Unit 2 Biological Development: College of Education

Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines
College of Education
Unit 2
BIOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
CNSC-OP-VPA-01F11 Page 1 of 21
OBJECTIVES
 identify the concepts and theories related to the biological/physical development of children and
adolescents;
 analyze the different biological/physical developmental stages of children and adolescents; and
 demonstrate appreciation of understanding the biological/physical development of individual.
NFORMATION SHEET
Biological Beginnings
Prenatal Development
Developmental psychologists consider the process of human development as it relates to
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. This lifespan development is organized into
different stages based on age. Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40
weeks prior to the birth of a child, and is heavily influenced by genetics.
There are three stages of prenatal development—germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal

development is also organized into trimesters: the first trimester ends with the end of the
embryonic stage, the second trimester ends at week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth .
Overview of Genetic Inheritance

Chromosomes
Every person is made up of cells, each of which contains chromosomes. Chromosomes are
genetic material that determines many things about a person, such as eye and hair color,
biological sex, and personality traits. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is responsible for the
transmission of genetic material. A mother and father’s DNA are passed on at the moment of
conception.
DNA
DNA is a ladder-like structure that contains genetic material.

A human being has a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes. The
developing zygote gets half of its chromosomes from one parent and half
from the other parent. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are known as
autosomes and determine things such as eye and hair color. The last
pair, known as the sex chromosomes, determine a person’s biological
sex: females have two X chromosomes, while males have an X and a Y
chromosome.
Gene Expression and Regulation
Gene expression is carefully regulated in every organism to allow the organism to adapt to
differing conditions. The expression of genetic information in a given cell or organism is neither
random nor fully pre-programmed. Genes can either be dominant or recessive, meaning they can
either be expressed or hidden. Depending on the dominance of each chromosome that is inherited
from each parent, the child may or may not show the inherited trait.
Gene regulation is the process by which cells differentiate. Among other things, it is the
process in which a cell determines which genes it will express and when. Cell differentiation is a
process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell. For example, as a
zygote develops, gene regulation changes some cells into brain cells and others into liver cells.
Other cells will become the lining of the stomach, the intestines, and the sexual reproductive
organs.
Mutation is when a sudden change in a segment of the DNA occurs. Some mutations of the
genes can result in conditions such as Down Syndrome or Turner’s Syndrome.
The Importance of Genetics in Human Development

Differences in gene expression—whether as a result of standard regulation processes or
through mutation—are crucial to an individual’s physical and psychological development. The
exact extent to which genes, as opposed to an individual’s environment, determine or influence
psychological development is hotly debated; this controversy is known as the “nature-vs.-nurture
debate.” However, an individual’s genetic makeup at the very least serves as a crucial baseline
(which may then be mediated by the environment) for such characteristics as the ability to begin
learning spoken language, such personality traits as a tendency toward aggressive versus
submissive behavior, and risk levels for such diseases as alcoholism and addiction.
Before birth, a fetus has of course had limited opportunity to be shaped by its environment,
beyond factors such as the mother’s diet, substance use, and anxiety level. For this reason,
genetics play a particularly important role in prenatal development.
Prenatal development is the process of rapid change and growth that occurs in the 40
weeks prior to the birth of a child.
Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a
child. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal
development is also organized into three equal trimesters, which do not correspond with the three
stages. The first trimester ends with the end of the embryonic stage, the second trimester ends at
week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth.
Germinal Stage
The germinal stage is the stage of development that occurs from conception until 2 weeks
(implantation). Conception occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. A zygote
begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. At the moment of
conception, the mother’s and father’s DNA are passed on to; the genetic makeup and sex of the
future fetus are set at this point. During the first week after conception, the zygote rapidly divides
and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so
on. This process of cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-
half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5 days of mitosis there are
100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they become more
specialized, forming different organs and body parts. During the germinal stage, the cells
necessary for the placenta, umbilical cord, and amniotic fluid will differentiate to form the embryo.
The mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the uterus; once this attachment occurs,
the next stage begins.
Embryonic Stage
The embryonic stage lasts from

implantation (2 weeks) until week 8 of
pregnancy. After the zygote divides for
about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it
travels down the fallopian tubes and
implants itself in the lining of the uterus.
Upon implantation, this multi-cellular
organism is called an embryo. Now blood
vessels grow, forming the placenta.
The placenta is a structure connected to
the uterus that provides nourishment and
oxygen from the woman’s body to the
developing embryo through the umbilical
cord.
During the first week of the

embryonic period, the embryonic disk
separates into three layers: the ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm. The ectoderm
is the layer that will become the nervous
system and outer skin layers; the
mesoderm will become the circulatory
system, skeleton, muscles, reproductive
Embryo:
system, andDuring the germinal
inner layer of skin; stage
and theof prenatal
development,
endoderm the cellsthe
will become necessary for the
respiratory
placenta,
system andumbilical
part of thecord, and amniotic
digestive system,fluid
as will
differentiate
well to form
as the urinary the embryo.
tract.
The first part of the embryo to develop is the neural tube, which will become the spinal cord
and brain. As the nervous system starts to develop, the tiny heart starts to pump blood, and other
parts of the body—such as the digestive tract and backbone—begin to emerge. In the second half
of this period, growth is very rapid. The eyes, ears, nose, and jaw develop; the heart develops
chambers; and the intestines grow.
Fetal Stage
The remainder of prenatal development occurs during the fetal stage, which lasts from
week 9 until birth (usually between 38 and 40 weeks). When the organism is about nine weeks
old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and
begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being. Between 9 and 12 weeks, reflexes
begin to appear and the arm and legs start to move (those first movements won’t be felt for a few
weeks, however). During this same time, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks,
the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints
are visible. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up
to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs,
including the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born
prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the womb.
Stages of development
During the fetal stage, the brain develops and the body adds size and weight, until the fetus
reaches full-term development.
Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size
from weeks 16 to 28. Brain growth during this period allows the fetus to develop new behaviors.
The cerebral cortex grows larger, and the fetus spends more hours awake. The fetus moves with
more coordination, indicating more neural connections within the brain. The nervous system is
controlling more bodily functions, and even personality begins to emerge in utero. By 28 weeks,
thalamic brain connections form, which mediate sensory input. The fetus can distinguish between
voices, and can remember songs and certain sounds after birth. The fetus becomes sensitive to
light as well; in fact, if a doctor shines a light on the womb, the baby will attempt to shield his or her
eyes. Growth begins to slow around 30 to 32 weeks, but small changes continue until birth.
Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about
18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it
could survive outside the uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The
fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus
has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent.
Watch this link for additional information:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ih-VOfgzOHc
Environmental Impacts on Prenatal Development

Environmental factors, such as exposure to teratogens, can have a range of impacts on the
developing fetus.
Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a
child. During each prenatal stage, environmental factors affect the development of the fetus. The
developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for life, and it is important that the mother
receives prenatal care, which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both
the mother and the fetus. According to the National Institutes of Health ([NIH], 2013), routine
prenatal care can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus during pregnancy.
When the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, the placenta is formed. The placenta provides
nourishment and oxygen to the fetus. Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid,
and even medication, travels through the placenta to the fetus—hence the common phrase that a
mother “eats for two.” Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the fetus; if the
mother is exposed to something harmful, the child can show life-long effects.
Teratogens
A teratogen is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or physical—

that can have a detrimental effect on a developing fetus. Exposure to teratogens during the
prenatal stage can significantly raise the risk of birth defects. Several factors influence the amount
of damage a teratogen can have, including dose or level of exposure, heredity, age of the
teratogen, and any other negative influences (for example, several teratogens or a teratogen
combined with poor health). There are several known teratogens that expectant mothers are
advised to avoid during pregnancy, including alcohol, prescription and/or illegal drugs, and
tobacco.
Alcohol
Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Alcohol use during
pregnancy has been found to be the leading preventable cause of mental disabilities in children in
the United States (Maier & West, 2001). Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) with life-long consequences for the child, ranging in
severity from minor to major. It is unknown how much alcohol is necessary to cause damage, and
so doctors typically recommend that alcohol should be completely avoided during pregnancy.
Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features.
Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD
and learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into
adulthood (Streissguth et al., 2004). Based on studies conducted on animals, it also has been
suggested that a mother’s alcohol consumption during pregnancy may predispose her child to like
alcohol (Youngentob et al., 2007).
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
The symptoms of FASD include

slow physical growth, abnormal facial
features (such as a smooth philtrum, or no
dent in the upper lip), and brain injury.
Each organ of the fetus develops

during a specific period in the pregnancy,
called the critical or sensitive period.
Research into FASD has demonstrated
that the time during which a developing
fetus is exposed to alcohol can
dramatically affect the appearance of
facial characteristics associated with
FASD. Specifically, this research
suggests that alcohol exposure that is
limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to significant facial abnormalities in the offspring of
primates (Ashley, Magnuson, Omnell, & Clarren, 1999). Given regions of the brain also show
sensitive periods during which they are most susceptible to the teratogenic effects of alcohol (Tran
& Kelly, 2003).
Prescription and/or Illegal Drugs
Use of any type of drug—whether illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter—can be

dangerous during pregnancy. Illegal drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and methamphetamine can
cause a myriad of problems for the developing fetus: babies can be born addicted to certain drugs
and are also more likely to be born prematurely, have low birth weight, and experience other
physical defects. Many end up with attention and behavioral problems as well.
Prescription drugs taken during pregnancy such as streptomycin, tetracycline, some
antidepressants, progestin, synthetic estrogen, Accutane, thalidomide, and diethylstilbestrol
(known as DES)—as well as over-the-counter drugs such as diet pills—can also result in
teratogenic outcomes for the developing fetus. Thalidomide causes bodily deformities as well as
damage to internal organs. DES-exposed fetuses have been shown to have higher rates of cancer
and infertility as adults. Additionally, high doses of aspirin are known to lead to maternal and fetal
bleeding, although low-dose aspirin is usually not harmful. The classification of a drug (as A, B, C,
D, or X) allows a mother to make determinations about using drugs during pregnancy: for
example, class A drugs are deemed always safe, whereas class X drugs have proven to be
damaging to the fetus.
Smoking
Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through the
placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in
blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013),
smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)—the sudden and unexplained death of a child less than one
year of age. Other issues that can be caused by prenatal exposure to smoking are inattentiveness,
muscle tension, and colic (a form of pain which starts and stops abruptly and occurs due to
muscular contractions in the body). The more a mother smokes or is exposed to second-hand
smoke, the greater the risk; however, quitting (even after smoking during pregnancy) greatly
reduces the risks of these problems.
Other Teratogens
Other teratogens that affect prenatal

development include radiation, pollution, and
infectious disease. Radiation increases the
risk of childhood cancer, as well as emotional
and behavioral disorders; because of this, it
is recommended that pregnant women avoid
x-rays unless absolutely necessary. Pollution,
such as exposure to mercury or PCBs, can
cause physical deformities, abnormal speech,
and difficulty with coordination. Maternal
infections such as viruses or parasites can
also cause brain damage to the fetus, or
even death. Baby in the NICU (neonatal intensive care unit):
Exposure to teratogens during pregnancy can cause
many problems for a developing fetus and newborn baby.
Maternal Stress and Depression
Any form of prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects on various aspects
of fetal development, and can cause harm to both mother and child. When a mother is under
stress, physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the developing fetus. Additionally,
a stressed mother is more likely to engage in behaviors that could negatively affect the fetus, such
as smoking, drug use, and alcohol abuse. Prenatal depression is often caused by the stress and
worry that pregnancy can bring, only at a more severe level. Other factors that can put a person at
risk for prenatal depression include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant, history of
abuse, and economic or family problems.
The use of antidepressants in pregnancy, mentioned above, has been associated with a
variety of risks for the fetus with varying degrees of proof of causation. While some studies clearly
show the adverse outcomes of prenatal antidepressant exposure, others are less clear—and
complications arise because depression itself is independently associated with negative
pregnancy outcomes. Determining the extent to which adverse outcomes are caused by
antidepressant use or by depression—or a combination of both—is difficult to measure; it is also
important to factor in the negative consequences of a mother going off prescription
antidepressants during pregnancy, which may adversely affect her health in other ways.
Quiz No. 1
Read the following statement carefully and encircle the best answer among the given
choices below.
1. A zygote is an _____.
a. egg cell that has been fertilized by sperm
b. egg cell waiting to be fertilized
c. egg cell that has yet to begin dividing itself
d. embryo multiplying itself
2. Why is the 9th week mark important during fetal development?
a. At nine weeks all of the major systems of the body have been established.
b. At nine weeks the risk of miscarriage increases.
c. At nine weeks the fetus begins the process of differentiation.
d. At nine weeks the fetus can recognize the voice of the mother.
3. _________ is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or physical—
that can have a detrimental effect on a developing fetus.
a. Illegal Drugs
b. Cigarettes
c. Alcohol
d. Teratogens
4. In what week of pregnancy does the thalamic brain connections form, which mediate
sensory input?
a. 27th week
b. 28th week
c. 29th week
d. 30th week
5. Which is the correct order of the prenatal development?
a. Germinal stage – Embryonic stage – Fetal stage
b. Embryonic stage – Germinal stage – Fetal stage
c. Fetal stage – Embryonic stage – Germinal stage
d. Germinal stage – Fetal stage – Embryonic stage
6. How taking illegal drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and methamphetamine of a mother
affects her baby?
a. It can cause physical deformities, abnormal speech, and difficulty with coordination.
b. The baby can be born addicted to certain drugs and are also more likely to be born
prematurely, have low birth weight, and experience other physical defects.
c. The baby might experience slow physical growth, abnormal facial features (such as a
smooth philtrum, or no dent in the upper lip), and brain injury.
d. It can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS).
7. _________ occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote.
a. Fertilization
b. Conception
c. Mitosis
d. Meiosis
8. _________ are genetic material that determines many things about a person, such as eye
and hair color, biological sex, and personality traits.
a. DNA c. Genes
b. Cell d. Chromosomes
9. In what week hearing is developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds?
a. 22nd week c. 24th week
b. 23rd week d. 25th week
10. During the first week of the embryonic period, the embryonic disk separates into three
layers. Which of the following is NOT included?
a. Ectoderm c. Endoderm
b. Mesoderm d. Bioderm
Activity No. 1
Through the use of concept map, differentiate the three stages of prenatal development.
NFORMATION SHEET
Physical and Motor Development

Physical development refers to the advancements and refinements of motor skills, or, in
other words, children’s abilities to use and control their bodies. Physical development is one of the
many domains of infant and toddler development. It relates to the growth and skill development of
the body, including the brain, muscles, and senses. For example, babies learn about the world as
they develop their physical senses of sight, touch, smell, sound, and taste. In fact, babies can hear
well before they are born. Newborns like to look at faces and will seek interesting things to look at
very early on. An infant can recognize the mother’s smell and the sound of her voice within days
after birth. From birth, infants are aware of the world around them, and the ability to grow, develop,
and learn occurs quickly as infants begin to explore through their senses.
Gross-motor skills and fine-motor skills are developed during infancy and toddlerhood.

Gross-motor skills involve the mastery of large muscle movements, as well as the building of
strength in muscle groups like the arms, legs, and core. Examples of such skills for infants and
toddlers include reaching, rolling, crawling, and climbing. Fine-motor skills involve smaller, more
precise movements, particularly movements of the hands and fingers, such as grasping. As their
bodies grow, infants and toddlers progressively strengthen their muscles and become better able
to control their bodies. Each new motor skill that is developed is the result of an earlier skill and a
contributor to new skills. Newborn infants do not have the strength to hold up their heads, however
as they learn and develop control of muscles, they will be able to support their heads and move
them from side to side to explore. Skill mastery and development are also the result of brain
growth and development. Consider an infant who is starting to walk while holding on to couches
and round-edged tables. This child must have acquired strength in the large muscles and a certain
level of control over body movement. At the same time, the child also relies on vision to determine
where to walk and what to cling onto. As infants and toddlers grow, their bodies and minds
become capable of simple and mildly-complex movement and experiences.
Parents, teachers, and caregivers must stimulate toddlers and infants and encourage the
development of gross- and fine-motor skills. For example, you may stimulate physical
development by holding a toddler upright while moving each leg to imitate walking. Eventually, the
child will become accustomed to the balance and muscle movements that are required to walk and
be able to do it on his own. Infants and toddlers depend on their caregivers to meet their needs for
safety and security. When infants and toddlers receive consistent, responsive care and attention
from nurturing adults, they are able to establish a sense of trust in the world. This sense of being
loved and feeling safe is essential to stimulate areas of development, including physical
development. When they feel safe and secure, infants and toddlers use their brains, muscles, and
senses to explore the world around them.
Below you will find the typical progression of gross- and fine-motor skills in infants and
toddlers, respectively.
Roll ➨ Scoot ➨ Crawl ➨ Walk ➨ March
Hands to Mouth → Reach Midline → Move Objects → Pincer Grasp → Scribble
Importance of Physical Growth and Development

Preparing infants and toddlers for school requires more than developing a set of skills; it
includes physical development and health. When an infant or toddler is healthy and happy, he or
she is more likely to engage in learning. Physical development and health can help prepare infants
and toddlers for activities that support language development, social skills, and other areas of
learning for school success.
While there is not one particular area of development that determines later school success,
research highlights the importance of supporting a strong foundation by promoting healthy
physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development. During infancy, foundations are created
and built upon as other areas of development progress, such as physical and motor development.
For example, young children will develop the abilities to balance, crawl, and walk from their
foundational reflex responses. When infants and toddlers are able to move on their own, they are
able to explore and contribute to their cognitive development in a way that was not possible when
they were unable to walk or crawl.
Think about what life might be like for a one-year-old who has not started crawling. While
sitting on his own, he struggles to coordinate movements, such as pushing up to a crawling
position and moving his hands and legs at the same time. Most objects and people in his
environment are brought to him to explore. How might the limitations in physical and motor
development impact other areas of development for this 1-year-old?
Exploration Limited motor development and skills can mean limited exploration of
the environment.
Limited exploration can mean limited experiences. For example,

Cognitive learning about cause and effect (a contributor to cognitive development)
Development can be limited merely because of restricted “experiments” with the
things nearby.
Social Development The one-year-old can only observe the play of other children within his
range of sight. This can affect the development of particular social skills.
The child depends on other people in his environment to provide

Emotional stimulation. This can affect emotional development, as it may be difficult
development for the child to make his or her own way in the world and achieve
autonomy
Below, you will see some of the different ways that physical development is connected to other
areas of development:
Physical & Cognitive
 Seven-month-olds are given a toy. When the infants use

their motor skills to push a button, they hear an exciting
sound. The infants are presented with the toy again after a
period of wait time. They immediately push the button
repeatedly, suggesting that they learned how to perform an
action to cause a sound (Hauf & Aschersleben, 2008).
 Toddlers, around 18 months of age, engage in play which

involves imitation, such as pushing a toy truck while
making engine noises or striking a ball with a bat
(Laplante, et. al., 2007).
Motor & Emotional
 Mastery motivation is the internal drive to successfully

complete tasks, such as mastering motor skills. Infants display more
mastery motivation behaviors (e.g., smiling and persistence) when
they engage in new, challenging motor tasks rather than when they
use familiar and previously learned skills (Mayes & Zigler, 2006).
Motor & Social
 Children use specific behaviors involving motor skills to connect with their peers. For
example, one- and two-year olds bounce a ball to capture peers’ attention.
Additional examples include:
 As infants grasp toys with their fingers and hands, they are building small-muscle (fine-
motor) skills, which will help them hold crayons and pencils as they get older
(communication).
 Toddlers begin scribbling, which leads to writing their names and other words as they get
older (communication).
 As toddlers push and pull a friend in a wagon while outdoors, they learn about relationships
with others and waiting for a turn (social development).
There are many things you can do to help infants and toddlers develop physically in your program:
 Support infants’ bodies and heads when you hold them.

 Help the infant see your face when you talk and play with her or him
 Hold onto the infant’s or toddler’s feet and rotate them gently as you sing songs like “The
Wheels on the Bus.
 Provide many opportunities to practice and use new skills, such as sitting up on your lap as
you support an infant’s neck and back (between 4 and 6 months).
 Spend time together on the floor and provide tummy time.
 Place things nearby and offer opportunities and chances for infants to reach for things.
 Create safe areas for infants to crawl around and explore.
 Offer teething rings, sucking toys, rattles, and other things to reach and grab.
 Share toys with knobs and buttons
 Introduce toddlers to stacking and connecting toys.
 Spend time with toddlers using four-wheeled riding toys.
Activity No. 2
Complete the table. Write ten (10) gross motor skills and (10) fine motor skills that an infant and
toddler do, aside from the examples mentioned above.
No Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

.
1 Sitting Holding a pencil
2 Standing Writing
3 Running Threading Beads
4 Jumping Playing Legos
5 Lifting Buttoning up polo shirt
6 Kicking Swing or bat
7 Walking Put a small object to a container
8 Rolls over Feeds him/herself finger foods
9 Crawls Claps hand
10 Climb Ties shoelace
NFORMATION SHEET
Neuroscience and Brain

Development
Interest in the organization and function of the
human brain dates back to at least fifth century
Greece, when cerebrocentric views of the mind
emerged. Hippocrates, for instance, posited that the
human brain was the central and most important
organ for our sensory and cognitive experiences.
Plato suggested that the brain was the seat of
mental intelligence and, being capable of reason,
was the organ that distinguished humans from other
mammals. These top-down theories of the human brain, among others, led future philosophers
and scientists alike to investigate both the organization and the localization of specific functions in
the brain
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, theories and interest regarding the
neurobiological substrates for different cortical functions became more pronounced. In particular,
Franz Josef Gall’s theory of phrenology, which proposed that the morphology of the skull related to
basic human mental faculties, prompted his contemporaries to evaluate his theory by assessing
the postmortem brain tissue of normal and diseased brains. Using this method, Paul Broca, in
1861, was able to localize a region of the brain in the left frontal cortex responsible for speech
production. Similarly, neurologist Carl Wernicke examined patients with acute brain injury, and
determined that an area near the superior temporal gyrus may be responsible for speech and
language comprehension. Later, the German neurologist Korbinian Brodmann was able to publish
a map of the mammalian cortex that detailed its cytoarchitectural organization. This map continues
to serve as an aid to scientific endeavors exploring cortical maturation and localizing cognitive
function.
The development of noninvasive techniques, such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
allowed scientists to weave together past and present knowledge to provide a more
comprehensive view of brain and cognitive development. In particular, advances in neuroimaging
techniques over the past three decades have allowed scientists to map this knowledge onto more
global templates of brain structure and has furthered our understanding of the underlying
functional circuitry. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the development of the human
cerebrum from conception through adulthood. Next, we review in greater detail what we have
learned about postnatal brain development over the past decades since the advent of MRI. Lastly,
we discuss future directions and the importance of the integration of multiple neuroimaging
modalities in understanding the impact of biological and experiential factors on brain development.
Development of the Cortex
What do we know about the development and maturation of the human brain? Neural
development begins shortly after conception and continues throughout the life span. Here, we
briefly summarize the landmark events during prenatal (conception to birth) and postnatal (birth to
adulthood) neural development.
The cellular chain of in utero events that lay the foundation for the development of the
human cerebral cortex begin soon after conception during what are known as the embryonic
(conception-gestational week 8 (GW 8)), early fetal (GW 9-GW 20), and fetal periods (GW 9-birth).
These complex events vary spatially and temporally, and are influenced by both positive and
negative genetic and environmental influences. In this section, we will review the basic cellular
process that take place in each of these periods and how they contribute to the eventual
maturation of the human brain.
The Embryonic Period (Conception Through GW 8, First Trimester)
In the earliest post-conception stage, the
mammalian embryo, or zygote, contains all of the genetic
information from both parents that is necessary for
development. This brief stage is characterized by rapid
differentiation and enlargement of the zygote into multiple
cells. By 2 weeks’ post-conception, the embryo has
transformed into a blastula, or a two-layered cellular
structure. Each layer of the blastocyte contains two
different cell types: the epiblast cells of the upper layer,
which will become the fetus, and the hypoblast cells of the
lower layer, which will form extra-embryonic tissues.
Following blastula development, a process called
gastrulation occurs between days 13 and 20 of the
embryonic period. It is during this time that the two-layered
cell is reorganized into a three-layered structure via the
migration and differentiation of the epi- and hypoblast cells
into the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Briefly, this
process includes a split in the upper layer of the blastula, known as the primitive streak, as well as
the formation of a molecular signaling structure called the primitive node. Once these structures
are formed, a subset of the epiblast cells move from the midline of the embryo toward the primitive
streak, and migrate to the under belly of the upper layer. As these cells pass the primitive node,
they receive two molecular signals: (1) a signal that induces them to genetically produce a protein
that binds to the receptors on the surface of the cells, and eventually induces their transformation
into specific types of stem cells and (2) a signal that specifies their final destination. These events
induce the differentiation of some of the epiblast cells into the neural progenitor cells. As the name
suggests, the neural progenitor cells are capable of producing all of the cells necessary for
development of the brain. They do this in two stages. First, the progenitor cells divide in a
symmetric, or identical, fashion to produce more neural progenitor cells. Around gestational day
42, the cells begin to divide asymmetrically, whereby two different types of cells are produced:
another neural progenitor cell, and a neuron. The new neural progenitor cells continue to divide
within the ventricular zone. The neuron, however, leaves the ventricular zone and migrates to the
neocortex.
The neural progenitor cells that remain in the ventricular zone begin the neural patterning
that establishes the primary organization of the central nervous system. Specifically, the neural
progenitor cells begin to fold into the tubular structure known as the neural tube. The caudal
portion of the neural tube will become the spinal cord, and the rostral region will evolve into the
brain. In the rostral portion of the neural tube, the neural progenitor cells divide to form the
forebrain (prosencephalon), the midbrain (mesencephalon), and the hindbrain (rhombencephalon).
In order to accomplish this, the neurons produced by neural progenitor cells begin a process of
migration that results in the anatomical development of the cortex, which primarily occurs during
the fetal period.
Fetal Period (GW 9-Birth)

There are two successive types of neuronal migration that occur during the fetal period: (1)
somal translocation migration and (2) radial glial migration. These events allow for the “inside–out”
formation of the neocortex into its 6-layered structure. Somal
migration occurs at the earlier stages of development, when the
cortex is small and neurons have less distance to travel. During
somal migration, the neuron extends a long process that attaches
to the most outer surface of the developing brain, termed the pial
surface. This process then becomes the host for the cell body to
migrate to the deepest cortical layer. As the brain becomes
larger, somal migration is replaced by radial glial cell migration.
During this period, the neurons again extend a process that also
attaches to the pial surface. But instead of the neural body
traveling through this process to migrate to the neocortex, the
process becomes a scaffolding, or highway of sorts on which
other neurons can migrate to their appropriate place in the cortex.
These cellular changes contribute to the change in the

appearance and anatomy of the cortex, which is marked by an
orderly and sequential formation of the gyri and sulci of the brain.
The primary sulci of the sylvian, cingulate, parieto-occipital, and
calcarine regions develop during weeks 14 through 26. Next, the
central and superior sulci form, and are followed by the formation of the superior frontal,
precentral, inferior frontal, postcentral, and intraparietal sulci. During this time, the longitudinal
fissure, which distinguishes the two cerebral hemispheres, begins to form from back to front, and
is complete by GW 22. It has been postulated that the folding of the neocortex into more complex
patterns of sulci and gyri results from a tension of the axonal fibers that connect across brain
regions, keeping the length of the fibers short, presumably reducing energy required to transduce
between regions in the maturing brain.
Postnatal Development
The majority of neuronal production and migration to regions of the developing cortex occur
prenatally, but limited neurogenesis continues within the subventricular zone. These neurons
eventually migrate to portions of the hippocampus and to the olfactory bulb. In contrast, the
proliferation and migration of the neural progenitor glial cells continues throughout childhood and
adulthood. These cells are thought to play an important role in the early organization of neural
circuits in the postnatal brain. Specifically, after birth, the glial cells differentiate into either
oligodendrocyte or astrocytes. Of these, the oligodendrocytes are thought to be important in
increasing conduction speed in the developing brain. After being unsheathed by the fatty
substance, myelin, these pathways of neuronal fibers becomes the brain’s white matter. This
process, known as myelination, typically begins during GW 20–28 and continues into adulthood,
allowing for enhanced efficiency in the transmission of information between these newly
developed brain regions.
Quiz No. 2
Read the following statements carefully. Identify the word/words that corresponds to each
item. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
Phrenology 1. A theory that state the morphology of the skull related to basic human
mental faculties.
13 and 20 2. The blastula development, a process called gastrulation occurs between
days __ and __ of the embryonic period.
MRI 3. It allows scientists to weave together past and present knowledge to
provide a more comprehensive view of brain and cognitive development.
Somal migration 4. This occurs at the earlier stages of development, when the cortex is small
and neurons have less distance to travel.
Gross motor skill 5. These are developed during infancy and toddlerhood. Gross-motor
skills involve the mastery of large muscle movements, as well as the building of strength in muscle
groups like the arms, legs, and core.
Physical development 6. It refers to the advancements and refinements of motor skills, or, in
other words, children’s abilities to use and control their bodies.
Blastocyte 7. The epiblast cells of the upper layer, which will become the fetus,
and the hypoblast cells of the lower layer, which will form extra-embryonic tissues.
Exploration 8. Limited motor development and skills can mean limited exploration of
the environment.
Neural development 9. This begins shortly after conception and continues throughout the life
span.
Social development 10. What aspect of a child is developed when a mobile infant rolls a ball
back and forth with their caregiver, they learn how to take turns and
play with others
Referrences
 https://www.princeton.edu/~prolife/articles/wdhbb.html
 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-division/hs-
fertilization-and-development/a/hs-fertilization-and-development-review
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/prenatal-development/
 https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant-toddler/physical-development/lesson-1
 https://pathways.org/topics-of-development/motor-skills/

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Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

There are three stages of prenatal development—germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal

Overview of Genetic Inheritance

DNA is a ladder-like structure that contains genetic material.

The Importance of Genetics in Human Development

The embryonic stage lasts from

During the first week of the

Watch this link for additional information:

Environmental Impacts on Prenatal Development

A teratogen is any environmental substance or agent—biological, chemical, or physical—

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

The symptoms of FASD include

Each organ of the fetus develops

Prescription and/or Illegal Drugs

Use of any type of drug—whether illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter—can be

Other teratogens that affect prenatal

Maternal Stress and Depression

Physical and Motor Development

Gross-motor skills and fine-motor skills are developed during infancy and toddlerhood.

Importance of Physical Growth and Development

Limited exploration can mean limited experiences. For example,

The child depends on other people in his environment to provide

Physical & Cognitive

 Seven-month-olds are given a toy. When the infants use

 Toddlers, around 18 months of age, engage in play which

Motor & Emotional

 Mastery motivation is the internal drive to successfully

Additional examples include:

 Support infants’ bodies and heads when you hold them.

No Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

1 Sitting Holding a pencil

3 Running Threading Beads

4 Jumping Playing Legos

5 Lifting Buttoning up polo shirt

6 Kicking Swing or bat

7 Walking Put a small object to a container

8 Rolls over Feeds him/herself finger foods

9 Crawls Claps hand

10 Climb Ties shoelace

Neuroscience and Brain

The Embryonic Period (Conception Through GW 8, First Trimester)

Fetal Period (GW 9-Birth)

These cellular changes contribute to the change in the

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