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Basic Concepts and Issues on
Human Development
A. Human development is a pattern of
movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the life
span. Development includes growth
(positive) and decline (negative).
Growth and development occur across the
life stages and focuses on the physical,
intellectual, emotional and social changes
that humans go through.
1. Growth predominately concentrates on
the physical changes that take place
across different parts of the
body. Growth is measured using a range
of intervals such as height and weight.
 2. Development refers to the pattern of
movement of change that begins at
conception and continues through the
human lifespan. It is also refers to the
order of sequence that humans follow and
mainly focuses on the attainment of skills
and abilities
3. Maturation is the process with which we
develop, grow and change throughout
our entire lives.
Maturation is a multi-faceted and
automatic process. There is mental,
physical, emotional, somatic growth and
development in the child. Some of the
changes are even genetic in mature.
During one’s lifetime, there are many
types of maturation. But the two most
important kinds of maturity during
childhood are physical and cognitive
maturation.
Types of Maturation
A.     Physical Maturation
 As the name suggests it indicates the
physical development and growth that we
go through as we get older. A child goes
through some very distinct physical
maturity as they progress through all their
development stages. For example, in the
early stages of development, a child
depends on reflexes majorly. Then as they
age, they develop their motor skills and
coordination. They also grow taller and
add more weight as they develop. Their
body goes through hormonal changes as
they leave adolescence and enter early
adulthood.
B.     Cognitive Maturation
This refers to the cognitive development
of children from birth to adulthood. It
refers to how babies think, learn, interact
with their environment, etc. Some
important aspect of cognitive
development is the processing of
information, language development,
reasoning skills, development of intellects
and memory.
This process of cognitive development
begins right at infancy. An infant uses
their sensory organs to explore their
surroundings. By three months infants can
actually distinguish faces and sounds. And
as they go through adolescence and their
teenage year, the cognitive development
continues. Each stage is earmarked with
certain benchmarks that the teachers can
focus on to chart the child’s cognitive
maturity.
Approaches in Development
1.     Traditional Approach emphasizes
extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little to no change in
adulthood and decline in old age.
2.     Lifespan Approach emphasizes
developmental change throughout
childhood to adulthood.
a.     Stages of Human Development
1.     Prenatal Development
2.     Infancy and Toddlerhood
3.     Early Childhood
4.     Middle Childhood
5.     Adolescence
6.     Early Adulthood
7.     Middle Adulthood
8.     Late Adulthood
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 In addition, the topic of “Death and
Dying” is usually addressed after late
adulthood since overall, the likelihood of
dying increases in later life (though
individual and group variations exist).
Death and dying will be the topic of our
last module, though it is not necessarily a
stage of development that occurs at a
particular age.
The list of the periods of development
reflects unique aspects of the various
stages of childhood and adulthood that
will be explored in this book, including
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
changes. So while both an 8-month-old
and an 8-year-old are considered children,
they have very different motor abilities,
cognitive skills, and social
relationships. Their nutritional needs are
different, and their primary psychological
concerns are also distinctive. The same is
true of an 18-year-old and an 80-year-old,
both considered adults. We will discover
the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as
well. But first, here is a brief overview of
the stages.
1.     Prenatal Development
 Conception occurs and development
begins. There are three stages of prenatal
development: germinal, embryonic, and
fetal periods. All of the major structures of
the body are forming and the health of
the mother is of primary concern. There
are various approaches to labor, delivery,
and childbirth, with potential
complications of pregnancy and delivery,
as well as risks and complications with
newborns, but also advances in tests,
technology, and medicine. The influences
of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture (e.g.,
nutrition and teratogens, which are
environmental factors during pregnancy
that can lead to birth defects) are evident.
Evolutionary psychology, along with
studies of twins and adoptions, help us
understand the interplay of factors and
the relative influences of nature and
nurture on human development.
2.     Infancy and Toddlerhood
The first year and a half to two years of life
are ones of dramatic growth and
change. A newborn, with many involuntary
reflexes and a keen sense of hearing
but poor vision, is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively
short period of time. Caregivers similarly
transform their roles from those who
manage feeding and sleep schedules to
constantly moving guides and safety
inspectors for mobile, energetic children.
Brain development happens at a
remarkable rate, as does physical growth
and language development. Infants have
their own temperaments and approaches
to play. Interactions with primary
caregivers (and others) undergo changes
influenced by possible separation anxiety
and the development of attachment
styles. Social and cultural issues center
around breastfeeding or formula-feeding,
sleeping in cribs or in the bed with
parents, toilet training, and whether or not
to get vaccinations.
3.     Early Childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the
preschool years, consisting of the years
that follow toddlerhood and precede
formal schooling, roughly from around
ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a preschooler, the
child is busy learning language (with
amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining
a sense of self and greater independence,
and is beginning to learn the workings of
the physical world. This knowledge does
not come quickly, however, and
preschoolers may initially have interesting
conceptions of size, time, space and
distance, such as demonstrating how long
something will take by holding out their
two index fingers several inches apart. A
toddler’s fierce determination to do
something may give way to a four-year-
old’s sense of guilt for doing something
that brings the disapproval of others.
4.     Middle Childhood
The ages of 6-11 comprise middle
childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to
their involvement in the early grades of
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school. Now the world becomes one of
learning and testing new academic skills
and assessing one’s abilities and
accomplishments by making comparisons
between self and others. Schools
participate in this process by comparing
students and making these comparisons
public through team sports, test scores,
and other forms of recognition. The brain
reaches its adult size around age seven,
but it continues to develop. Growth rates
slow down and children are able to refine
their motor skills at this point in life.
Children also begin to learn about social
relationships beyond the family through
interaction with friends and fellow
students; same-sex friendships are
particularly salient during this period.
5.     Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of dramatic
physical change marked by an overall
physical growth spurt and sexual
maturation, known as puberty; timing may
vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is
also a time of cognitive change as the
adolescent begins to think of new
possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and
freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a
sense of invincibility that puts them at
greater risk of dying from accidents or
contracting sexually transmitted infections
that can have lifelong consequences.
Research on brain development helps us
understand teen risk-taking and impulsive
behavior. A major developmental task
during adolescence involves establishing
one’s own identity. Teens typically
struggle to become more independent
from their parents. Peers become more
important, as teens strive for a sense of
belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex
peer groups become more common. New
roles and responsibilities are explored,
which may involve dating, driving, taking
on a part-time job, and planning for
future academics.
6.     Early Adulthood
  Late teens, twenties, and thirties are
often thought of as early adulthood
(students who are in their mid to late
30s may love to hear that they are young
adults!). It is a time when we are at our
physiological peak but are most at risk for
involvement in violent crimes and
substance abuse. It is a time of focusing
on the future and putting a lot of energy
into making choices that will help one
earn the status of a full adult in the eyes
of others. Love and work are the primary
concerns at this stage of life. In recent
decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and
other developed countries) that young
adults are taking longer to “grow up.”
They are waiting longer to move out of
their parents’ homes, finish their formal
education, take on work/careers, get
married, and have children. One
psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed
that there is a new stage of development
after adolescence and before early
adulthood, called “emerging adulthood,”
from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when
individuals are still exploring their
identities and don’t quite feel like adults
yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the
economy, and socioeconomic status may
be key factors in when youth take on adult
roles.
 
7.     Middle Adulthood
 The late thirties (or age 40) through the
mid-60s are referred to as middle
adulthood. This is a period in which
physiological aging that began earlier
becomes more noticeable and a period at
which many people are at their peak of
productivity in love and work. It may be a
period of gaining expertise in certain
fields and being able to understand
problems and find solutions with greater
efficiency than before. It can also be a
time of becoming more realistic about
possibilities in life; of recognizing the
difference between what is possible and
what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich
generation, middle-aged adults may be in
the middle of taking care of their children
and also taking care of their aging
parents. While caring about others and
the future, middle-aged adults may also
be questioning their own mortality, goals,
and commitments, though not necessarily
experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”
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8.     Late Adulthood
This period of the lifespan, late adulthood,
has increased in the last 100 years,
particularly in industrialized countries, as
average life expectancy has increased.
Late adulthood covers a wide age range
with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to
divide it into categories such as the
“young old” (65-74 years old), “old old”
(75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+
years old). The young old are similar
to middle-aged adults; possibly still
working, married, relatively healthy, and
active. The old old have some health
problems and challenges with daily living
activities; the oldest old are often frail and
in need of long term care. However, many
factors are involved and a better way to
appreciate the diversity of older adults is
to go beyond chronological age and
examine whether a person is
experiencing optimal aging.
Death and Dying
 The study of death and dying is seldom
given the amount of coverage it
deserves. Of course, there is a certain
discomfort in thinking about death, but
there is also a certain confidence and
acceptance that can come from studying
death and dying. Factors such as age,
religion, and culture play important roles
in attitudes and approaches to death and
dying. There are different types of death:
physiological, psychological, and social.
The most common causes of death vary
with age, gender, race, culture, and time in
history. Dying and grieving are processes
and may share certain stages of reactions
to loss. There are interesting examples of
cultural variations in death rituals,
mourning, and grief. The concept of a
“good death” is described as including
personal choices and the involvement of
loved ones throughout the process.
Palliative care is an approach to maintain
dying individuals’ comfort level, and
hospice is a movement and practice that
involves professional and volunteer care
and loved ones.
b. Factors Affecting Human Growth and
Development
The following are a list of factors which
influence human growth and
development:
1.     Heredity:
Heredity and genes certainly play an
important role in the transmission of
physical and social characteristics from
parents to off-springs. Different
characteristics of growth and
development like intelligence, aptitudes,
body structure, height, weight, color of
hair and eyes are highly influenced by
heredity.
 
2.     Environment
The environment plays a critical role in the
development of children and it represents
the sum total of physical and
psychological stimulation the child
receives. Some of the environmental
factors influencing early childhood
development involve the physical
surroundings and geographical conditions
of the place the child lives in, as well his
social environment and relationships with
family and peers. It is easy to understand
that a well-nurtured child does better than
a deprived one; the environment children
are constantly immersed in contributes to
this. A good school and a loving family
builds in children strong social and
interpersonal skills, which will enable them
to excel in other areas such as academics
and extracurricular activities. This will, of
course, be different for children who are
raised in stressful environments.
 
3.     Sex
 Sex is a very important factor which
influences human growth and
development. There is lot of difference in
growth and development between girls
and boys. Physical growth of girls in teens
is faster than boys. Overall the body
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structure and growth of girls are different
from boys.
4. Socioeconomic:
Socioeconomic factors definitely have
some affect. It has been seen that the
children from different socioeconomic
levels vary in average body size at all ages.
The upper level families being always
more advanced. The most important
reasons behind this are better nutrition,
better facilities, regular meals, sleep, and
exercise. Family size also influences
growth rate as in big families with limited
income sometimes have children that do
not get the proper nutrition and hence
the growth is affected.
 
5. Nutrition:
Growth is directly related with nutrition.
The human body requires an adequate
supply of calories for its normal growth
and this need of requirements vary with
the phase of development. As per studies,
malnutrition is referred as a large-scale
problem in many developing countries.
They are more likely to be underweight,
much shorter than average, and of low
height for age, known as stunting.
If the children are malnourished, this slows
their growth process. There are nine
different amino acids which are necessary
for growth and absence of any one will
give rise to stunted growth. Other factors
like zinc, Iodine, calcium, phosphorus and
vitamins are also essential for proper
growth and deficiency of anyone can
affect the normal growth and
development of the body.
6. Hormones:
There are a large number of endocrine
glands present inside our body. These
glands secrete one or more hormones
directly into the bloodstream. These
hormones are capable of raising or
lowering the activity level of the body or
some organs of the body. Hormones are
considered to be a growth supporting
substance. These hormones play an
important role in regulating the process of
growth and development.
 
7. Race:
Racial factors also influence height,
weight, color, features, and body
constitution of a human being. The body
growth and development differences
show a relationship with varied cultural
groups. For example a child of black race
will be black, their height, their hair and
eye color, facial structure are all governed
by the same race.
 8. Geographical Influences
 Where you live also has a great influence
on how your children turn out to be. The
schools they attend, the neighborhood
they live in, the opportunities offered by
the community and their peer circles are
some of the social factors affecting a
child’s development. Living in an enriching
community that has parks, libraries and
community centers for group activities
and sports all play a role in developing the
child’s skills, talents, and behavior.
Uninteresting communities can push
some children to not go outside often but
play video games at home instead. Even
the weather of a place influences children
in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies
and other health conditions.
9. Learning and Reinforcement
 Learning involves much more than
schooling. It is also concerned with
building the child up mentally,
intellectually, emotionally, and socially so
they operate as healthy functional
individuals in the society. This is where the
development of the mind takes place and
the child can gain some maturity.
Reinforcement is a component of learning
where an activity or exercise is repeated
and refined to solidify the lessons learned.
An example is playing a musical
instrument; they get better at playing it as
they practice playing the instrument.
Therefore, any lesson that is taught has to
be repeated until the right results are
obtained.
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 Although nature contributes much to the
growth and development of children,
nurture contributes much more. As
mentioned earlier, some of these factors
may not be controllable, and you’ll have
to make do with what you have. But there
are certain things you can definitely
ensure for your child. This includes
ensuring that your child gets enough rest
every day, because his development is
heavily dependent on the amount of sleep
he gets. Pay close attention to your child’s
nutritional and exercise levels, as these
too play an important role in promoting
your child’s timely and healthy growth and
development.
c.  Domains of Development
Human development refers to the
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
development of humans throughout the
lifespan. Physical development involves
genetics, prenatal development, physical
development, sensation/perception,
motor skill development  and health and
wellness. Cognitive development involves
learning, attention, memory, language,
thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
Psychosocial development involves
emotions, personality, and social
relationships.
    1. Physical Domain
 Many of us are familiar with the height
and weight charts that pediatricians
consult to estimate if babies, children, and
teens are growing within normative
ranges of physical development. We may
also be aware of changes in children’s fine
and gross motor skills, as well as their
increasing coordination, particularly in
terms of playing sports. But we may not
realize that physical development also
involves brain development, which not
only enables childhood motor
coordination but also greater coordination
between emotions and planning in
adulthood, as our brains are not done
developing in infancy or childhood.
Physical development also includes
puberty, sexual health, fertility,
menopause, changes in our senses, and
primary versus secondary aging. Healthy
habits with nutrition and exercise are also
important at every age and stage across
the lifespan.
    2. Cognitive Domain
 If we watch and listen to infants and
toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how
they learn so much so fast, particularly
when it comes to language development.
Then as we compare young children to
those in middle childhood, there appear
to be huge differences in their ability to
think logically about the concrete world
around them. Cognitive development
includes mental processes, thinking,
learning, and understanding, and it
doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents
develop the ability to think logically about
the abstract world (and may like to debate
matters with adults as they exercise their
new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning
develops further, as does practical
intelligence—wisdom may develop with
experience over time. Memory abilities
and different forms of intelligence tend to
change with age. Brain development and
the brain’s ability to change and
compensate for losses is significant to
cognitive functions across the lifespan,
too.
3.     Psychosocial/Socio-Emotional
Domain
Development in this domain involves
what’s going on both psychologically and
socially. Early on, the focus is on infants
and caregivers, as temperament and
attachment are significant. As the social
world expands and the child grows
psychologically, different types of play
and interactions with other children and
teachers become important. Psychosocial
development involves emotions,
personality, self-esteem, and relationships.
Peers become more important for
adolescents, who are exploring new roles
and forming their own identities. Dating,
romance, cohabitation, marriage, having
children, and finding work or a career are
all parts of the transition into adulthood.
Psychosocial development continues
across adulthood with similar (and some
different) developmental issues of family,
friends, parenting, romance, divorce,
remarriage, blended families, caregiving
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for elders, becoming grandparents and
great grandparents, retirement, new
careers, coping with losses, and death and
dying.
d.  Principles of Human Growth and
Development:
     1. Development is continuous
     2. Development is gradual
     3. Development is sequential
     4. Rate of development varies person to
person
     5. Development proceeds from general to
specific
     6. Most traits are correlated in
development
     7.Growth and development is a product
of both heredity and environment
     8. Development is predictable
     9. Development brings about both
structural and functional changes
.  10. There is a constant interaction between
all factors of development
 1. Development is continuous:
The process of growth and development
continues from the conception till the
individual reaches maturity. Development
of both physical and mental traits
continues gradually until these traits reach
their maximum growth. It goes on
continuously throughout life. Even after
maturity has been attained, development
does not end.
2. Development is gradual:
It does not come all on a sudden. It is also
cumulative in nature.
3.   Development is Sequential:
a.         Proximodistal Pattern - muscular
control of the trunk and the arms comes
earlier as compared to hands and fingers.
         
b.         Cephalocaudal Pattern - During
infancy, the greatest growth always occurs
at the top - the head with physical growth
in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working in its way down from
top to bottom (ex. Neck, shoulders,
middle trunk and so on)
 
Most psychologists agree that
development is sequential or orderly.
Every species, whether animal or human,
follows a pattern of development peculiar
to it. This pattern in general is the same
for all individuals. The child crawls before
he creeps, stands before he walks and
babbles before he talks.
4. Rate of development varies person to
person:
Rate of development is not uniform.
Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development. Boys and girls have
different development rates. Each part of
the body has its own particular rate of
growth. There are periods of great
intensity and equilibrium and there are
periods of imbalance.
5. Development proceeds from general to
specific:
Development proceeds from general to
specific. In all areas of development,
general activity always precedes specific
activity. For example, the fetus moves its
whole body but is incapable of making
specific responses. With respect to
emotional behavior infants approach
strange and unusual objects with some
sort of general fear response. Later, their
fears become more specific and elicit
different kinds of behavior, such as, crying,
turning away and hiding etc.
6. Most Traits are correlated in
development:
Generally, it is seen that the child whose
mental development is above average, is
also superior in so many other aspects like
health, sociability and special aptitudes.
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7. Growth and development is a product
of both heredity and environment:
Development is influenced by both
heredity and environment. Both are
responsible for human growth and
development.
8. Development is predictable:
The difference in physiological and
psychological potentialities can be
predicated by observation and
psychological tests.
9. Development brings about both
structural and functional changes:
Changes happens due to development in
both physical and physiological aspects of
an individual.
 10. There is a constant interaction
between all factors of development:
Development in one area is highly related
to development in other areas. For
example, a child who has a good health
can be active socially and intellectually.
 
e.   Aspects of Human Growth and
Development
1.     Physical Development
During Infancy:
Physical growth and development
describe the physical as well as
psychomotor changes in an individual.
The physical development is very rapid at
this stage. At birth a baby is generally 18
to 20 inches long and seven pounds (3 kg)
in weight.
He grows about three times after a year.
By the time he is two years of age he
attains a length of 33 inches and a weight
of 25 pounds. At birth the brain is almost
one fourth of its final weight.
Early Childhood Stage:
Early childhood stage covers from 2/3
years to 6/7 years. Rate of growth during
this stage becomes slow in comparison to
infancy stage. At the age of six years a
child becomes 43 to 45 inches tall. There
is an average increase to 3 to 5 pounds of
weight annually.
At six, the child weights 36 to 42 pounds.
Boys are found to be slightly taller than
girls. Body proportions change and head
grows at a slower rate. At six, it attains
90% of adult size. Hands and feet grow
bigger. Muscles grow larger and stronger.
Hand-skills are established at this stage.
Brushing the hair, bathing and better
toilet habits develop.
The child can draw pictures and can also
point. The child learns to hop, skip, jump,
run, climb and dance during this stage. He
learns to do various things and he is
satisfied with this achievements. A major
development task for a child during six
years of life is to acquire a gender
identification. The environment is the
most powerful factor in shaping the
gender identify among children.
Later Childhood Stage:
During later childhood period (6 years to
12 years of age) physical growth is initially
slow. Arms and legs grow faster than the
trunk and the child appears tall and thin.
He loses his milk teeth and permanent
teeth begin to appear. The sense organ,
muscles and brain are more or less
mature. The overall appearance of the
child changes during this stage.
The child at 12 years is nearly 55 inches in
height. Boys are slightly taller than girls.
Sex differences begin to appear at this
stage. Child continues to grow in the
strength, speed and coordination needed
for motor skills. He climbs trees, walls etc.
He develops precision in athletic ability.
The child gains full control over the
movement of his limbs. Being active and
participating in games helps the child to
develop a concept of himself. He gets
feedback regarding his desirability, worth
and status from other people.
Adolescence Stage:
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The period of transition from childhood to
adulthood is called adolescence.
Adolescence is very crucial stage of
development. In Indian conditions the
period of adolescence may vary from 12-
13 years to 18-21 years.
A.t. Jersild defines adolescence as “the
span of years during which the boys and
girls move from childhood to adulthood.”
All types of changes like biological,
physical, social, intellectual, moral etc. take
place during the adolescence stage.
At the early adolescent years, most
children experience the adolescent growth
spurt, a rapid increase in height and
weight. Usually, this spurt occurs in girls
two years earlier than boys. The spurt
usually last about two years and during
this time girls gain 6 to 7 inches and boys
8 to 9 inches in height. By the age of
seventeen in girls and eighteen in boys,
the majority of them have reached 98
percent of their final height.
Sex differences become apparent during
this stage. Sex glands start secreting for
the first time and this is responsible for
the growth of boys into manhood and of
girls into womanhood. Primary and
secondary sex characteristics appear at
this stage. Pubic hair grows.
The voice of boys becomes rough and
that of girls becomes sweet. Certain bodily
appearances make both boys and girls
bodily conscious. Sexual development is
the most remarkable features of
adolescence. The boys and girls are
attracted towards the opposite sex.
Due to hormonal changes there is an
increase in sexual drive. The early
adolescent involves himself in intense
friendship with the members of either sex.
A capacity for mature heterosexual
relationship and true intimacy develops in
late adolescence.
Educational Implication of Physical
Development:
The following are the educational
implications of physical development at
various stages:
a. The children must be provided with a
rich and balanced diet for proper physical
development.
b. The child must be trained in acquiring
good habits of personal cleanliness and
hygiene.
c. The child must be encouraged to do
many things by independently.
d. Play activities involving maximum use
of limbs should be provided to the
children to facilitate better motor
development.
e. Good and healthy habits should be
developed in children.
f. Sympathetic and affectionate type of
atmosphere should be provided at home
as well as in the school, so that the child
develops into a well-balanced personality.
g. For proper physical development,
physical training and physical education
be emphasized.
h. Health and sex education should be
provided during adolescence period.
i. The teacher and parents should try to
understand the adolescent and his
problems.
j. The adolescent children must be
sympathetically dealt with.
2.     Mental Development
Mental development includes such
abilities as attending, perceiving,
observing, remembering, imagining,
thinking, solving problems and growth of
intelligence as well as of language. These
abilities grow and mature with age or in
different stage.
Infancy:
The child at infancy stage reacts to
external stimuli like light, sound and
temperature. Perceptual skills develop
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211
during the first year. In this age the child
can imitate, discriminate and recognize to
some extent. The child is mostly engaged
in manipulation of objects.
In this period the infant seeks physical
satisfaction based upon immediate
sensory experience. At the age of one year
he has a vocabulary of two or more words
and he can respond to simple questions
or requests. He gradually acquires the
sense of form, shape, size and color.
He learns things through imitation,
manipulation and play. He recognizes
known and unknown persons. He fails to
understand the difference between fact
and fiction. He usually puts many
embarrassing questions to the parents
which shows his inquisitiveness.
Early Childhood:
At this stage child’s contact with
environment increases and he begins to
explore things. He often asks ‘why’ of
everything. The child develops general
intelligence, perception, memory, learning,
problem solving and language. Jean
Piaget named this stage as the stage of
pre-operational stage which covers 1 ½
years to 6 years of age.
In this stage the child begins to develop
language and is able to talk and form
simple concepts. But he has very little
understanding of operations; particularly
it is difficult for him to understand
reversibility of operations. For example, if
water contained in a tall narrow glass is
poured into a small broad glass, the child
will judge that there was more water in
the narrow glass than when it is poured in
the broad glass.
This stage is also marked by ego-
centricism. There is natural shift from the
sensorimotor stage to logical and social
egocentricity. He fails to understand
another’s point of view. His attitude is, “I
am I and you are you, and how can you be
I and I be you?”
Animism is another characteristic of this
stage which the child regards everything
to be alive unless it is broken or damaged.
Children up to six years of age regard
everything that moves to be alive.
Later Childhood:
Mental development is rapid at this stage.
Child becomes more and more inquisitive
which indicates his thinking capacity.
Thinking and imagination takes active
form in this stage. As per the views of
Piaget this is the stage of concrete
operations which covers the period from 7
to 11 years.
Piaget illustrates the use of concrete
operations as he observed how an 8-year-
old child learnt what factor controls the
oscillation of a pendulum.
During this stage, the child also learns to
organize systems of classification for the
perceptions and concepts acquired by
him. The child is able to establish cause
and effect relationship. The child at this
stage develops better concepts of length,
distance, time, area and volume.
The abilities of understanding, reasoning,
memory, attention and discrimination
develop to a great extent. The child
acquires a rich store of vocabulary. Child’s
speech becomes increasingly socialized
and communicative. At this stage the child
is interested in performing creative and
productive work.
Adolescence:
At this stage of adolescent attains
intellectual maturity. The intellectual
maturation is the result of interaction
between maturation, experience,
education and training. Memory and
imagination increase to a considerable
extent. The adolescent can concentrate on
any activity for a longer period. He also
develops ability to take decisions.
According to Piaget this stage is known as
the stage of formal operations which
covers the period from 12 to 15 years. In
this stage the youngster acquires the
ability to think and reason beyond his own
immediate world.
He applies formal logic to solve his own
problems, and approaches them more
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211
systematically. The adolescents take
interest in scientific pursuits. Towards the
end of the adolescence an individual has a
complete mental preparations for a full-
fledged adult life.
Educational Implications:
The following points should be taken into
consideration for proper mental
development among the children:
a. Children should be provided a variety of
direct experiences before they can be
expected to cope with abstract ideas and
concepts.
b. Emphasis should be given on
acquisition and mastery of language
which is one of the aspects of mental
development.
c. Emphasis should be given on reading
and writing ability of the children.
d. The children should be given
opportunity of learning through imitation
and repetition.
e. Rote learning should be discouraged.
Let the children think and learn, that
should be the approach of the process of
education.
f. Students should be engaged in debates,
discussions, seminars, creative writing and
competitions etc. for mental development.
g. Greater importance should be given on
the active participation of the students in
class room teaching.
h. The children must be helped to form
good habits and attitudes.
3. Emotional Development
Emotional Development:
The term emotion is derived from Latin
term ’emovere’ which means to stir, to
agitate to move. Hence, an emotion is
referred to as a stirred up state of
agitation. We feel agitated or excited
when we experience anger, fear, joy, grief,
disgust, etc.
An emotional state consists of feelings,
impulses, physical and physiological
reactions. According to wood-worth,
Emotion “is a moved or stirred up state of
an organism. It is disturbed muscular and
glandular activity”. We find different
emotional development at various stages
of human life.
Infancy Stage:
Infants immediately after birth do to
display any distinct emotions. His
emotional reactions are diffuse and gross.
He cannot show specific reactions like
anger, fear and love. By the age two
differentiations of emotions are marked.
According to Watson emotions of fear,
anger and love can be identified even in
very young infants. After the baby is a few
weeks old, he starts smiling and gurgling
to give expression to his feeling of
pleasure and contentment.
As per the views of Bridge, by the age of
three months the general excitement is
differentiated into distress, if the situation
is unpleasant, and into delight, if the
situation is pleasant one. Jealousy appears
by about 18 months of age. Between the
ages of 18 and 24 months joy further
differentiates from elation and affection.
By the age three the child can express his
distress, fear, anger, joy and affection.
Early Childhood Stage:
As the child grows, his emotional
expressions are refined, become more
definite and grow in intensity. Now his
loves, fears and dislikes becomes more
intense. Curiosity ad inquisitiveness
develops at this stage. The child feels
satisfied when his questions are answered.
With growth and maturity in age comes
decline in overt expression of emotional
reactions.
Previous violent emotional reactions are
now expressed in subdued form among
children fear at first is general rather than
specific. As children grow older fear
responses become increasingly specific.
The child shows his fear by running away
to avoid the situation that brightens him.
He also shows jealousy towards other
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211
when he finds them possessing things
which he does not have.
Later Childhood Stage:
At this stage, the emotional behavior of
the child is guided by rational expressions.
He experiences intense emotional feelings
of love, hate and fear which lasts for a
long period of time. But he is able to have
control over his emotions. Emotions at
wonder dominate the child at this stage. If
anything goes against his interest he
shows anger.
At the age of 10, he becomes obedient
and friendly. Fear is less common in older
children. Older children when become
angry, do not kick things. Instead, they
express their anger in the form of sarcasm,
sneers, abuses, and belittling remarks.
Anger is expressed in refusal to speak or
quarrelsomeness. At this stage, the
children like to be with the persons whom
they love. Joy, pleasure, love, curiosity,
grief and affection appear in this stage.
Adolescence Stage:
Adolescence period is marked by
heightened emotionality due to change of
roles in home, school and society. It is due
to the unfavorable relations in home.
Parents and teachers in most cases are
responsible for heightened emotionality in
adolescents because they do not prepare
their children to meet the problems of
adolescence.
When the child becomes an adolescent,
society and parents expect him to think
and act like an adult for which he is not
physically and intellectually matured.
In adolescence there is attraction towards
the member of opposite sex but the
adolescent is not able to understand the
correct social behavior, how to make
friendship with the members of opposite
sex, which create emotional tensions in
him.
Adolescents come in conflict with their
friends and family members who fail to
understand them. School failures cause
emotional disturbance among the
adolescents. Vocational problems also
create emotional disturbances.
Educational Implications:
Following suggestions are given to help
children’s emotional development:
a. The children should be helped to
eliminate the causes of emotional
outbursts.
b. Care should be taken to fulfill the basic
requirements of the infants.
c. Children should be helped to learn to
express their emotions in a socially
accepted manner.
d. Counseling should be provided to
express the emotional feelings of the
children in a better way.
e. A child should be helped to develop a
realistic understanding about the
situations that aroused unpleasant
emotions.
f. The child should be assisted to control
his emotional feelings which may offend
other or which are destructive in nature.
g. The child should be gradually directed
to exercise more of internal- control than
to need external control of his emotional
behavior.
h. There must be provision for excursions,
picnic, and scouting to give outlet to their
extra energy.
i. The child must learn to accept many
restrictions in life, and learn to tolerate
situations, persons, or events that cause
annoyance.
j. Care should be taken to avoid causes of
emotionality like fatigue, poor health,
thwarted desires, unpreparedness etc.
among the children.
4.     Social Development:
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At birth, the child is neither social nor
unsocial. When the child grows up, he
develops some social behavior which
makes him an acceptable social being.
Social development can be defined by
Hurlock as social development is the
“attaining of maturity in social
relationships”.
Garret regards social development as the
process whereby “the biological individual
is converted into a human person.” Social
development is closely associated with
mental, physical and emotional aspects of
development.
An individual’s social and emotional
behavior is so closely interlinked that
feelings of jealousy, shyness, affection and
sympathy which are primarily regarded as
emotional responses can also be treated
as social forms of behavior.
Certain general trends in the development
of social behavior are discussed here:
 
Infancy Stage:
During the first few months the child
begins to make active. social contacts with
the persons in his social environment such
as mother, father, grandmother, elders
who care for him. He becomes aware of
the individuals, who stimulate in him the
feeling of satisfaction.
The child soon learns to differentiate
between his mother and other persons.
Social responses that starts early in life are
those of smiling and laughing. During the
second half of the first year the child
shows negative response to strangers.
After the eighteen months the infant
reacts to other infants in the environment
and after that he becomes more and more
interested in his playmates. By the age of
two years, he can obey certain commands
given to him and call attention of other
persons to objects be feels interested in.
During this period the child displays the
tendency towards negativism by
responding to almost every request with a
‘no’. The child at this stage is likely to have
many phantasies.
Early Childhood Stage:
In this period the child usually has one or
two friends with whom he identifies and
plays for short intervals. The young child
selects his playmates of his own age from
his immediate neighborhood. He selects
friends who provide him friendly
companionship ship. The child at this
stage often quarrels and fights.
The child shows his sympathy by helping
others in difficulty. He needs recognition
and praise. He needs approval of adults.
Feeling of being ignored makes him
naughty in the hope of getting attention
that he craves for.
Studies have reported that nursery school
experiences contribute in acquiring
acceptable social habits, overcoming fear
of strangers and other children, ability to
express themselves, and decreasing
tension.
Later Childhood Stage:
At this stage the child enters, the school
and wants to have many friends. He is
interested the play activities that involve
the group. He desires to be in the group
of friends of his own age and sex. The
peer approval at this stage is linked with
the strong desire for friendship and leads
to cooperative behavior.
The child shows interest in what happens
in the outside world. He becomes more
extroverts in this stage. Quarrels are also
common among friends during this
period.
One important development that takes
place is the increasing interest and ability
in organized activities and in team work.
They form clubs or gangs for games,
sports and other social activities. These
gangs are formed separately for boys and
girls. However, these groups are often
short lived. Different qualities like taking
up responsibility, self-control, self-
reliance, obedience, discipline etc. develop
in this stage.
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211
Adolescence Stage:
The adolescents have a strong loyalty and
devotion to their groups. They are deeply
influenced by peer groups and their
decisions. At this stage, the adolescent
acquires many habits, attitudes, ideals and
social skills.
During early adolescent period the close-
friend is usually a member of the same
sex. At the later adolescent period, one
usually tries to seek friendship with a
member of the opposite sex. However,
this is not generally permitted in some
cultures, and so same sex friendships are
more common.
Identification with peer groups, hero-
worship, growth of patriotic spirit,
development of a sense of sacrifice and
leadership are some of the important
features of the social development of the
adolescent.
Educational Implication:
It is evident that the social growth of
children is a significant process which
cannot be ignored by the teachers and
the parents.
For proper social development following
suggestions can be taken into
consideration:
a. The school should endeavor to provide
adequate and ample opportunities
favorable to the social growth of the
children.
b. The school should aim at creating such
a healthy atmosphere in and outside the
classroom that children feel it convenient,
pleasant and desirable to develop
satisfying social relations with all those
with whom they come in contact.
c. The general attitude of a class teacher
must aim to promote a feeling of security
in the minds of children.
d. Each student should be stimulated to
participate in group activities in and out of
the class room.
e. Children should be provided training in
leadership which will develop personal
and social qualities among them.
f. The children should be engaged in
different social work according to their
interest and skills.
g. Education should be imparted to curb
the negative tendencies among the
children.
B.     Key Issues in Human Development
a.      Nature versus Nurture
For everyone, development begins at the
moment of conception, and probably few
would argue with the possibility that a
person’s skills and character are
significantly influenced and shaped by
their parents and family during childhood.
If the same child were to be brought up in
a different family would not their skills
and their character not have been pretty
much the same in the long run? Questions
such as these form the basis of what has
become known as the ‘nature versus
nurture’ debate.
Although knowledge can be shared
between professionals, the knowledge
base and the various associated theories
of development have emerged from
different academic disciplines, such as
psychology and neuroscience. Academic
debates concerning aspects of
development exist both within and
between different disciplines. For social
workers, it is helpful to understand some
of these debates and appreciate the
extent to which development is viewed as
an interaction between environmental,
social, and hereditary influences. This
reflects one of the fundamental debates
concerning the extent to which human
development is influenced by either
nature (inherent characteristics) or nurture
(the care given by others). At the simplest
level this debate involves two separate
explanations:
Nature refers to the process of biological
maturation inheritance and maturation.
One of the reasons why the development
of human beings is so similar is because
our common specifies heredity (DNA)
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211
guides all of us through many of the same
developmental changes at about the same
points in our lives. People’s development
and their behaviors, qualities and
identities can be explained by their
biological or genetic make-up. Behavior is
caused by innate characteristics. All
possible behaviors are said to be present
from conception. Genes provide the
blueprint for all behaviors; some present
from birth, others pre-programmed to
emerge with age.
Nurture refers to the impact of the
environment, which involves the process
of learning through experiences, social
relationships, and surrounding culture.
People’s development and their behaviors,
qualities and identities can be explained
by the physical and emotional
environments in which they grow up. An
individual’s behavior is determined by the
environment the things people teach
them, the things they observe, and
because of the different situations they
are in.  Determinist view proposes all
human behavior is the result of
interactions with the environment.
Even today, different branches of
psychology often take a one versus the
other approach. For example, biological
psychology tends to stress the importance
of genetics and biological
influences. Behaviorism, on the other
hand, focuses on the impact that the
environment has on behavior.
In the past, debates over the relative
contributions of nature versus nurture
often took a very one-sided approach,
with one side arguing that nature played
the most important role and the other
side suggesting that it was nurture that
was the most significant. Today, most
experts recognize that both factors play a
critical role. Not only that, but they also
realize that nature and nurture interact in
important ways all throughout life.
a.     Continuity versus Discontinuity
 
Continuity and discontinuity are two
competing theories in developmental
psychology that attempt to explain how
people change through the course of their
lives, where the continuity theory says that
someone changes throughout their life
along a smooth course while the
discontinuity theory instead contends that
people change abruptly. These changes
can be described as a wide variety of
someone's social and behavioral makeup,
like their emotions, traditions, and beliefs.
 
Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity
disagree with one another in how they
assess the changes that someone
undergoes throughout the course of their
life. The continuity theory examines the
way someone changes in a quantitative
and continuous respect. Discontinuity
theory, on the other hand, looks at these
changes through the lens of a qualitative
analysis with an emphasis on the
discontinuous nature of how someone
changes.  Developmental psychology
encompasses a very wide array of
observations related to how people think,
behave and interact with their
environment as well as other people.
 
Continuity and discontinuity are defined in
the literature on aging and on human
development Discontinuity in human
development usually signifies some form
of change, whereas continuity implies
maintaining the status quo. Continuity
and discontinuity include descriptions of
and explanations for behavior, which are
not necessarily undivided. They also relate
to a qualitative level referring to essence
and to a quantitative level referring to
more or to less. A gerontological
approach relates to internal and external
continuity and discontinuity in aging.
Internal refers to self and identity, whereas
external refers to relationship structures
and social behavior. A lifespan perspective
of human development in general and of
aging in particular suggests a meta-model
(SOC). It suggests that people select goals
and activities that allow them to function
in an optimal way and to compensate for
losses along the life span using strengths
that remain. As such, SOC views change as
SUBJECT: THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND PRINCIPLE EDN211

adaptation rather than growth. A more

recent approach is an innovation theory of
successful aging. This is based on
empirical findings that internal continuity
of self-preservation and striking out in an
entirely new direction are possible in old
age. Such an approach leaves room for
continuity and adaptation as well as for
growth.

b. Stability versus Change

It deals with the issue of whether or not

personality traits present during present
during infancy endure throughout the
lifespan. The stability-change debate
describes the developmental psychology
discussion about whether personality
traits that are present in an individual at
birth remain constant or change
throughout the life span. The stability vs.
change debate is one of the fundamental
questions in developmental psychology
along with nature vs. nurture.  Change
theorists argue that personalities are
modified by interactions with family,
experiences at school, and acculturation. 
Studies of children have often revealed
impressive stability over time in aspects of
development such as the attachment to
their parents or in personality. However,
there is evidence which suggests a
contrary view, that change is both
possible and indeed, is likely under
appropriate conditions.