I.

Ohm's Law

I.1 The Electric Circuit

An electric circuit consists of a source of a voltage connected by conductors to

the apparatus that is to use the electric energy.

An electric current will flow between two points in a conductor when a difference

in potential exists across those points. The most generally accepted concept of

an electric current is that it consists of a motion or flow of electrons from the

negative toward a more positive point in a circuit. The force, a potential

difference, or a voltage and the opposition to the motion is called resistance.

The basic theories of electrical phenomena and the methods of producing

currents are explained in the on going topics.

I.2 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law state the relation that exists among the voltage, current and the

resistance. One way of stating this relation is as follows: The voltage across any

part of a circuit is proportional to the product of the current through that part of a

circuit and the resistance of that part of the circuit.

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Stated as a formula, the foregoing is expressed as

E=IR

Where E - the voltage or potential difference in volts (V)

I – the current in ampere (A)

R – the resistance in ohms (Ω)

Ex. 1. How much current will flow through a resistance of 150 ohms if the applied

voltage across the resistance is 117 V.?

Solution: Given: E = 117 V

R = 150 ohms

Req’d: I=?

I=E/R

I = 117V / 150 ohms = 0.78 A

Ex. 2. A voltmeter connected across a resistance reads 22 V and an ammeter

connected in series with the current reads 2.6 A. what is the value of the

resistance?

Solution: Given: E = 220 V

I = 2.6 A

Req’d: R=?

R=E/I

R = 220 v/ 2.6 A = 84.6 ohms

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Ex. 3. A current of 1.4 A flows through a resistance of 450 ohms. What should

the reading be of a voltmeter when it is connected across the resistance?

Solution: Given: I = 1.4 A

R = 450 ohms

Req’d: E=?

E = I R = 1.4 x 450 = 630 V.

Ex. 4. A measurement shows a potential difference of 63 micro volts across a

resistance of 300 ohms. How much current is flowing through the resistance?

Solution: Given: E = 6.3 x 10-5 V

R = 300 ohms

Req’d: I=?

I=E/R

I = 6.3 x 10-5 / 300 = 0.21 micro Ampere

Ex. 5 A current of 8.6 mA flows through resistance of 500 ohms. What voltage

exist across the resistance?

Solution: Given: I = 8.6 mA

R = 500 ohms

Req’d: E=?

E = I R = mA x 500 ohms = 4.3 V

3
Name_________________________________ Date____________

Section_______________

Exercise I

1. How much current will flow through a resistance of 50 ohms If a potential

of 220 V is applied across it?

2. A certain soldering iron draws 1.33 A from a 120V line. What is the

resistance of the heating unit of the soldering iron?

3. What current will flow when an EMF of 440V is impressed across a 15

ohm resistance?

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4. A milliameter connected in series with a 10-kilo ohm resistor reads 8.0

mA. What is the voltage across the resistor?

5. A microvolt meter connected across a 300 ohm resistor reads 40

microvolt. What current is flowing through the resistor?

6. The ammeter-voltmeter method is used to measure an unknown

resistance R. An ammeter (A) connected in series with the resistance

reads 0.3 R. A voltmeter (V) placed across the ends of the resistance

reads 1.5V. compute the value of the resistance R.

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7. A certain milliameter, with a scale of 0 to 1.0 mA, has a resistance of 32

ohms. If this milliameter is connected directly across a 120-volt line, how

much current will flow through the meter?

8. The current flowing through a 3.3-kilo ohm resistor is 4.3 mA. What should

a voltmeter read when it is connected across the resistor?

9. The hot resistance of an incandescent lamp is 220 ohms. It requires ½

amp to cause it to glow. What voltage must be impressed across it?

10. A half wove rectifier filament draws a current of 450 mA at its rated voltage

of 6.3 V. What is the resistance of the filament when it is in operation?

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I.3 ELECTRONICS UNITS AND OHM’S LAW

The following electrical units are those most often used in working out problems

in electricity:

a) AMPERE – that constant current which, if maintained in two straight

parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section,

and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these

conductors a force equal to 2x10-7 Newton per meter of length.

b) COULOMB –the unit of electric charge in SI units. The coulomb is the

quantity of electric charge in that passes any cross section of a conductor

in 1 second when the current is maintained constant at 1 ampere.

c) FARAD –the unit of capacitance in SI units. The farad is the capacitance

of a capacitor in which a charge of 1 coulomb produces 1-volt potential

difference between its terminals.

d) HENRY –that unit of inductance in SI units for which the induced voltages

in volts in numerically equal to rate of change of current in amperes per

second.

e) JOULE –the unit of work and energy in SI units. The joule is the work

done by a force of 1 Newton acting through of 1 meter.

f) MICROFARAD –equal to10-6 farad.

g) MILLIHENRY –equal to 10-3 Henry.

h) VOLT –the unit of voltage or potential difference in SI units. The volt is the

voltage between two points of a conducting wire carrying a constant

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 current of 1 amp, when the power dissipated between these points is 1

watt.

i) WATT –the unit of power in SI units. The watt is the power required to do

work at the rate of 1 joule per second.

j) OHM –the unit of resistance and of impedance. It is the resistance of a

conductor such that a current of 1 ampere in it produces a voltage of 1 volt

between it’s ends.

k) GRAM-CALORIE –the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram

of water 1-centigarde degree. One gram calorie is equal to 4.18 joules.

l) HORSEPOWER –used to rate electrical equipment and equal 746 watts;

also equal to 2,546 Btu per hour.

m) KILOWATT –equal to 1,000 watts.

I.4. ELECTRIC POWER

Electric power is the rate of doing electrical wok. The unit is the watt or

kilowatt. Work is being done at the rate of 1 watt when a constant current of 1

amp. is maintained through a resistance by an emf of 1 volt. Electric motors

are generally rated in terms of the mechanical horsepower they will develop.

The conversion from electric energy to equivalent mechanical energy is given

by the relation

746 W = 1 horsepower (hp)

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1.5 THE WATT

Energy is expended at a rate of one watt second every second when one volt

causes a current of one ampere to flow. In this case, we say that the power

represented when one volt causes one ampere to flow is one watt. This

relation is expressed as

P (power) = E (volts) x I (amp)

or P = I2R

P = E2/R

I.6 EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is the name given to the ratio of output to input. No machines give

out as much energy or power as is put into it. There are some losses in even

the most perfectly constructed machines. Efficiency is usually expressed as a

percentage, thus, “the efficiency of a certain motor is 80 per cent.” This

means that only 80 per cent of the energy or power received by the motor at

the pulley. Another way of stating the definition is

Efficiency = output / input

Output is the useful energy delivered by a machine and input is the energy

supplied to the machine. It is evident that efficiency is always a decimal, that

is a number, less than 1. when using the formula, output and input must be

expressed in the same units.

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Example 1. A current of 110 volts across a resistor causes a current of 5 A to

flow through the resistor. How much power is expended in the resistor?

Solution 1: Given: E = 110V

I = 5A

Req’d: P = ?

P = E x I = 110 x 5 = 550 W

Solution 2: Find the value of the resistance and use it to solve for P. thus,

R = E / I = 110 / 5 = 22 ohms

P = I2R =(5)2 (22) = 550 W

Solution 3: Using P = E2 / R = (110)2 / 22 = 550 W

Solving a problem by two methods serves as an excellent check on the

results.

Example 2. An electric iron takes 3 ½ amp. If the heating element has a

resistance of 40 ohms, what is the power consumption?

Solution: Given: I = 3 ½ amp.

R = 40 ohms

Req’d: P = ?

P = I2R = (3.5)2 (40) = 490 watts

Example 3. A current of 2.5A flows through a resistance of 40 ohms.

a) How much is the power expended in the resistor?

b) What Is the potential difference across the resistor?

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Solution: Given: I = 2.5 A
R = 40 ohms
Req’d: P=?
E=?
a) P = 12R = (2.5)2 (40) = 250 W
b) E = IR = 2.5 x 40 = 100 V
Example 4. A motor delivering 6.50 mechanical horsepower is drawing 26.5
from a 220 V line.

a) How much electric power is the motor taking from the line
b) What is the efficiency of the motor

Solution: Given: E = 220 V

I = 26.5 A
P = 6.5 hp = 6.5 x 746 W
a) The power taken by the motor is
P = E I = 220 x 26.5 = 5830 W
b) Efficiency = output/input
Efficiency = 4850W/5830W = 0.832 = 83.2%

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Name_________________________________ Date____________

Section_______________

Exercise 2
1. What current is drawn by a 100 W soldering iron that is connected to a
120 V line?

2. How much power is expended in a 120 ohm resistor through which a

current of 15 A flows?

3. What is the electric horsepower of a generator which delivers a current of

50.9 at 220 V?

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4. A voltmeter connected across a 2.2 kilo ohm resistor reads 120 V. How
much power is being expended in the resistor?

5. A diesel engine is rated at 1500 hp. What is its electrical rating in

kilowatts?

6. An emf of 90 volts is applied across a 390 ohm resistor.

a) How much power is expended in the resistor?
b) How much current will flow through the resistor?

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7. A generator which is 80% efficient delivers 50 A at 220 V. What must be
the output of the diesel engine which drives the generator?

8. A 25 hp engines drives a dc generator. If the generator has an efficiency

of 84%, how many kilowatts and horsepower does it deliver?

9. A radar antenna motor is delivering 10hp. A kilowatt meter that measures

the power by the motor reads 8.24KW.
a) Find the efficiency of the motor
b) At 2.5cents / KWhr, how much would it cost to run this motor
continuously for 5 days?

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I.7. RESISTANCE

No material is a perfect conductors and the amount of opposition (resistance) to

current flow within it is governed by the specific resistance of the material, its

length, cross-sectional area and temperature. Thus, for the same material and

cross-sectionals area, a long conductor will have greater resistance than a

shorter one. That is, the resistance of a conductor of uniform cross-sectional area

is directly proportional to its length. This is conveniently expressed as

R1 / R2 = L1/l2

Where R1 andR2are the resistance of conductors with length L1 and L2

respectively.

Ex. 1. The resistance of No. 8 copper wire is 0.641 ohms per 1000 ft. what is the

resistance of 1 mile of the wire?

Solution: Given: r1 =0.641 ohm

L1 =1000ft

L2 =I mile =5280 ft.

Req’d R2 =?

R2 =R1L2/L1

R2 =0.641 x 5280 ohm-ft

1000ft

R2 =3.38 ohms

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For the same material and length, one conductor will have more resistance than

another with larger cross-sectional area. That is, the resistance of a conductor is

inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. Expressed as,

R1 / R2 = A2 / A1

Where R1 and R2 are the resistance of conductors with cross-sectional areas A1

and A2 respectively .

The above equation may also be written as

R1 = d2

R2 = d1

Hence, the resistance of a round conductor varies inversely as the square of its

diameter.

Ex. 2. A rectangular conductor with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 square inches

has a resistance of 0.075 ohms. What would be its resistance if its cross-

sectional area was 0.02 in2?

Solution: Given: R1 =0.075 In2

A1 =0.01 In2

A2 =0.02 In2

Req’d R2 =?

R2 = R1A1 = 0.075 x 0.01 ohm –in2

A2 0.02 in2

R2 =0.0375 ohm

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Example 3. A round conductor with a diameter of 0.25 in. has a resistance of 8

ohms. What would be its resistance is 0.5 in?

Solution: Given: d1 =0.25 in.

D2 =0.5 in.

R1 =8 ohms

Req’d R2 =?

R2 =R1d12 = 8 x (0.25)2 ohm-in2

D22 (0.5)2 in2

R2 =2 ohms

Hence, if the diameter is doubled, the cross-sectional area is increased four

times and the resistance is reduced to one quarter of its original value.

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Name_________________________________ Date____________

Section_______________

Exercise 3

1. No. 30 copper wire has a resistance of 105 ohms per 1000 ft.

a) What is the resistance of 600 ft of this wire?

b) What is the resistance of 3700 ft.?

2. The resistance of a mile run of No. 1 copper wire telephone lie is

measured and found to be 5.39 ohms?

a) What is the resistance per 1000 ft.?

b) What is the resistance of 3500 ft of No. 10 wire?

c) What is the resistance of 60 ft.?

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3. A length of square conductor that is 0.25 in. on a side has a resistance of

0.0756 ohm. What will be the resistance of similar length of 0.075 in 2

conductor?

4. The resistance of 10m of a specially drawn wire is found to be 32.1 ohms.

A coil wound with identical wire has a measured resistance of 702 ohms.

What is the length of wire in the coil?

5. It is desired to wind a milliameter shunt using a no. 40 enameled copper

wire with a resistance of 1070 ohms per 1000ft. if the shunt has a

resistance of 4.62 ohms, what the length of wire is required?

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I.8 RESISTANCES IN SERIES

In a series circuit the various components comprising the circuit are so

connected that the current, starting from the voltage source, must flow through

each circuit component, in turn, before returning to the other side of the source.

There are three (3) important facts concerning series that must be borne in mind

in order to understand thoroughly the action of such circuits and to facilitate their

solution:

1. The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages across the

different parts of the circuit.

2. The current in any part of the circuit is equal to the sum of the

resistance of the different parts.

In equation form, point 1 is

E1 = E1 + E2 + E3 + …En

Point 2 is

I1 = I1 = I2 = I3 = …In

Point 3 is

R1 = R1 + R2 + R3 + …Rn

Example 1. Three resistor R1 =20 ohms, R2 =50 ohms and R3 ohms are

connected in series across a generator. The current through the circuit is 2.5

Amp.

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 a) What is the generator voltage?

b) What is the voltage across each resistor

c) How much power is expended in each resistor?

d) What is the total power expended?

Solution: The circuit represented as shown in the schematic diagram.

I = 2.5 A
A

G V E=?

E1=? E2 =? E3 =?

V V V

R1=20Ω R2=50Ω R3=30Ω

P1=? P2=? P3=?

a) R1 = R1 + R2 + R3

=20 + 50 + 30

=100 ohms

Et = It Rt = 2.5 x 100 = 250 Volts

b) E1 = I1 R1 = 2.5 x 20 = 50 volts

E2 = I2 R2 = 2.5 x 50 = 125 volts

E3 = I3 R3 = 2.5 x 30 = 75 volts

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Et = E1 + E2 + E3

= 50 +125+75=250 volts

c) Power in R1

P1 = E1 I1 = 50 x 2.5 =125 W

Power in R2

P2 =E2 I2 =125 x 2.5 =312.5 W

Power in R3

P3 = E3 I3 =75 x 2.5 =187.5 W

d) Total power

P1 = P1 + P2 + P3

= 125 + 312.5 + 187.5 = 625 W

Or

Pt = It2 Rt = (2.5)2 x 100 = 625 W

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Name_________________________________ Date____________

Section_______________

Exercise 4

1. Three resistors, R1 = 330 ohms, R2 = 680 ohms and R3 570 ohms,

are connected in series across 110 V.

a) How much current flows in circuit ?

b) What is the voltage drop across R 2?

c) How much power is expended in R1?

d) Draw the schematic diagram.

Solution:

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2. A circuit 10 V applied across a 10 ohm resistance R1. How much is the

current in the circuit? How much resistance R2 must be added in series

with R1 to reduce the current to one half? Show the schematic diagram of

the circuit with R1 and R2

Solution:

3. R1 of 90 kilo ohm and R2 of 10 kilo ohm are in series across a 43-volt

source. A) Draw the schematic diagram. B) What is the voltage drop at

R2?

Solution:

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4. Four identical 100W lamps are connected in series across a 440 V line.

The hot resistance of each lamp is 121 ohms.

a) What is the current through the lamps?

b) What is the voltage drop across each lamp?

c) What is the power dissipated by each lamp?

Solution:

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I.9 RESISTORS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

The following statements apply to resistor connected in parallel:

1. The total current is equal to the sum of the individual currents flowing

through the individual resistors,

2. The voltage across each resistor is the same with the voltage across

the whole group resistors.

3. The reciprocal of the total resistance of the whole group is equal to the

sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistance.

Point 1, In equation form, is

It = I1 + I2 + I3

Point 2 is

Et = E1 = E2 =E3

Point 3 is

I = I + I + I
Rt R1 R2 R3

A more convenient formula fir the joint resistance of two parallel resistance is

obtained by

Rp = R1 R2
R1 + R2

Hence the joint resistance of two resistance in parallel is equal to their product

divided by their sum.

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Example 1. In the circuit given below, R1 = 25 ohms, E = 220 V and It = 14.3

A. What is the resistance of R2?

Solution:
R1

R2

It

Current through R1:

I1 = E = 220
R1 25

I1 = 8.8 Amp.

Since It = I1 = I2

The current through R2 is I2 = It – I1

I2 = 14.3 – 8.3 = 5.5 Amp.

Then R2 = E = 220
I2 5.5

R2 = 40 ohms

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Name: __________________________ Date: _______________

Section: _______________

Exercise 5

1. A 15 ohms R1 and 45 ohms R2 are connected in parallel across a 45 V

battery. a.) Draw the schematic diagram b.) How much is the voltage across

R1 and R2? c.) How much is the current in R1 and R2? d.) How much is the

main line current? e.) Calculate R1.

Solution:

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2. A parallel circuit has three branch resistance of 20, 10 and 5 ohms for R1,

R2 and R3, respectively. The current through the 20-ohm branch is 4 amp.

a) Draw the schematic diagram, b) How much is the voltage applied

across all the branches? c) find the current through the 10-ohm and the 5-

ohm branch.

Solution:

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3. Draw the schematic diagram of a parallel circuit with three branch

resistances, each having a 10 V applied and a 2 amp branch current, b) How

much is the total current? c) how much is the total resistance?

Solution:

4. Two resistance of 1500 ohms and 4700 ohms are connected in parallel.

What is the equivalent resistance of the combination?

Solution:

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1.10 SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUITS

There are many circuits that consist of numerous resistors connected in series

and parallel combinations and the techniques of the previous two sections can

often be used to find complete solutions for these circuits. The technique is to

combine series and parallel resistances to form equivalent resistances, and thus

form simplified equivalent circuits. A complete solution means finding the current

through the voltage across every element in the circuit.

Example 1. Find a complete solution for the circuit shown below.

Let E = 12 V.

R2 =3Ω

R1 =1Ω

R3 =6Ω R4 =3Ω

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Solution:

The simplified equivalent circuit can be obtained by combining the two parallel

resistors R3 and R4. thus,

R3 R 4
Rp =
R3 + R 4

6 x3
Rp =
6+3

Rp = 2 ohms

The total source current is

11 12
It = =
R1 R1 + R2 + R p

12
It = = 2amp
1+ 3 + 2

The voltages across the resistors are:

E1 = 11 R1 = 2 x 1 = 2 V

E2 = 1t R2 = 2 x 3 = 6 V

E3 = E4 = I1 Rp = 2 x 2 = 4 V

The current through R3 and R4 are:

I3 = E3 / R3 = 4 / 6 = 0.666 Amp.

I4 = E4 / R4 = 4 / 3 = 1.333 Amp.

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Name: __________________________ Date: _______________

Section: _______________

Exercise 6

1. A string of two 1,000 ohm resistances is in series with a parallel bank of

two 1,000 ohm resistances. The total resistance of the series-parallel

circuit equals:

a. 250 ohms c. 3,000 ohms

b. 2,500 ohms d. 4,000 ohms

2. In which of the following circuits will the voltage source produce the most

current?

a. 10 volts a 10 ohm resistance.

b. 10 volts across two 10 ohm resistances in series.

c. 10 volts across two 10 ohm resistances parallel.

d. 1,000 volts across a 1 meg resistance.

3. In a series parallel circuit with 12 resistances, if there are three in one

parallel bank, these three resistances must have

a. the same current

b. the same voltage drop.

c. The same current as in the voltage source

d. An IR drop equal to the applied voltage.

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4. A string of two resistances is in series with a parallel bank of two

resistances, a) if all the resistances are 10 ohms, draw the schematic

diagram, b) calculate the total resistance of the circuit, c) how much is

the main line current if the total voltage equals 100 volts.?

Solution:

5. In a series parallel circuit, how can you tell which resistances are in series

with each other and which are in parallel?

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