorithm: