Required development length = 47.

0 x 564

to check one-way transverse shear in this

75)
OK. .
(b) C2:
Limiting bearing stress i)
footing face =
13.5 (as

(located = 851 mm from column face) outside

= 4.0, to
[A, ,
under C2:
0.45 x 20 2.0 18.0
Factored load per unit length 240012.0 1200

.
Projection beyond column face (2000 - 750
Moment at column face 1200 x 13.5 3375 x
Width of beam = 500 + 1.5 x 851 1777 full force transfer can bc achieved without
reinforcement However, it is desirable to provide
nominal dowels (4 nos 20 as shown in Fig. 14.21. .
- 0.263 (low)
Reinforcement details
= 0.0012 x 1777 x 950 2026
Number of 12 bars required The details are indicated in Fig. 14.21. Some of the
Provide 18 nos 12 bars at the bottom are shown (arbitrarily) extended across full length of the
length = 47.0 x 564 is footing in order to nominal reinforcement in the large (otherwise
area of concrete between the columns and also to np with the
column lace. transverse bars under Nominal transverse
AS in previous case, check for one-way shear is not called
indicated at top between the columns, in order to tie up with the main
of force a t column bars provided.
(a)
Limiting bearing stress at column face 0.45 x 30 13.5 14.7 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS AND THEIR
footing face As in retaining walls are used to earth (or other
column is located at the edge of the footing, A , material) in a (or nearly vertical) position at where abrupt
0.45 X 20 1.0 9.0 in ground level occurs. The wall, therefore, prevents the retained earth
. . ,. assuming its natural angle of This causes the retained to exert a lateral
Limiting bearing resistance at column-footing interface pressure on the wall, thereby tending to bend, and the wall
9.0 1440 = 1350 OK. The wall, including its supporting footing, therefore be suitably
Hence, full force transfer can be without the need for designed to be under the lateral pressure, also to satisfy
across the interface. However, it is desirable to provide some nominal dowels the usual of and serviceability.
(4 nos 20 as shown in Fig. 14.21. are usually of the types:
Gravity Wall [Fig.
The 'gravity wall' provides stability by virtue of its own weight, and therefore,
rather massive in size. It is usually built in stone and occasionally in
plain The t .
of the wall is also governed by the need to eliminate
or the resulting to its permissible limit (which is very low
the case of masonry). Plain concrete gravity walls not used for
about 3 for obvious

is generally wherein thickness is sufficiently

to ensure at any cross-section falls within 'middle third'
14.21 of reinforcement, Example 14.7 of the sectioll
 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS 706

2. Cantilever Wall [Fig.

The 'cantilever wall' is the most common type of retaining structure and is
generally economical for heights up to about 8 m. The structure consists of a
vertical stem, and a base slab, made up of two regions, viz. a heel slab and
a toe slab. All three components behave as one-way cantilever slabs: the 'stem'
acts as a vertical cantilever under the lateral earth the 'heel slab' acts as
a (horizontal) caintilever under the action of the weight of the retained earth (minus
soil pressure acting upwards from below); and the 'toe slab' also acts as a
cantilever the action of the resulting soil pressure (acting upward). The
detailing of reinforcement (on the flexural tension faces) is accordingly as
depicted in Fig. The stability of the wall is maintained essentially by the
weight of the earth on the heel plus the self weight of the structure.

gravity wall
3. Connterfort Wall [Fig.
cantilever wall
For large heights, in a cantilever retaining wall, the bending moments developed
in the heel slab and foe slab become very large and require large
The bending moments (and hence thicknesses) can be
considerably reduced by transverse supports, called
COUNTERFORT
spaced at regular intervals of about to one-half of the wall height),
interconnecting the stem' with the heel slab. The counterforts are concealed
the retained earth (on the rear side of the wall). Such a retaining wall
structure is called the wall, and is economical for heights above
(approx.) 7 m. The counterforts subdivide the vertical (stem) into rectangular
panels and support them on two sides and themselves behave
essentially as vertical cantilever beams of T-section and varying depth. The stem
and heel panels between the counterforts are now effectively 'fixed' on three
sides (free at one edge), and for the stem the predominant direction of bending
wall (and flexural reinforcement) is now horizontal (spanning between counterforts),
buttress wall rather than vertical (as in the cantilever wall).
4. Buttress [Fig.
The 'buttress wall' is similar to the 'counterfort wall', except that the transverse
stem supports, called are located in the front side, interconnecting the
F stem with the toe slab (and not with the heel slab, as with counterforts). Although
buttresses are structurally more efficient (and more economical) than counterforts,
the counterfort wall is generally to the buttress wall provides free
ABUTMENT usable space (and better aesthetics) in front of the wall.
Other Types of Walls
Retaining walls often form part of a bigger structure, in which their structural
depends on their interaction with the rest of the structure. For example,
basement wall bridge abutment the exterior walls in the basement of a building [Fig. and
bridge [Fig. act as retaining walls. In both these situations,

14.22 Types of retaining wall structures 'The toe is also frequently interconnected with the stem (in the front side of the wall) by
means of a 'front whose height is limited by the ground level on the toe side, so
that it is concealed provides free usable space in front of the wall.
 706 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN A N D RETAINING WALLS 707

the vertical stem is provided an additional horizontal restraint at the top, to of resistance (or of
slab' at the ground floor level (in the case of the wall) and due to the
to which,
bridge deck (in the case of bridge abutment). The stem is designed as , in Fig. 14.23,
a beam, fixed at base and supported or partially at the top.
The side walls of box culverts also act as retaining walls. In this case, the box be modified as follows:
culvert (with cells) acts as a closed rigid frame, resisting the
combined effects o f lateral earth pressures, dead loads (due to self weight and
earth above), as well as live loads doe to highway traffic.
In the sections to follow, only the cantilever and retaining walls are
discussed - with particular emphasis on the cantilever wall, which is the
common type of retaining wall structure.

14.8 EARTH PRESSURES AND STABILITY REQUIREMENTS

Lateral Earth P r e s s u r e s
The lateral force to earth pressure the main force acting on the
retaining wall, tending to make it bend, slide and overturn. of the
magnitude and direction of the earth pressure is based on the principles of soil
and reader to standard texts in this area (such as
Ref. 14.3, 14.8) for a detailed study.
In general, the of lateral earth pressure is of a fluid,
with the magnitude of the pressure increasing nearly linearly with increasing
for depths below the surface:

P (14.9)
where is the unit weight of the earth and C is a coefficient that depends on its
physical properties, and also on whether the pressure is active or passive. 'Active
pressure' is that which the retained earth exerts on the wall as the emth moves in Fig. Forces acting on a cantilever retaining wall
the as the wall deflects. On the other hand, 'passive pressure' is
that which is developed as a resistance when the wall moves and against the active pressure, [given by
(as on the toe side of the wall). The coefficient to be in Eq. 14.9 is the has a value at the
active pressure coefficient, in case of active pressure, and thepassive of the vertically
coefficient, in the case of passive pressure; the latter is generally much higher a level and =
the former for the same type of soil. horizontal and to the
In the absence of detailed the following and by the active earth pressure, due
based on [Ref. 14.2, 14.31, may be for cohesionless soils from the triangular pressure
.
and level backfills:
[Fig. (14.12)

wall, and acts at

c,, =- at an inclination with the horizontal.

I-sill$

The slab is integrally connected to numerous frames, and the lateral

offered by is due to the high at the Section i4.8.21
 The force, developed by passive pressure on toe side of the retaining wall is
generally small (due to the small height of earth') and not included in the
design calculations, as this is conservative.
where (14

Effect o f Surcharge o n a Level h2/2 (14

gravity loads act on a level backfill due to the construction of buildings the of and at and h/3 above the heel
the movement of near the top of the retaining wall. These
loads can be assumed to be statici uniformly distributed top of the for 14.8.3 Effect of Water in t h e Backfill
calculation purposes. This distributed load treated as statically
equivalent to an additional (fictitious) height, it, = of soil with When water accumulates in the backfill, it can raise the lateral pressure on the wall to
weight This additional of is called and is expressed very high levels. If the water in the backfill does not have an escape route, it will
either in terms of height or in terms of the distributed load [Fig. build up a hydrostatic pressure on the wall, causing it to behave like a dam. The
resulting distributions are depicted in Fig. 14.25.

Fig. 14.25 Effect of water in the backfill

Fig. 14.24 Effectof surcharge on a level backfill

The presence of the surcharge not only adds to the gravity loading acting on the
heel slab, but also increases the lateral pressure on the wall by The
resulting trapezoidal earth pressure distribution is made up of rectangular pressure
distribution (of intensity superimposed on the triangular pressure distribution
14.8.4 Stability R e q u i r e m e n t s
due to the actual backfill, as shown in Fig. 14.24. total force due to active
pressure acting on wall is accordingly given by The Code 20) specifies that the factors of safety against overturning
and sliding (CI. 20.2) should not be less than 1.4. Furthermore (as explained in
Strictly, for the full of pressure, it is that the Section as the forces are due to dead loads, the Code specifies that
construction of the wall, there should be no disturbance soil which the concrete
in the toe slab is
In the case of traffic and other live loads, the equivalent loading should include a The presence water does significantly alter the shearing resistance of granular soils:
magnification factor. hence the coefficient. is practically the same for both dry and submerged conditions.
 710 REINF ORC ED CONCRETE DESIGN

these stabilising forces should be factored by a value of 0.9 in the factor of

safety, FS. Accordingly, , which should be 1.4
cos
0.9 force or When active pressures are high (as surcharge is involved), it will
force or 1.4 be difficult to mobilise the required factor of safety by
considering frictional resistance the footing alone [Eq. In such a
Overturning situation, it is to a key below and
If the retaining wall structure were to overturn, it would do so with toe acting as extending throughout the of the wall [Fig. When the concrete in the
the centre of rotation. In an overturning context, there is no upward reaction R acting 'shear is placed in an excavation (against soil), it can b e
over the base width L. The for the overturning moment and the to develop considerable passive resistance. Different procedures have been
stabilising (restoring) M, depend on the lateral earth and the proposed to this passive resistance P;, [Ref. 14.8, A simple and
geometry of the retaining wall. conservative estimate is obtained by considering the pressure developed over a
For the case of a sloping backfill [Fig. region, - below the toe:
(14.20)

where and are as indicated in Fig. 14.26. It may he noted that the overburden
due to the top 0.3 of below ground level is usually ignored in the calculation.'
W denotes the total weight of reinforced eoncmte wall structure plus the 300 overburden
retained earth resting on footing' (heel slab), and is the of its of
action from as shown in Fie. 14
For the case of a level backfill with surcharge [[Fig.

(14.17)
where and are as given by Eq. Eq. respectively. The
expression for is the same as that given by Eq. 14.16, but with
The factor of safety required against overturning is obtained as

1.4 (14.18)
Fig. 14.26 Passive resistance due to shear key
Sliding
I'
The resistance against sliding is essentially provided by the between the The shear key is best at distance the toe in such a way that the
slab and the supporting soil, given by flexural reinforcement can be extended into shear key near
the toe.
(14.19)
where R = W is the resultant soil pressure acting on the footing base and is the Soil Bearing Pressure Requirements
coefficient of static friction between concrete and soil. a sloping backfill, will The width L of the base be to distribute the vertical reaction R to
also include the vertical component of earth pressure, (see Fig. The the foundation soil without causing excessive or rotation. As in
value of varies between about 0.35 (for silt) to about 0.60 (for rough rock) Section 14.3, required depth and the associated allowable pressure are
[Ref usually by a consultant on the basis of a soil study, and the
The factor of safety against sliding is obtained as control on vertical is built into the
designer further tilting of the is also avoided by avoiding a
highly base pressure in weak soils.
'The weight the above the toe slab is usually (conservatively)ignored.
the passive pressure is also usually ignored.
712 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN AND RETAINING WALLS 713

14.9 PROPORTIONING AND DESIGN OF CANTILEVER AND will be uniform if L is so selected as to 0.5. Similarly, for
COUNTERFORT WALLS base pressure will be triangular. Thus, any selected distribution
base pressure, is a constant and the required base width L
Prior to carrying out a analysis and design of the wall structure, it is static equilibrium and taking about reaction point e,
to assume of the various clcmcnts of structure assuming
using certain approximations. these may bc suitably
revised, if so required by design considerations.

14.9.1 Position of Stem on Base for Economical

An important consideration in of cantilever and counterfort walls is the
position of the vertical stem on the base slab. It can be shown [Ref. that an
economical design of retaining wall can be obtained by proportioning the base
slab so as to align the soil reaction R at the base with front face of wall For economical proportioning for a given height of wall the length of the base
(stem). For this derivation, let us consider the typical case of a level must be should be minimum. From Eq. 14.21, this implies that
The location of resultant soil reaction, R, is dependent on the should be maximum. The location of R, and hence base width for
magnitude and location of the resultant vertical load, which in depends on the any selected pressure distribution, is dependent on the variable For
dimension X the length of heel slab, inclusive of the stem thickness). For -
convenience in the derivation, X be expressed as a a,, the lull width =
L of the base slab (X = Assuming an unit lor all
(earth plus rhc front face of the stem and
neglecting the weight in the slab,

Width of Base
Applying the above principle, an approximate expression for the minimum length of
base slab for a given height of wall is obtained from Eq. 14.21 as:

minimum width of heel slab is given by:

The effect of surcharge or sloping be taken into account,

approximately, by replacing h with h + or respectively.
Alternatively, and perhaps using the above principle, tile heel
slab width in Fig. 14.27) may be obtained by equating of Wand about
Fig. 14.27 Proportioning of retaining the point The required L can then be worked out based on the base pressure
distribution
For a given location R to a chosen the toe projection It may bc noted total height of retaining wall is the dilfercnce in
of the base slab (and its total width, can be so by the designer to elevation between top of wall and the bottom base slab. The is based
give any desired distribution of base soil pressure. Thus, representing the distance,
from heel R as a lraction of base width L, [Fig. the base pressure
 714 REINFORCED CONCRETE
DESIGN WALLS 715

on geotechnical considerations (availability of firm soil) and is usually not less than
I m below the ground level on toe side of the wall. In the case of the slab, pressure is obtained by deducting the weight8 of
After fixing up the trial width of heel slab ( X) for a given height of wall and the concrete in the toe slab from the acting gross soil pressure. The net
backfill conditions, the dimension L may be fixed up. Initially, a triangular pressure loading acts upward (as in the case of usual footings) the reinforcement
3 has to be provided at bottom of the toe slab. The critical section for moment is at
distribution may be assumed, resulting in L = . Using other approximations the front face of the while critical section for shear is at a distanced from
the face of stem. A clear cover of 75 may be base slabs.
(discussed in the next section) related stem thickness and base slab thickness, a
In the case of the heel slab, pressures acting downward, due to weight of
proper should be done to ascertain that
the retained earth (plus surcharge, if any), as well as the concrete in the heel slab.
the factor of safety against overturning is adequate; exceed gross soil pressures acting upward. Hence, net acts downward,
(2) the allowable soil pressure, is not exceeded; and and the flexural reinforcement has to be provided at the top of the heel slab. The
(3) the factor of safety against sliding is adequate. critical section for moment is at the rear face of the stem base.
Condition is generally satisfied; however, if it is not, the dimensions L and X
may he suitably increased. If condition (2) is not satisfied, if q,,,, the length
L be by suitably extending the length of the toe slab; the dimension
X need not be changed. If condition (3) is not satisfied, which is usually the case, a
suitable 'shear key' should he designed.
In the case the stem (vertical cantilever), the critical section for be
.,.. .. Proportlonlng a n d Deslgn of E l e m e n t s of Cantllever Walls taken d from the face of support (top of base slab), while critical section for
.
, should be taken at the face of the support. For the main bars in the a
clear cover of 50 may be provided. Usually, is not a critical
Initial T h i c k n e s s of B a s e Slab and S t e m
consideration in the stem (unlike the base slab). The flexural reinforcement is
For preliminary calculations, the thickness of the base slab may he taken as about 8 near the rear face of the stem, and may bc curtailed in stages for economy
the height of the wall plus surcharge (if any); it should not be less than [refer Example 14.91
300 The base thickness of the stem may be taken as slightly more than and 0.12 of gross area)
that of the slab. For economy, the thickness may be tapered linearly to a should be to the main Nominal vertical and
minimum value (but not less than 150 at the top of the wall; the front face of the horizontal reinforcement should be provided near the front face which is
is maintained vertical'. If the length of the heel slab toe slab is excessive, exposed.
it will be economical to provide a tapered slab.
With above preliminary proportions, the stability check and determination of 14.9.3 Proportioning a n d Design of E l e m e n t s of a Counterfort Wall
soil pressure (at the base) may be performed, and Land X of the base slab
[Fig. finalised. It may be noted that changes in thicknesses of base slab and Initial T h i c k n e s s e s of Various Elements
stem, if required at the design stage, will he and not affect significantly
either the stability analysis or the calculated (gross) soil pressures the slab. In a counterfort wall, usually pmvided at a spacing of about
to of the height of wall. The triangular shaped counterforts are provided
Design of Stem, Toe Slab and H e e l Slab the side of wall, interconnecting the stem wit11 the slab. Sometimes,
small buttresses are provided in front side below the ground level, interconnecting
The elements of wall, vie., toe slab and have to be the toe slab the lower portion of the stem.
designed as slabs to resist the factored moments and shear forces. For this The presence of enables the use of stem and base slab thicknesses that
a load factor of 1.5 is to be used. are normally required for a cantilever wall. For preliminary
calculations, the and slab thickness may be taken as about
In such analysis. it will be seen that the vertical R below base 5 percent of of the wall, but not less than 300 If the buttress is
will he close to, although coincident with, front face of the stem (as provided, the thickness toe slab may also be taken it
initially). bc taken as in the of cantilever wall of the
It is that a of : 50 be provided to the front face of the stem during
to offset the deflection the stem or possible tilting of the structure
[Ref. 14.101.
weight of the this legion is ignored
 716 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

counterforts may be taken as about 6 of height of the wall at the base, but EXAMPLE 14.8
not less than 300 The thickness may reduced along height of the wall.
With the above preliminary proportions, the stability check and of Determine suitable dimensions a cantilever retaining wall, which is required to
soil pressures (at the base) may be and dimensions L a n d X of the base support a bank of earth 4.0 above ground level on toe of the wall.
as in the case of cantilever wall. Consider the backfill to at an angle of with horizontal.
Assume good soil for foundation at a depth of 1.25 m below the ground level with a
Design of Stem, Toe Slab and Heel Slab safe bearing capacity of 160 Further assume the backfill to comprise granular
soil with a unit weight of 16 and an angle of shearing resistance of 30'.
Each panel of the stem and heel slab, between two adjacent counterforts, may be
Assume the of friction between soil and concrete to be 0.5.
designed as two-way slabs fixed on three sides, and on the fourth side (free edge).
boundary conditions are also applicable to the toe slab, if are SOLUTION
provided; otherwise the toe slab behaves as a horizontal cantilever, as in the case of h 4.0 + 1.25 5.25 0.5
1. Data given:
the cantilever wall. = 15" 16
The loads on these elements arc identical to those acting on the cantilever

.
wall discussed earlier. For the stcm, in the horizontal direction between
counterforts' is predominant than bending in the vertical direction. - e-
Near counterforts, the main will be located close to the rear face of Earth pressure coefficients: = 0.373
the stem, whereas midway between counterforts, the reinforcement will be close to the
outside latter is indicated in Fig. These two-ways slabs, subject to C,, ---- = 3.0

.
pressure distributions may be designed by the use of moment -sin 0
and shear coefficients (based on plate theory), available in various handbooks, and 2. Preliminary

.
also in the IS Code for the design of liquid storage structures, IS 3370 (Part 4) Thickness of footing base 0.08 x 5.25 =
[Ref. 14.1 11. Alternatively, the slabs may be designed the yield theory. An Assume a thickness of 420

.
method of analysis is in Example Assume a 450 at the of the stcm, lapering to a value of
150 at the top of the wall.
Design of Counterforts
For an economical proportioning of the length L of the base slab, it will be
The main counterforts should be secured (by additional ties) to the heel slab, as assumed that the vertical R at the footing base is in line with face
well as to the stem, as loading applied on these two tend to of the stcm. For a (assuming the height above top of wall to be
them the counterforts. counterfort should be designed about 0.4 m), the length of tbc heel slab of stem thickness)
to resist the lateral (horizontal) force transmitted by the stem tributary to it. The X= = (5.25 + 0.4) 2.0
is designed as a vertical cantilever, fixed at its base. As the stem acts
integrally with the the effective section resisting the is Assuming a triangular pressure distribution,
a flanged section, with the flange under Hence, counterforts be
designed as T-beams Chapter with the depth of section varying (linearly) The preliminary proportions are shown in Fig.
from the top (free edge) to bottom (fixed edge), and with main reinforcement Stability against
provided close to the sloping face. Since these bars are inclined (not parallel to the Force due to active =
face), allowance has to be made for this in computing the area of steel where h' [Fig.
required.
5250 + 2000 tan 5786 nun
99.9 (per of wall)
cos 99.9 cos 15" = 96.5
sin 99.9 sin 15" = 25.9
= = = 186.1
Line of action of resultant of vertical forces [Fig. with respect to the heel
can be located by applying statics, considering l of wall:
An and conservative estimate of bending can be obtained by
slab as one-way continuous slab spanning the
 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS 719

718 REINFORCED CONCRETE

..
a t footing base [refer
vertical reaction W = 232.9 (perm
+
.,
distance of R from heel:
1.789
0.289 = 0.5
within the middle third of the base,

(a) forces on 232.9 0.578) 32.8 [refer Fig.

(with preliminaly 3.0

..
proportions)
5. Stability against sliding
force 96.5
force (ignoring passive pressure on the toe
0.5 x 232.9 116.4

. may be provided to mobilise the balance force

. resistance.
x 300
Distance
at a distance of 1300
0.950 +z300 + 1.300
300 neglect hZ1)12 3 x x -

EXAMPLE 14.9

Repeat the problem in Example 14.8, considering the backfill to be level, but subject
to a surcharge pressure of 40 (due to the construction of a building). Design
(b) calculation of soil pressures (c) design of shear key the retaining wall structure, assuming M 20 and 415
SOLUTION
Fig. 14.28 Example 14.8
Data given: (as in Example 14.8)
distance of resultant force from heel
230.61232.9 0.990
Stabilising moment (about toe): Note that this value of different from, close to, the of X = 2.0
in the initial
232.9 (3.0 0.99)
720 REINFORCED CO NC RE TE DESIGN

Equivalent height of earth as = = = 2.5

forces on wall I- sing

Earth pressure
I

Preliminary proportions
of footing base slab 0.08 (h + 0.08 x 7.75 0.620. a
of 620
Assume a stem thickness 650 nnn at the base of the stem, tapering a value of
200 at the top of the wall.
For an economical proportioning of the length L of base it be
R at footing is in line with the front face
of the stem. For such a condition, the of heel slab (inclusive of
thickness)
X = 2.58
X 2.6
Assuming a triangular soil distribution below base,

The are Fig.

Stability against overturning
45.7 calculation of Forces due to pressure in length of wall) [Fig.
soil pressures
= 70.0
= 73.5
70.0 + 73.5 = 143.5
moment + h13
+
312.4 (per length of wall)
300 neglected Line of action of resultant vertical forces [Fig. with respect to heel
be located by applying statics, 1 length of the wall:
design of shear
722 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS 723

distance oi resultant vertical force from heel 6. Design of toe slab

= 1.432 loads considered for design of the toe slab are as shown in Fig.
Reierring to Fig. acting are by reducing the
(about toe): distributed self-weight of toe slab the gross pressures base.
M, = w (L Self-weight loading 25 x 0.62 15.5
= 366.8 (3.9 - 1.432) The net upward varies from 126.9 to 94.7 as shown in
905.3 length of wall) Fig.
- 2.61 1.40 OK Assuming a clear cover nun and = 620 75 8 = 537
312.4 Applying a load factor of 1.5, design = 537
4. Soil pressures a t base [refer Fig. front face of stem) and the at tlte face of stem are by:
resultant reaction R = W 366.8 (perm length of wall) + x (1.3 0.537) = 126.8
distance of R from heel: + M,, 1.5 x x + (126.9 - 94.7) x 0.5 x x 2/31 = 147.2
(525.5 + 2.284
eccentricity e = - = 2.284 0.334 m (< 0.65)
indicating that the resultant lies inside the middle of base For a = 0.24 required p, 0.1 M 20 Eq. 6.11

as shown in Fig.
5. Stability against sliding
Sliding force = P,, 143.5 length of wall)
Resisting force (ignoring passive
0.5 366.8 183.4

143.5
Hence, a shear needs to be provided to generate the balance force through
passive
Required 1.40 x 143.5 35.8 (perm of wall)
Providing a shear key 300 x 400 at 1.6 from [Fig.
= 0.95 + 0.3 + 1.6 tan 2.17 m
P.. x = 91.4

Fig. 14.30 Net soil pressures acting on base slab

Note that this value of is close to, but equal value X 2.6 assumed in the
initial proportioning.
724 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS

20 Design of vertical
x which
2x415 Height of cantilever above 5.250 - 0.62 4.63 m
adequate for shear also Assuming a clear cover 50 and 20 $bars,
(A,,), = x x 537 806 (at the base) = 650 - 50 590 nun
Using 16 $bars, spacing required 201 x 249 a load factor of 1.5, design
Provide 16 bars 240 at the of the toe slab. The bars should
by at a distance = 47.0 16 = 752 mm beyond the front facc of
on both sides. As the toe slab length is 1.3 m overall, curtailinent of
bars is resorted to here.
7. Design of heel slab
The loads considered for design of the heel slab are as in Fig.
distributed loading acting downward on the slab is by .--
+surcharge x (7.75 0.62) (A,,),, x lo") x x 590 = 1741
slab 25 x 0.62 = 15.5 201x10'
129.6
Using 16 spacing required -----
1741 = 115 nun
The pressure acts downwards, varying between 35.6 83.9
Provide 16 110 bars into 'shear [This anchorage will
shown in Fig.

.
be more than 47.0 752
Applying a load factor of 1.5, the design shear force and bending at
(rear) face of the stem are given by Check for
+ x 1.95 = 174.8

.
section at above base, = 4.63 0.59
1.5 x + (83.9 - 35.6) x 0.5 x 2/31 193.4 below top at critical section 1.5 +
Assuming a clear cover of 75 16 , . d = 620 - 75 - 8 .537
. 1.5 X 4.04 + 16
shear stress =- 146

= 0.326
Corresponding = 0.33, with M 20 [refer Eq.

.
M,, that is and flcxnral reinforcement ratio also is low,
the of at base could be reduced for a more design.
= 0.670 of
The curtailment of the bars be done in two stages (at one-third and two-third
[1- - 4.598
heights of the stein base) as shown in Fig. 14.31. It bc that
x the the Code
0.20 required for shear
( A , , ) , = (0.20 x x x 537 Provide two-thirds of (horizontal) bars near the front face (which is exposed.
= 1074 the remaining the rear face. For- the lowermost
Using spacing required 201 x 187 third height of the base,
Provide 16 180 at the top of the heel slab. bars should A,, (0.0012 x x 650) x 213
by at a distance = 47.0 x 752 beyond the rear facc of the stem,
on both sides. The may be curtailed part way to the heel; however, since the
is relatively short, this is not resoited to in this example.
 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS 727

one-third height of the wall; 8 200 near front face 8 400 in

SOLUTION
the middle one-thin1 height; and 8 300 near front and 8 600
near face i n the top height of wall. 1. Data given: h 7.5 + = 0.5
Also provide bars 10 @bars 300 vertically front face. =
The detailing is shown 14.31. 30" ... 170
I- sin8
Earth pressure C,, = = 0.333

=--
sin 0
2. Preliminary
The counterforts are provided on the rear (backfill) side of the
wall, interconnecting the stem with the heel slab.
1 1
Spacing of counterforts - h to 3.0 m to 4.5
3 2
Assume the counterforts are placed with a clear spacing of 3.0
Thickness of 0.05 x 9.0 0.45 m. Assume a of
500
= 0.05 x 9.0 = 0.45

.
heel slab = Assume a of
500
Assuming that front buttresses are not provided,
Thickness of toe slab 0.08 x 9.0 0.72 Assume a thickness of
720 mm
of stem slab 0.06 x 9.0
of 600 mm at the base of the stem, tapering to a

. wall.
For an economical proportioning of the L of the base slab, it is assumed
that the vertical reaction R at the footing base is in line with the front face of
stem. For such a condition, (inclusive of stem thickness) [Eq.

Assuming a triangular base pressure distribution,

14.31 Detailing of cantilever wall - Example 14.9 4.5 m

The proportions in Fig.

EXAMPLE 14.10

Design a suitable
above the ground level on
wall to
toe side. Assume soil
a level backfill, 7.5 m high
foundation at a depth of
.
3. Stability against overturning
Forces due to active pressure (perm length of wall) [Fig.
= = = 216.0
1.5 m below the a safe bearing capacity of 170 Further Overturning moment x
assume the backfill to comprise granular soil with a unit weight of 16 and an 216.0 x (9.013)
angle of resistance of Assume the coefficient friction between soil 648.0 length of wall)
and concrete to be 0.5. Use M 25 and Fe 415 steel.
728 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Line of action of of vertical forces [Fig. with respect to the

can be located by applying statics, I length of the wall (the
marginal additional weight due lo counterfort is ignored).

distance of resultant vertical from heel

506.9 = 1.706 m
Referring to Fig.
(about
W -
506.9 (4.5 - 1.706)
calculation of
222.8 2.5 soil pressures

..
4. Soil at footing
resultant vertical reaction W
Fig.
506.9 (perm

.
distance from heel: =
1706 + 1506.9 = 2.984
2.984 0.734
revised design that the resultant lies well inside middle third
soil pressures

300 neglected
.
222.8
of base slab needs to be suitably increased on
design of shear
300 say, by 500 mm.

Note that this of is very to the X 3.0 assumed in the

14.32 Example 14.10 proportioning.
 730 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS 731

Let L 5.0 (as shown in Fig.

Additional weight due to 500 extension of toe slab

. ,
.I.
. Considering about [Fig. 14.32
0.25) + 648.0
, ,
. 515.9 864.8

170 - OK
as shown
5. Stability against sliding
14.33 soil pressures acting on base slab
Sliding force = 216.0 (per length of wall)
Resisting force (ignoring passive pressure) F
The upward pressure varies from 149.0 to 97.9 as shown in
0.9X257.9 Fig.
= 1.075 4 - UNSAFE.
216.0 Assuming a clear cover of 75 and 16 bars, = 720 - 75 8 = 637
Hence, a shear key needs to be provided to generate the balance force through Applying a load factor of 1.5, the design (at = 637 from
passive resistance. front face of the and the design at the face of the stem are given by:
Required P,, = 1.4 216.0 - = 70.3 (perm length of wall) 1.5 x (149.0 + x (2.0 0.637) 252.4
Providing a shear key 400 nun 300 at 2.4 toe [Fig.
1.5 x x + (149.0 - 97.9) x 0.5 x = 395.9
= 1.2 + 0.3 + 2.4 tan 2.89 m
Nominal shear stress =-

For a 0.396 the required = 0.32 with M 25 concrete [refer Eq.

6 . Design of toe slab

The loads for the design of the toe slab are as shown in Fig. 25
The net pressures, acting upward, are obtained by reducing the uniformly = 0.284 x
100 2x415
distributed of the slab gross at the base. 0.32 x required shear
Self-weight loading = 25 x 0.72 = 18.0
(A,,),, (0.32 x x x 637 2039
 DESIGN WALLS 733

.
AND RETAINING

Using spacing = 201 x = 98.6

Using 20 bars, spacing required = 314 x mm
Provide 20 bars 150 clc at the bottom of the toe bars should extend
by at least distance = 47.0 x 20 940 mm beyond the face of stem, on
both sides.
Distribution steel:
Provide 10 bars 200 for the transverse reinforcement. stern Stem
7. Design of heel slab
The loads (net pressures) for the design of slab are as shown
Clear
in Fig. The distributed loading acting on the heel slab is span slab
toe Slab
given by = 3000
overburden 8 x - 0.5)
slab 25 x 0.5 12.5
w = 148.5
The net downwards, between 47.3 and 109.1
as shown in
The counterforts am provided at a clear spacing 3.0 the length of
the wall Thus, each heel slab panel x may be
considered to be fixed (continuous) at three edges locations and 600
junction with stem) and free at fourth edge. The moment coefficients given in (a) cantilever action beam action
IS 456 do not cater to this set of boundary conditions, and reference needs to be
to other handbooks. Alternatively, apply the obtained
from yield line theory (such as those given in Section Fig. 14.34 Loading considerations forsimplified analysis of heel slab
A common simplified design practice is to assume that tributary (triangular)
portion of the net load acting on heel slab is through cantilever
action [Fig. while much of the load (particularly near the free edge) is Max. negative moment in the heel slab at the location is
transmitted in the perpendicular direction through continuous beam action. The given by
reinforcements in the remaining regions are apportioned., This = = 144.4 x 140.5
procedure is followed here. Max. mid-span moment may be taken as
=
Design shear force
Design of heel slab for benrn action
= w,, x (clear span - = 144.4 x 0.417) 156.4
Assuming a cover of 75 and 16 bars, d 500 - 75 - 8 417
of reinforcement moments) at the counterforts
Consider a 1 m wide strip near the free of the The
intensity of at a distance of m from the is 83.4 Hence,
the average loading on the strip may be taken as (83.4 96.25 Nominal shear stress = 0.375
bd
Applying a load factor of 1.5, w,, 1.5 x 96.25 = 144.4

.
The effective span For a = 0.375 with M 25 concrete [refer Eq. 6.11, the 0.28
is given by 3.0 + 0.417 3.417 m
= 0.808
 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND RETAINING WALLS
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

2 x (74.93
49.95
d -
required for shear (in the absence of stirrups).
Applying a load factor of
(A,,),,,,, = (0.28 x 417 = 1168 (required at the
free edge) M,, -
Using 16 $bars, spacing required 201 x 1 1168 172
Using bars, spacing required 113 x 1168 = 96
Minimum reinforcement for and shrinkage:
0.12
Min. A , = - 600 1168 OK.
100
At a distance beyond the free edge, only minimum reinforcement need be
Provide 12 bars 180 at the top of the heel slab throughout.
of 12 for min. 113 x 600 8. Design of vertical stein
The simplified analysis procedure adopted for heel slab is used for the
Provide 12 $ b a r s 180 at the top of the heel slab throughout, and introduce vertical stem also. cantilever to region
additional bars in between two adjacent bars at the counterforts near the free (triangular portion) fixity at the of with the base slab.
edge over a distance of approx. Elsewhere, stem is treated as a continuous the
Provide additional 12 $ b a r s on top, extending from either side of the The bending reduce along the height of the stem,
face of the counterfort. the reduction in the lateral pressures with height.

of bottom Height of stem base 9.0 0.5 = 8.5

R x Intensity of earth pressure base of the stem is

=
45.33 varying to zero at the
Applying a load factor 1.5, w,,= 1.5 x 45.33 = 68.0 at base
Spacing of
= (0.173 x
bars required =
Provide 12 bars 150
Distribution
417 = 721
x 156 mm
(A,,),,,,, 600

at the bottom of the heel slab throughout. . Clear spacing the countcrforts = 3.0 m.
Design of stem for continuous beam action

Assuming a cover of 50 111111 and 20 $bars,

Provide 10 $ b a r s 200 for the transverse reinforcement. 540 effective span, = 3.0 0.54 =
Design of slab for cantilever action Max. -ve moment occurring in stem at counterfort location is given by
Consider the triangular loading on the heel slab [Fig. to be by M 71.0
cantilever action with fixity at the face of the stem. Max, mid-span bc taken as
The intensity of load at the face of the stem 47.3 M.., . = 0.75 M 53.3
The intensity of load at a distance of from the face of the stem is 85.9 kN/m2. Design shear force
Total due to on the x - 68.0 - 65.3

reinforcement for -ve moments at

This moment is distributed across the width of For

purposes, the moment intensity (in the middle region) may be taken as two
times the average value
736 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN DESIGN AND RETAINING WALLS

0.12
Min. A,, = 720 369
100
Check for shear

= 0.121 0.29 (for 0.15) - OK

(Evidently, it is possible to reduce the thickness of the for economy).

of (front reinforcement for +ve moment's the of stem
The reinforcement requirement will the design on both faces,
since
Using 12 spacing required = 113 x 10001720 = 156
Provide 12 bars (horizontal) 8 150 on both faces of stem (up to
third height above base).

At ,
500 50 6 444 and effective span

Fig. 14.35 Loading considerations forsimplified analysis of stem

intensity of horizontal pressure the base of the = 45.3

The intensity of at a distance of 1.5 the base of the
stem is 37.3

0.12 Total B.M. due to loading on the triangular portion

Min. A,, - = 600 282
100 67.5
2x3
Using 12 bars, spacing = 113 10001600 = 188 rnm
This is distributed across the width For design
12 (horizontal) 180 faccs of the (in the
one-third the max. moment region) may bc taken as
times tile average value
At M
0.12
Min. A,, - 480
100 effective depth d 515 12 503
Using 10 spacing 78.5 x 10001 480
Using 12 spacing = 113 10001 480 = 215
Provide 12 (horizontal) 230 on both stem (in
one-third height). 25 x (requited to
100 2x415
Design of stem for cantilever action
the triangular loading on stem [Fig. lo bc carried by cantilever , ....
action about the lace of stem as follows: temperature shrinkage)
 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS AND WALLS
738 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Clear spacing of counterforts = 3.0

The reinforcement requirement will govern the design.
Thus, each receives earth pressure from a width
Provide 12 bars 150 on both faces of the stem 3.0 + 0.5 3.5
height of the stem.
At base
details for the stem, slab and heel slab are shown in The of earth pressure at the base of the
14.36 = 45.33
Applying a load factor

14.37.
tan = 17
and 2400 x = 2287
a clear of 50 and 25
2287 - 50 - 12.5 = 2224

12 + 5 bars
in l m span free edge

Fig. 14.36 Reinforcement details of stem, toe slab slab

9. Design of interior
typical interior acts as a T beam of varying section
out of base slab. The design include:
beam
provision horizontal ties against separation stem
of vertical ties against separation of base
of connterfurt for action
The thickness of countcrforts 500 mm
Clear spacing of countcrforts = 3.0 Fig. 14.37 Depth consideration for analysis of
each counterlort receives pressure from a width of
740 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN DESIGN OF FOOTINQS AND RETAINING WALLS 741

Assuming a clear cover of 50 and 25 bars,

width (C123.1 2 Code): d 1525 50- 12.5 1462 mm
= Approximate requirement of tension steel is given by a lever arm to be
= the larger of = and d - = 1212 1316
b ,+ clear span of slab

Thus, 3500 mm (least of the above two values) 1789

No. of 25 bars required - 4 bars
Approximate of tension steel is given by assuming a lever armz to be 49
the larger of and d -
Assuming the neutral axis to be located at x,,
(1462 - 19860
3967
No. of 25 - 8 bars two layers, 25 This clearly indicates that the neutral axis lies within the flanee.
491
spacer
d 50 - 12.5 mm
Assuming the neutral axis to be located at x,, = 25
x (2199- 0.416~600) 37048 x - 0.032 x
100
M,, 2866 x
= (0.032 3500 1462 = 1638 (which is close to the
This clearly indicates the neutral axis lies within flange. approximate value of 1789 calculated)
M = reinforcement in a beam is given by - 0.85
bd 2

Curtail 4 nos 25 and extend 4 nos 25 (rear face).

(0.047 x x 3500 x 2199 3639 (which is close to the
..
aooroximate value of 3967 calculated)
A, 0.85
In order to satisfy the minimum reinforcement criteria, 4 nos 25
extended to the top of the counterfort, without further
bars may be

Minimum in a beam is given by - --

Design of horizontal ties
Horizontal tie (closed reinforcement in the counterfort serves as shear
Provide 8 nos 25 bars in two layers, four in each layer with a 25 mm reinforcement against flexural shear in the counterfort and also as ties resisting the
separation. separation of the stem from the counterfort due to the lateral pressure.
Above the At base
The intensity of earth pressure at h (= 8.5 x 2 13) = top Shear reinforcement requirement:
2
h 45.33 2 1 3 = 30.22 kNIm M
Applying a load factor of 1.5,
d

V,, 1.5 x
Nominal shear stress -
bd
742 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

DESIGN AND RETAINING WALLS

= = 100 x (8x491) = 0.357
0.416
Spacing of 2 legged ties required 2 x 78.5 x 1400 = 112
shear reinforcement is to be provided for a shear force of
Provide 2 legged vertical ties 100 up to from the edge.
500x2199
The spacing may be increased to 1.50 beyond owing to the significant
140.8 x
reduction in pressure.
Assuming 10 2-legged stirrups.
A,,, 2 x 78.5 157
The details shown Fig. 14.38 and
Required spacing =

Max, spacing specified by Code (lesser value)

300
Tic connection requirement:
The resisted by the tie reinforcement is given by the lateral pressure on tile
multiplied by the tributary area. At the base = 45.33 the tensile
force intensity is accordingly given by:
45.33 158.7
Applying a load factor of 1.5, the total area of reinforcement required to resist this slab

tension = 660

Spacing of $ 2 legged stirrups required 2 x 78.5 x 660 237

This tie reinforcement requirement governs (compared to shear reinforcement
requirement).
Provide 10 $ 2 legged stirrups 200 in lower one-third region
The tie reinforcement requirement will vary linearly along the height of the stem,
as the lateral pressure variation is linear.

Af one-third base
(A,,),,, = x 660 440
Spacing of 8 2 legged stirrups required 2 x 50.3 x 1440 228
Provide 8 $ 2 legged stirrups 200 above one-third height.

Design of vertical tics

As in the case of the connection between the and the vertical stem, the
connection between the counterfort and the slab must be designed to resist 600
tension arising out of the net downward pressures acting on the heel slab [Fig.
Considering a strip from the free edge, the average downward
pressure is (83.4 + = 96.25 and hence the average tensile force Fig. 14.38 Reinforcementdetails of stem and
is:
96.25 336.9
Applying a load factor of 1.5, the total area oireinforcement required to resist this

direct tension
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN DESIGN OF AND RETAINING W A L L S 745

8 2 legged horizontal
2 legged horizontal
200 c
Fig. 14.39 Section through
REVIEW QUESTIONS
14.1 What are the main requirements of a foundation system for a structure?
14.2 is it necessary to ensure, by proper proportioning of footings, that the
bearing pressures underlying all the footings in a building are more-or-less of
the same of magnitude?
14.3 What the situations in which footings are preferred to
footings?
14.4 Distinguish among the terms allowuble soil grass soil pressure
net soil pressure, soil pressure.
14.5 What is meant by eccentric loading on a footing, and what
circumstances does this occur?
14.6 Why is it desirable to eliminate eccentricity in loading on a footing, wherever
possible, by means proper proportioning?
14.7 From structural analyses, it is found that the following stress develop
at a column the action of loads:
P 475 M 35 under dead loads;
P = 380 M 39 under live loads;
H 30 P f12 M = 41 under loads.
Determine the combined loads to be considered in deciding the area of the
footing to be located in a soil with an allowable soil pressure of 200 at
depth of 1.5 m below ground level.
14.8 What arc the advantages of providing pedestals to columns?
14.9 explain the conditions in which transfer of forces at the interface of
(or pedestal) and footing can be achieved without the aid of
reinforcement.
separators
14.10 Under what circumsiances is a trapezoidal shape preferred to a rectangular
shape for a two-column combined footing?
14.11 Describe briefly load transfer in a two-column combined
footing.
14.12 What is the purpose of a wall? What are different types of
concrete retaining walls?
14.13 Distinguish between active pressure and of earth, in relation
to retaining wall structures?
What is meant by (a) surcharge inclined
14.15 Describe the effect of water in backfill on the active earth pressure on a
retaining wall.
14.16 What is the of a shear key? Describe its action.
showing reinforcement 14.17 Briefly the of the various elements of a retaining
wall.
 OF FOOTINGS AND WALLS
746 REINFORCED CONCRETE

14.10 Repeat the design of the combined footing of Example 14.7,

14.18 Briefly describe the of the various of a considering a beam-slab footing, and assuining that the allowable soil pressure
retaining wall. is 180 (instead of !&/in2).
14.19 Where are the critical sections for shear located in the case of (a) the
14.11 Design and detail the and slab of the cantilever retaining of
the heel slab in the design of base slab of a cantilever retaining Example 14.8.
14.12' a cantilever wall to earth with a backfill sloped at to the
PROBLEMS horizontal. The top of the wall is 5.5 the level, and the
depth be as 1.2 m ground with a
'Design a plain concrete footing for a column, 400 x 400 an bearing capacity of 120 that the has a unit weight of
axial (service) load of 400 Assume an allowable soil 17 and an of shearing resistance of Further, a
350 at a depth of 1.0 m below ground. Assume M 20 concrete and coefficient of friction soil and concrete, = 0.55. Use M 20 concrete
Fe 415 steel. and Fe 415 steel. .
Design a square footing for a rectangular x 14.13 Repeat Problem 14.12, the backfill to be level, with a surcharge,
with 6-25 and carrying a load of 1250 equivalent to an additional 2.52 of the
with an allowable pressure of 200 at a depth of 1.25 below
14.14 Suggest suitable proponions for a counterfort retaining wall to support
ground. Assume grade steel lor both and footing, and M 20
difference of 9 m. foundation depth be taken as
concrete for the footing and M 25 grade concrete for the column.
1.5 ground with a safe capacity 160 Assume
14.3 Repeat Problem 14.2, considering a uniaxial (with respect to the a level a unit weight of 16 and an of shearing
major axis of the column) of (under loads dead plus Live) resistance of 30". Assume a coefficient of = 0.5, between soil and
in addition to the axial of 1250 at the base. a concrete. Check the stability of the wall.
rectangular footing. Also assume that the is irreversible.
14.15 and the various elements of counterfort wall of
14.4 a square footing for a column, 500 in diameter, Problem 14.14.
with 8-25 bars, an axial load of 2500 Assume soil with a
safe bearing capacity of 300 at a depth of 1.5 m below ground. Assnme
415 grade steel for both and footing, and M 20 grade for REFERENCES
the footing and M 30 grade concrete for Lhe colunm. 14.1 - Code of for and
14.5 Repeat Problem 14.4, considering a rectangular footing with a spatial Reinforced (IS Special Publication Bureau of
restrictionof 2.5 on one of the plan dimensions. New 1983.
14.6 Design a footing for a 250 thick reinforced concrete wall which supports a 14.2 J.E., and Design, edition.,
load (inclusive of self-weight) of 250 under service loads. a Book Co., New York, 1982.
safe soil bearing capacity of 180 at a depth of below 14.3 Peck, R.R., W.E.. and T.H.,
Assunie M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel for both wall and footing. Second edition, John Wiley Sons 1974.
the reinforcement of the wall to comprise 0.25 percent of 14.4 - Code of for Safety of Shallow
the gross cross-sectional of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1986.
14.7 14.6, considering the wall to be of (instead of 14.5 Code of and of Spread
reinforced concrcte). IS:1080 (First revision), Bureau of Indian Standards. New
14.8 Repeat Prohlem14.6. considering a bending of 30
(reversible) at the base of the wall, in addition to the axial load of 250 14.6 ACI 336, for Footings
under service loads. Mats, Journal ACI, 63, No. Oct. 1966, 1041-1057.
14.7 F. and of ASCE
14.9 Repeat the design of the combined footing of 14.7,
Soil Div., Vol. 87, October 1961, pp 19-44.
considering the property line to be located 500 mm away the centre of
14.8 Huntington, W.C., Pressures Retaining Walls, John Wiley, New
C1
York. 1968.