ISSN 0016-7736

PCAARRD Information Bulletin No. 72/2016

Breeding and Seed Production

on Organic Vegetables

Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, AQUATIC AND NATURAL
RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (PCAARRD)

University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB)

INSTITUTE OF PLANT BREEDING (IPB)
About PCAARRD
The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural
Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) is one of the
sectoral councils under the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST). PCAARRD was established on June 22, 2011 through the
consolidation of the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry
and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD)
and the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and
Development (PCAMRD).
The Council formulates policies, plans, and programs for
science and technology (S&T)-based research and development
(R&D) in the different sectors under its concern. It coordinates,
evaluates, and monitors the national R&D efforts in the agriculture,
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government and external funds for R&D and generates resources to
support its program.
As a leader in providing S&T solutions for AANR development,
PCAARRD promotes active partnerships with international, regional,
and national organizations and funding institutions for joint R&D;
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and exchange of scientists, information, and technologies.
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and Resources Research and Development Network (NAARRDN)
composed of national multi- and single-commodity and regional
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the Philippine AANR sectors toward self-sufficiency and global
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 PCAARRD Information Bulletin No. 72/2016

Breeding and Seed Production

of Organic Vegetables

Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, AQUATIC AND NATURAL
RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (PCAARRD)

University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB)

INSTITUTE OF PLANT BREEDING (IPB)

Los Baños, Laguna

2016

i
First Edition 2016

ISSN 0116-7736

Bibliographic Citation:

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources

Research and Development. Organic breeding and seed
production of organic vegetables. Los Baños, Laguna: DOST-
PCAARRD-DOST/UPLB-IPB, 2016. 37p. - (PCAARRD Information
Bulletin No. 72/2016).

ii
Preface
This Information Bulletin on Breeding and Seed Production of Organic
Vegetables is a result of a pioneering research funded by DOST-PCAARRD and
implemented by the University of the Philippines Los Banos - Institute of Plant
Breeding (UPLB-IPB) and other cooperating agencies, on developing varieties
of organic vegetables in the Philippines. It was a research that responds to the
growing demand for organic vegetable varieties and seeds that are adaptable
and that thrive excellently through organic cultivation.

This is a welcome addition to the available literature on organic farming in

the Philippines as this publication discusses how organic vegetable varieties
can be developed. It also offers insights on how knowledge on genotype and
environmental influence can be exploited and applied to develop superior
varieties of organic vegetables.

I commend Dr. Rodel G. Maghirang and his research team for producing
a highly useful and informative guide on variety development as well as
cultural management and seed production of organic vegetables.

We hope that this publication will serve as a valuable and inspiring resource
material for plant breeders, organic growers, researchers, extension workers,
students, and the general public.

FERNANDO C. SANCHEZ, JR.

Chancellor
UPLB

iii
Acknowledgment
PCAARRD and UPLB would like to acknowledge the valuable
contribution of the following:

• the research team who implemented the DOST-PCAARRD funded

project, “Variety Evaluation, On-farm Trials and Seed Production
of Organic Vegetables in Southern Luzon,” namely: Dr. Rodel G.
Maghirang (project leader, UPLB), Mr. Elmer E. Enicola (project staff,
UPLB), Ms. Gloria S. Rodulfo (project staff, UPLB), Ms. Mila Cacal
(project staff, Department of Agriculture-Regional Field Unit [DA-RFU]
IVB, Palawan Research and Experiment Station), Ms. Lorna Tepper
(Bureau of Plant Industry-Los Baños National Crop Research and
Development Center);

• UPLB-IPB staff for the support in the project implementation and

preparation of this publication;

• the heads of agencies and officials of the local government units in

Southern Luzon for the assistance and coordination in the on-farm
trials; and

• the farmers who imparted resources, time, knowledge, and

willingness to learn for the success of the project and this
publication.

iv
Contents

Preface .............................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgment.......................................................................................................... iv

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1

Breeding........................................................................................................................... 2
Importance of Breeding...................................................................................... 2
Breeding Objectives ............................................................................................ 2
Common Breeding Strategies........................................................................... 2
Conventional Breeding ..................................................................................... 3
Organic Breeding.................................................................................................. 4
Breeding Terms....................................................................................................... 5
How Breeding is Done......................................................................................... 7

Organic Seed Production........................................................................................... 22
Factors to Consider in Organic Seed Production....................................... 23
Cultural Management.......................................................................................... 25
Harvesting ............................................................................................................... 30
Seed Processing .................................................................................................... 31
Grow Out Tests....................................................................................................... 32
Germination Test................................................................................................... 33
Seed Treatments.................................................................................................... 33
Storing Seeds.......................................................................................................... 34

References........................................................................................................................ 36

Production Team

v
vi
Introduction
For centuries man has been growing crops without inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides. He has been relying mainly on the richness of the soil as product of
millions of years of weathering of the earth and the establishment of diverse
flora and fauna within the accumulated top soil. Although man had started as
hunter-gatherer, he subsequently became a farmer who produced food and
an observer of the many natural phenomena that governed his cycles in our
planet. He also became a saver who primarily saved, kept, and shared seeds for
the next season.
In many ancient and advanced communities, people celebrated the
bounty of the fields and the good harvest by sharing their fruits and seeds
with fellow farmers. These materials are cultivars or landraces that survived
without the benefit of cold seed storage facilities. These seeds were observed
to be resistant to common pests and diseases specific to different families
of vegetables. They were are also tolerant to adverse conditions which were
common in a subsistence farm which lacked inorganic inputs. Their unique
characteristics made them stable for centuries of cultivation and selection.
However, variability in each cultivar happened because it was open pollinated.
Thus, these crops share a huge pool of genetic variability for each kind of
vegetable.
Man selected plants, varieties, and seeds based on “superficial beauty,”
“manicured” the fields, and “pampered” the plants so that important genes
for natural survival of the cultivars that nurtured past generations were
gradually lost. He sprayed chemicals to control crop pests and applied
inorganic fertilizers. Only the cultivated plants were important while weeds,
microorganisms, and other players in the intricate design of food web were
disregarded.
He started developing hybrids, thereby discouraging farmers from saving
seeds, and eroding the genetic diversity in the farm. Besides developing
hybrids that need high agricultural inputs, man started dabbling on gene
modification. And so, farmers cannot produce their own seeds.
There is a need to rediscover the organic origin of our crop species since
most varieties have “forgotten” their organic ancestry. We need to breed back
the survival traits of our varieties together with the important cultural heritage
that were previously imbedded in those landraces evolving with the traditions
of men and tribes, forging the wisdom of old, and the discoveries of the young.
It is imperative to produce organic seeds as they are required in organic
production.

1
Breeding
Importance of Breeding
Continuous breeding and development of plant varieties are necessary to:
(1) develop varieties with characteristics that are not present in the market;
(2) develop new combination of traits; and (3) produce varieties with
economic potential.

Breeding Objectives
Breeding objectives, which serve as the main focus of the breeding work,
differ among breeding programs. These are identified based on current
preferences (consumers, traders, farmers, processors, etc.), perceived future
market preferences, and local and global needs as affected by different factors
such as changes in the environment and development of new technologies.
The identified breeding objectives would then determine the germplasm to be
used, methods of selection, and required resources and their allocation.

Common Breeding Strategies

Conventional Breeding

The three general steps in conventional plant breeding include: 1) the

assembly and generation of new diversity; 2) testing for several generations to
identify superior new recombinants; and 3) the release and commercialization
of new cultivars. Throughout the whole process, conventional farming
practices are employed such as the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
and clean culture to provide plants the optimum conditions for superior
growth.

Mutation Breeding

In mutation breeding, changes in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

sequence are induced to produce recombinants. Mutation can be induced
by physical (exposure to X-ray or ultraviolet [UV] rays) or chemical (use of
chemical compounds such as colchicine) methods. The recombinants formed
are then tested and evaluated to identify the superior recombinants.

2
Tissue Culture-based Methods

Tissue culture is based on the ability of a cell to develop into a completely

differentiated organism from which it is derived (totipotency). In this
technique, explants or small pieces of living tissues are isolated from an
organism and are grown on a nutrient medium under controlled environment.
Some of the tissue culture-based methods are somaclonal variation, anther
culture, and protoplast fusion.

Genetic Engineering

The main products of genetic engineering are the genetically modified

organisms which possess genes coming from a different organism. This is
done by inserting a gene from the DNA of one organism into the DNA of
another organism to produce the recombinant DNA which is expressed
normally. However, the products of genetic engineering are also not allowed
to be used in organic breeding and production.

Conventional Breeding
Cultural management for conventional breeding involves optimum
fertilization, complete pest control/calendar spraying, regular (weekly)
irrigation, and zero weed policy (clean culture) (Fig. 1). In addition, the seeds
produced through conventional breeding and seed production are stored in

Fig. 1. Conventionally grown vegetables.

3
cold storage with strict moisture content, relative humidity, and temperature
regimes.
Varieties developed through conventional breeding usually have weak
root system, which generally results to poor nutrient utilization and making
plants prone to damage caused by drought and waterlogging stress.
Furthermore, since plants bred under conventional breeding methods are
used to being supplied with more than the optimum amount of pesticides,
they tend to be susceptible to pests and diseases once planted in farmer’s
field. Or if the plant varieties are resistant to plant pests and diseases, it is
based on major genes, resulting to vertical resistance which can easily be
overcome by the pathogen.
Moreover, conventional breeding practices clean culture wherein weeds
are not allowed to grow around and in between plots, making the use of
herbicides a necessity. Once these varieties are planted in farmer’s field, they
exhibit low tolerance to the presence of weeds and they can hardly compete
with naturally-occurring weeds. Aside from these effects on plants, the
frequent exposure of workers, technicians, and breeders to inorganic farm
inputs put their health at risk.

Organic Breeding
Conventional breeding makes use of cultural management practices that
are different from the practices in organic farming. What is seen in a plant
variety is actually the combination of its genotype and the influence of the
environment. Since conventional and organic farming are completely different
farming systems, plant varieties are expected to have differential response
under the two conditions. The study conducted by a group led by Murphy
(2007) revealed that good performance in conventional systems does not
guarantee the same performance in organic conditions. Furthermore, they
specified that in order to increase production in organic farming through
breeding, direct selection under organic conditions should be done.

Selection Environment

The following cultural management practices are followed when breeding

under organic conditions:

l application of limited organic fertilizer;

l limited watering;
l regulated weeds or systematic weed management;
l no or limited pest management interventions aside from pest
repellents and intercropping; and

4
 l no crop rotation in instances where buildup of soil-borne diseases is
needed.

Breeding Terms
Chromosome – an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells.
It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements
and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound
proteins which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.

Genes – a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name

given to some stretches of DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that code for a
polypeptide or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism and is
responsible for a particular trait.

l Gene – a section of the DNA containing the genetic code for a protein.
l DNA –genetic information.
l Each gene contains 2 versions of the genetic code, one from each
parent.
l Each copy is called an “allele”.
l If the 2 copies are identical, the plant is true-breeding.
l If the 2 copies are not identical, the offspring is segregating.

Dominant gene – Dominance in genetics is a relationship between alleles

of a gene, in which one allele masks the expression (phenotype) of another
allele at the same locus. In the simplest case, where a gene exists in two
allelic forms (designated A and B), three combinations of alleles (genotypes)
are possible: AA, AB, and BB. If AA and BB individuals (homozygotes) show
different forms of the trait (phenotype), and AB individuals (heterozygotes)
show the same phenotype as AA individuals, then allele A is said to dominate
or be dominant to or show dominance to allele B, and B is said to be recessive to
A. If instead AB has the same phenotype as BB, B is dominant to A.

Recessive gene – In genetics, this term refers to an allele that causes

a phenotype (visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen in a
homozygous genotype (an organism that has two copies of the same allele)
and never in a heterozygous genotype.

Multiple genes – aw polygene, multiple factor, multiple gene inheritance,

or quantitative gene is a group of non-allelic genes that together influence
a phenotypic trait. Characters controlled by many genes each with a small
effect.
Example: plant height, fruit size

5
 Genotype – the genetic makeup of a cell, an organism, or an individual
(i.e., the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with reference to a
specific character under consideration.

Phenotype – from the Greek terms phainein, meaning “to show,” and
typos, meaning “type.” It is the composite of an oganism’s observable
characteristics or traits: such as its morphology, development, biochemical or
physiological properties, phenology, behavior, and products of behavior (such
as bird’s nest). Phenotypes result from the expression of an organism’s genes
as well as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions between
the two.

Variety – The Union for the Protection of New Varieties (UPOV)

describes “variety” as a group of similar plants in the same species which
can be differentiated from other varieties in terms of its characteristics or
performance. A variety is of distinctly different type (phenotype) from the
other genotypes in the same species.

Open-Pollinated Variety (OPV) – “Open Pollinated” is a horticultural term

meaning that the plant produces seeds naturally. These are varieties which
have stable traits from one generation to the next. Thus, when seeds of OPVs
are planted, they will reliably produce plants more or less similar to the plants
from where the seeds were obtained. They remain fairly consistent though not
as uniform as thehybrids.The advantage gained by farmers in using OPVs is
the ability to save seeds for the succeeding planting seasons by merely seed
producing the OPVs.

F1 Hybrid - the first generation offspring of a cross between two

genetically uniform varieties or inbred with different genotypes. F1 hybrid
plants exhibit a high level of uniformity and plants resemble one another.
In breeding for hybrids, hybrid vigor or heterosis (the increase in vigor,
productivity, size, and other important characters of a hybrid plant in
comparison with the average of its parents) is exploited.
Producing F1 hybrids is a tedious process. It requires the development
of a number of inbreds which are then crossed in pairs through controlled
pollination. Hybridization or crossing is done in a very controlled manner
so that all of the plants grown from the hybrid seed will be the result of the
desired cross and will be genetically identical (Fig. 2). In vegetables, manual
emasculation or the removal of the male reproductive part prior to flower
opening is done manually. Early morning of the following day, pollen from the
flower of the other inbred is used to pollinate the emasculated flower. It was
then allowed to develop into a matured fruit from which the F1 hybrid seeds

6
Fig. 2. Controlled pollination done to produce F1 hybrid seeds.

are obtained. These processes, from the development and maintenance of

the inbreds up to the production of the hybrid seeds, make F1 hybrid seeds
expensive.

How Breeding is Done

Set Breeding Objectives

Breeding objectives serve as the main focus of the breeding work.

These may differ depending on the resulting variety to be develop. It can
be a pureline, OPV, hybrid, composites, synthetic variety, and multiline,
among others. Also, the establishment of breeding objectives is dependent
on the prevailing market preferences (e.g., solo type vs big fruits), existing
environmental issues (e.g., varieties tolerant to drought and salt stress), and
need of farmers (e.g., varieties with a wide genetic base, organic varieties for
organic farming, etc.).

Collect Germplasm Based on the Breeding Objectives

Ideally, it is preferred to start with the best varieties available including

landraces. Germplasm can be obtained from the following sources:

a. Farmer’s field. Materials from farmers’ fields can be genetically stable

but heterogenous in nature. These are the so-called landraces that
farmers have been using for several years. Lines of pole sitao, snap

7
 beans, garden pea, and tomato which are known to be landraces
are expected to be stable. Relatively stable lines can be expected
from pepper, eggplant, and ‘okra’. In contrast, higher levels of
genetic variation can be expected in cross-pollinated crops such as
‘ampalaya’, cucumber, melon, and squash. Aside from these landraces,
segregating populations obtained from the original F1 hybrids bought
by farmers can also be collected from farmers’ fields. This is applicable
for crops such as tomato, eggplant, pepper, ampalaya, cucumber,
melon, and squash.
Natural outcrossing (especially for cross-pollinated crops) leads to
a high level of variability present in landraces. Furthermore, landraces
have not undergone direct selection for a particular plant type, which
also contributes to its level of variability.
The best time to collect materials from farmers’ fields is during
the off-season and when there is occurrence of pests and disease
problems.

b. Market. The local market is another good source of germplasm. Seeds

can be obtained from mature fruits and these seeds are assumed to be
at the F2 generation, except for obvious landraces (i.e., squash-shaped
tomatoes). The best time to collect is during the off-season.

c. Formal breeding programs. Materials of known pedigree or

acquired from formal breeding programs can be stable breeding lines
as well as the segregating lines with defined pedigree and level of
heterozygosity.

d. Seed companies. Seeds developed by seed companies can either

be OPVs or F1 hybrids, both of which can be used a check varieties
for the trials. OPVs can also be used to come up with variety
recommendations if variety development is not possible. In the case
of often cross- and open-pollinated crops such as pepper, eggplant
and the cucurbits, selection from the OPVs can be done to come up
with a distinct variety from the original OPV. On the other hand, the F1
hybrids can be used to generate segregating materials.

Nomenclature
Upon the collection of germplasm, each material is designated its
own accession number to make the nomenclature uniform. In naming
germplasm collection, it is best to use numbers only; the first two digits
indicate the year when the material was acquired. For example, the
numbers 10-001, 10-002, 10-003, and so on can be designated to different

8
 materials. The ‘10’ indicates the year of acquisition while the following
digits correspond to the line number.
It is also best to keep a germplasm book to be used exclusively for
collections, with separate sections per crop. In the germplasm book,
indicate the entry number, description (e.g., variety name if any), date
collected, place where the material is obtained, and remarks (for any
outstanding trait or notes on the collection).

Evaluate Germplasm in Observational Trials (can be replicated)

with Proper OPV and Hybrid Checks

Observational trial is necessary to characterize each accession in the

germplasm, as well as to evaluate the materials initially and identify which
accessions can be used to meet the breeding objectives. The important factors
to be considered in the conduct of observational trials are as follows:

a. Plot sizes and spacing. For stable lines and hybrids, evaluate each
accession in a plot with length of 5–10 meters (m) and width of 1 m
(5–10 m2 plot size). For segregating lines, the plot size allotted for each
accession should be as big as possible and should accommodate up to
200 plants per accession. The spacing between plants is similar to the
measurements used in commercial production (Table 1) but it can be
made smaller for the observational trial.
For often cross-pollinated crops such as eggplant, pepper and
okra, practice intercropping (different crops planted alternately) to
minimize outcrossing.

b. Selection environment. Evaluate plants in less than the optimum

conditions. Apply organic fertilizers at a minimal rate of 50–75% of the
normal nutrient requirement by plants. Practice minimal to no active
pest and weed control. Use physical methods to eradicate pests or use
organic botanicals to deter insect pests. Allow some weeds to grow
between and around the plots. Furthermore, expose the plants to
calibrated stress conditions to select desired lines tolerant to various
stresses based on breeding objectives.

c. Breeding objectives. The evaluation of germplasm accessions are

based on the breeding objectives set before the start of the breeding
activities. The focus may be on the desirable plant characters (earliness,
height, plant stand, etc.), desirable fruit characters (size, color, shelf life,
etc.), plant resistance/tolerance (to pests, diseases, or environmental
stress), among others (Table 2). Breeding objectives should be based

9
Table 1. Spacing within and between rows in selected vegetables.

Crop Space Between Hills (cm) Space Between Rows (cm)

Eggplant 50 – 75 75 – 100
Pepper 30 – 50 50 – 75
Tomato 50 – 75 75 – 100
Ampalaya 30 – 50 200 – 300
Cucumber 30 – 50 75 – 100
Melon 50 – 100 200 – 300
Squash 50 – 100 300 – 500
Pole sitao 30 – 50 75 – 100
Snap Beans 30 – 50 75 – 100
Garden Pea 20 – 30 50 – 75
Lettuce 20 – 30 30 – 50
‘Pechay’ 15 – 20 20 – 30
Carrot 7 – 10 20 – 30
Chinese Cabbage 20 – 30 30 – 50
Onion 10 – 20 20 – 30

Table 2. Important pests of selected vegetable crops.

Crop Important Insect Pest Important Disease

Eggplant eggplant fruit and shoot bacterial wilt, Phomopsis

borer (EFSB), leaf hopper
Pepper mites, thrips, fruit fly Cercospora leaf spot,
mottling, bacterial wilt
Tomato fruit worm, fruit fly, bacterial wilt, tomato leaf curl
white fly virus (ToLCV), late blight
Ampalaya fruit fly, aphids Cercospora leaf spot, downy
mildew, bacterial wilt, mosaic
Cucumber cut worms, fruit fly mildews
Melon fruit worm, mites mildews
Squash fruit fly, beetles mildews, leaf curl, mosaic
Pole sitao bean fly, pod borer, cowpea rust, mosaic, Fusarium
aphids wilt
Snap Beans bean fly, pod borer, aphids bean rust
Garden Pea pod borer, leaf miner powdery mildew, Fusarium wilt
Lettuce blight
Pechay diamondback moth (DBM), soft rot, Rhizoctonia blight
web worm, flea beetle
Carrot cut worms blight, root-knot nematode
Chinese Cabbage DBM, flea beetle leaf spot, soft rot, club root
Onion leaf miner twister, bulb rot, purple blotch
Okra leaf hopper mildews, leaf mold

10
 on the preferences of the consumers, growers, traders, and present
and future conditions.

d. Selection criteria. The selection criteria and breeding objectives are

set prior to the conduct of breeding activities. These criteria are in line
with the objectives and should be clear to the breeder/staff including
the hierarchy of traits. Plant check varieties along with the germplasm
to be evaluated as reference in terms of performance (Table 3). Since
the checks are commercially acceptable varieties and are already used
by farmers, they would perfectly function as a gauge to evaluate the
germplasm accessions.

e. Remnant seeds. For each germplasm accession, keep reserved or

remnant seeds in case of crop failures. Maintain remnant seeds for a
minimum of three generations. For instance, if the current population
being worked on is at F5 generation then the remnant seeds of F5,

Table 3. Proposed check varieties for the organic trials.

Crop OPV Check Hybrid Check

Eggplant Mistisa, Dumaguete Long Casino, Domino

Purple, Batangas
Long Purple
Pepper Smooth Cayenne,
California Wonder Majesty
Tomato Super Apollo Perfect 89, Permata,
Diamante Max
Ampalaya Sta. Rita Jade Star, Galaxy
Cucumber Poinsett, Pilmaria,
Batangas White General Lee, Governor
Melon Gulfstream
Squash Rizalina, Batac Suprema
Pole Sitao Sandigan, CSL 19 -
Snap Beans Alno, Burik -
Garden Pea Chinese Dark Green -
Lettuce Grand Rapid (loose leaf ),
Xanadu (Romaine) -
Pechay Black Behi -
Cabbage Scorpio
Carrot Kuroda -
Chinese Cabbage Green Cool
Onion Red Pinoy, Tanduyong -
Okra Smooth Green -

11
 F4, F3, and F2 should be kept. Likewise, if the current population is at
F6 then remnants of F6, F5, F4, and F3 should be maintained, and so
on. In the first set of examples, in case F5 lines failed (may be due to
typhoons, no selfed seeds produced, etc.), use the remnant seeds of
F5 to set-up another trial. If the trial failed again, use the remnant
seeds of F4, and so on. Such failures are common in cross-pollinated
crops such as squash and ampalaya. In the case of self-pollinated
crops, use bulk seeds as stock seeds in addition to the remnant seeds.

Select Potential Varieties (OPV) and Potential Parents for Hybridization

a. Line selection. Line selection is applicable for lines with plant and fruit
characteristics that are generally similar (stable lines). Identify and select
the best lines or those which are as good as or better than the check
varieties in terms of vigor and yield. Aside from choosing the best lines,
perform roguing during the evaluation process to eliminate the off-types.

b. Individual plant selection. Perform individual plant selection when a

distinct variation among plants within the accession/line is identifiable.
In contrast with line selection, individual plant selection is done to identify
the best plants from each segregating line. During the harvesting stage,
gather fruits from the selected plants separately and label the seeds
obtained from each plant accordingly. In the next generation, grow each
selected plant as a separate line. On the other hand, combine seeds
produced from the plants which are not selected to constitute the bulk
seeds.

l Labelling
For segregating materials, the name and label of the lines from
the current generation is different from the previous generation.
For example, for a germplasm accession of 10-001 with two plants
selected through individual plant selection, label the seeds from the
better/more superior plantas 10-001-1, the seeds from the other plant
as 10-001-2, and the bulk seedsas 10-001-0. The next season, plant
each selection as a separate line or entry: 10-001-1 and 10-001-2. The
bulk seeds 10-001-0 is a reserve in case of crop failures. Then, label the
selections from 10-001-1 as 10-001-1-1, 10-001-1-2, and so on.
For stable lines, retain the original accession/collection number.
For instance, if line 10-005 is already stable and it is selected and
planted the next season, label it still as 10-005.

12
 l Controlled Pollination
Once the best lines and plants are identified and selected, obtain
seeds from selfed or sibbed fruits so as to maintain the purity of the
selected line or plant. Controlled pollination is necessary to be able to
produce self and sib seeds.

- Highly self-pollinated crops. Controlled pollination is not

needed in highly selfed crops such as pole sitao, snap beans,
and garden pea. However, there are lines of pole sitao and other
self-pollinated crops which exhibit significant outcrossing; in such
cases, bagthe flowers which will open the next day to produce
selfed seeds.

- Often cross-pollinated crops. In crops with complete flowers

(male and female parts located on the same flower) and
outcrossing is significant, bagging or caging is necessary so as
to maintain the genetic integrity of the selected line or plant.
Examples of crops which fall under this category are eggplant,
pepper and okra. Bag individual flowers that will open the next
day using glassine bag, aluminum foil, cotton, plastic soda straw, or
rolled paper to prevent them from opening (Fig. 3). Then tag them
as selfed using the symbol x . For some crops such as pepper,
selected plants can be caged with net after removing initially
formed fruits and opened flowers to ensure that the succeeding
fruits that will be formed are selfed.

Fig. 3. (L–R) Bagging of flowers in eggplant using aluminum foil; Selected plants in
pepper enclosed in net bag to prevent cross pollination; Use of soda straw to
bag flowers in pepper.

13
 - Cross-pollinated crops. Examples of cross-pollinated crops are
cucurbits (ampalaya, cucumber, squash, melon, etc.), crucifers
(pechay, Chinese cabbage, cauliflower, etc.) and Allium (onion).
These are crops which undergo natural cross pollination brought
about by floral characters or self-incompatibility factors.
In cucurbits, do blind selfing or sibbing, designated as x and
# , respectively. The term blind selfing or sibbing is used because
there are still no fruits which can be used as basis for selection. If
selfing or sibbing is done at a later stage when fruit characters
are already visible, it may be too late to produce the sufficient
number of seeds.

To do blind selfing, bag or clip unopened male and female flowers to

prevent contamination of pollen. To ensure adequate amount of pollen, bag
2–3 male flowers per female flower. Also, the bagged male and female flowers
should be located on the same plant (Fig. 4). Early morning of the following
day, pollination of the female flowers is accomplished. Gather the bagged
male flowers and remove the cover of the female flowers. Transfer the pollen
from the male flowers onto the female flower by gently rubbing the anther of
the male to the stigma of the female. Perform controlled pollination only up to
a level when the plants within the lines are relatively pure, generally after
2–3 generations of selfing depending on the starting material. After the pollen
have been transferred, replace the cover on the female flowers to prevent
pollen contamination. Using a plastic tag, mark the pollinated female flower
as selfed ( x ), including the date of pollination. Allow the developing fruit to
reach full maturity before extracting the seeds.

Fig. 4. Bagging in cucumber (left) and ampalaya (right).

14
 On the other hand, sibbing is usually done at the later stages
of line development (F6 onwards) to have a uniform line. However,
sibbing can also be accomplished during the early stages to save
highly female plants (most of the flowers are female). The same
procedure in blind selfing is done for blind sibbing, however, the
male and female flowers are located on different plants of the
same line (siblings) for the latter and the pollinated female flower
in blind sibbing is marked as # to indicate that the fruit is sib.
In crucifers and onion, allow the plants to intercross freely
after the off-types have been rogued out. Likewise, balling out of
selected plants can also be done. Then, grow the selected plants
under a net and allow them to intercross during the flowering and
fruiting stage.

Evaluate the Potential Varieties in Series of Trials [wet and dry seasons,
reaction to pests and diseases, replicated yield trials (RYTs), on-farm
trials (OFTs)]

a. Segregating populations. After the initial selection, plant each selected

plant or line as separate entries to perform another round of selection.
This is done until the F6 generation wherein lines are generally stable
(Figs. 5 and 6). Once stable, evaluate the lines in RYT during wet and dry
seasons. Alternate individual plant selection (for dry season) and line
selection (for wet season where chance of getting sufficient seeds from
each plant is low) may be done. Other methods of selection such as mass
selection, bulk selection, and recurrent selection may also be undertaken
for cross-pollinated crops.

b. Stable lines. Enter selected stable lines in RYTs. Group the lines into types
with separate check varieties, if applicable. For instance, group eggplant
selections into long purple type and oblong or round type, which would
have their respective appropriate check varieties.

Replicated Yield Trial

• Entries - Stable lines, stable landraces, OPVs, and F1 hybrids can be
included in RYTs with appropriate check varieties. If there are distinct
variety type grouping, group the entries accordingly (i.e., long purple
eggplants are separated from round eggplants; salad, table, and cherry
tomato are separated; tomato with indeterminate form separated from
determinate form).

• Trial Environment - Perform the initial trial under less than optimum to
adverse conditions, especially if there are too many entries. Supply less

15
 Parent Blind
1 Selfing
Select best
F2 Seeds
Hybrid combination F2 Seeds (100–200 Select best
per cross) individual F3 Seeds
Parent
plants, fruits
2

Plant Plant Plant Blind Plant Plant

Blind Selfing Plant
Selfing Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7 Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7
Select best
Plant Plant Plant F4 Seeds plants/fruits Plant Plant Plant
Select best Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8 Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8
F5 Seeds plants/fruits
Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant
Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n... Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n...

Fruit-to-row (plots)
Fruit-to-row (plots)
Plant Plant Plant Blind
Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7 Selfing
Plant Plant Plant Blind
Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7 Selfing
Plant Plant Plant Select best F6
Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8 plants/fruits
Seeds Plant Plant Plant Select
Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8 best OPV
Plant Plant Plant lines
Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n...
Plant Plant Plant
Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n...
Plant-to-row (plots)

Fig. 5. OPV development in cross- and often cross-pollinated crops.

Parent
1
Select best F2 Seeds
Hybrid combination F2 Seeds (100–200 Select best
individual
per cross) plants F3 Seeds
Parent
2

Plant Plant
Sel 1 Sel 4 Plant
Line Line Line Sel 7
Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7 Select best
F4 Seeds lines Plant Plant Plant
Select best Line Line Line Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8
F5 Seeds plants Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8
Plant Plant Plant
Line Line Line Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n...
Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n ...

Line-to-row (plots) Plant-to-row (plots)

Plant Plant Plant
Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7
Line Line Line
Select Sel 1 Sel 4 Sel 7
Plant Plant Plant
Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8 best F6 Seeds
lines Line Line Line Select
Sel 2 Sel 5 Sel 8 best
Plant Plant Plant lines OPV
Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n... Line
Line Line
Sel 2 Sel 6 Sel n ...
Plant-to-row (plots)

Fig. 6. General flow of breeding process using pedigree selection for self-pollinated crops.

16
 farm inputs to the plants (50–75% of optimum nutrient requirement) and
employ minimal pest control, weeding, and irrigation. Another option
is the conduct of subsequent trials under optimum organic conditions
to determine the potential yield of selected entries. Practice optimum
nutrient management, pest management, maintenance, and watering,
taking into consideration that all procedures follow the Philippine National
Standard for Organic Agriculture (PNSOA).

• Plot Sizes and Replications - Plots can be 5–10 m2 per entry per replication
for crops grown with close spacing. On the other hand, use a 10–25 m2
plot per entry per replicationfor crops which require wider spacing such
as ampalaya and squash. Include also 2–4 replications per entry in the
trial. For seed production purposes, establish a 1-m plot at the left and
right ends of the field or add another replication to the trial where plants
for seed production can be planted.

• Selection - The main basis for selection during yield trials is the yield
performance. However, refinements on other selection criteria such as
eating quality, uniformity, shelf life, etc. can also be done.

Use Selection that is as Good as or Better than the Check as Initial OPV

Once lines which perform as good as or better than the check varieties
have been identified and selected, they can be used as initial OPV. For these
lines, an ample amount of seeds should always be available; thus, seed
production activities should be constantly undertaken to ensure seed supply.
Some pointers for seed production activities are listed below.

a. Highly self-pollinated crops. Rogue off-types at the vegetative,

flowering, and fruiting stages to maintain the uniformity of the line. If
there are apparent differences, select the best plants to produce stock
seeds.The seeds from the unselected plants constitute the bulk seeds for
commercial purposes. The seeds obtained from the best plants are stock
organic seeds for the next round of seed production.

b. Often cross-pollinated crops. Rogue off-types at the vegetative stage

(before flowering) to prevent pollen contamination. If the manner of
planting of the entries allows some degree of isolation from other entries,
select the best plants as source of seeds for the next planting. In contrast,
if the entries are planted side by side, bagging and caging is necessary
to produce selfed seeds. Then, select the best plants and bulk the selfed
seeds obtained from the selected plants. Use the bulk seeds for the next
trial.

17
 For the seed production of stable lines in often-crossed crops, plant
barrier crops around each entry to minimize cross pollination between
entries.

c. Cross-pollinated crops. Cross-pollinated crops have mechanisms of

dispersing their pollen grains to a wide range of places/distances, making
it necessary to isolate entries from each other to minimize contamination.
Also, rogue out off-types at vegetative, flowering, and fruiting stages.
During harvesting, the best fruits become the source of stock seeds, the
bulk of which are used as commercial organic seeds.
However, if area is limited and isolation of entries is not possible,
practice sibbing and selfing. The selfed seeds would also serve as remnant
to reconstitute the variety if needed. Select and separate the best plants
or fruits, the seeds of which would serve as stock seeds. Use the rest of the
seeds as commercial organic seeds.

Perform Hybridization of Selected Parents to Recombine Traits

if Available Germplasm Does not Satisfy Breeding Objectives

Recombination of traits through hybridization is an effective way

owf creating variability in developingvarieties with better performance,
characteristics, resistance, and other preferred traits. In the preparation of the
hybridization plan, select the parents to be crossed­—the best variety available
will serve as parent 1 (P1) whose strengths and weaknesses are clearly defined,
while another variety which will serve as parent 2 (P2) will be used to improve
P1. Make crosses between the two to produce the F1 seeds. During the
hybridization work, practice controlled pollination to minimize contamination.
For crops with perfect flower (pole sitao, beans, tomato, pepper, eggplant,
etc.), emasculate (remove the male reproductive part) and bag flowers from P1
which will open the following day. These emasculated flowers would serve as
the females for the hybridization work. Bag also flowers from the P2, these will
serve as the male parents (pollen source). Early morning of the following day
(6–9 AM), transfer the pollen from the bagged flower in P2 to the stigma of the
emasculated flower in P1 by rubbing the anther. Label the pollinated flower as
P1 x P2 to indicate that it is a result of hybridization. Allow the fruit developing
from the cross to mature to be able to obtain the F1 seeds.
For crops with separate male and female flowers (cucumber, squash,
ampalaya, etc.), bag female flowers from P1 and male flowers from P2 that will
both open the next day. The next day, transfer the pollen from the male flower
onto the stigma of the female flower; then replace the cover of the female
flower and tag it as P1 x P2. Allow the fruit from the cross to mature to obtain
the F1 seeds.

18
 Plant the obtained F1 seeds for characterization and evaluation. Select
the plants with the desired combination of traits, obtain selfed seeds from the
selected plants, and plant the seeds for further evaluation.

a. Inbreeding rate. The term inbreeding is used to refer to the mating

of related individuals. Selfing and sibbing are forms of inbreeding.
Inbreeding has several consequences on the population structure and its
effect on the genotypic array is shown in Table 4.
If the starting population is agroup of F1s, which are heterozygotes,
and selfing is continuously performed for several generations, expect
changes on the frequencies of the homozygotes and heterozygotes.
As seen in Table 4, continuous selfing decreases the frequency of the
heterozygotes (Aa) and increases the frequencies of the homozygotes
(AA and aa).
Table 4. Effects of selfing on the genotypic array of a population.

Selfing Genotypic Frequency (%)

Generation AA Aa aa

F1 - 100.000 -
F2 25.0000 50.000 25.0000
F3 37.5000 25.000 37.5000
F4 43.7500 12.500 43.7500
F5 46.8750 6.250 46.8750
F6 48.4375 3.125 48.4375

b. How to treat F1 hybrids in breeding. Plant and characterize the F1

hybrids to verify if the desired trait/character is present in the population.
Perform selfing to obtain F2 seeds. Plant these seeds and select the best
plants or those which exhibit the desired character; self the selected
plants to produce F3 seeds. Continue the process of planting, selecting,
and selfing until F6 seeds are produced. At this stage, lines are already
relatively pure. For cross- pollinated (squash, ampalaya, cucumber, etc.)
and often-crossed (eggplant, pepper, etc.) crops, always guarantee to do
selfing and produce selfed seeds because if selfing is not done, the seeds
will just be open pollinated and it would take longer time for OP seeds to
be relatively pure.
There are different selection methods which can be used, depending
on the nature of the population, the breeding objectives, and the desired
product/outcome of the breeding work. However, the main goal for all
methods is similar, particularly to fix the genotypes into homozygous
condition.

19
c. Selection from segregating population (Pedigree). In pedigree
method, selection is undertaken starting at F2. The early generation
selection is usually done for highly heritable characters (maturity,
plant type, seed color, disease resistance, etc.) while selection for the
quantitative traits (with low heritability) is done at the later generations
(at F6 or F7).
Plant F2 seeds in rows applying of high-density planting to save on
space and minimize maintenance. Select and self plants with the best
combination of traits. For cross-pollinated crops, do blind selfing even
before selection. Individual plant selection can be done every season or it
can be alternated with line selection.

d. Selection for new lines/varieties. If the seed lot or the plants exhibit a
wide range of variation, select superior plants based on plant and fruit
characters. For self-pollinated crops (tomato, pole sitao, beans), ripe fruits
are harvested to obtain selfed seeds. For pepper, cage or isolate
the selected plants from the non-selected plants using a net after the first
fruits and open flowers are removed. All of the fruits which will develop
after caging are selfed. For eggplant and okra, bag unopened flowers and
tag them; seeds from the bagged flowers are selfed seeds. For cucurbits,
do blind selfing to ensure that the seeds which will be produced are selfed.
Each selected plant from the original population can be continuously
selfed to produce a line. Thus, if there are several individual plant
selections, several lines may also be produced. After 6–7 generations of
selfing, these lines are relatively stable.

e. Other selection methods

Mass selection – Select plants based on the phenotype. Harvest seeds

from the selected plants and combine them. This produces an improved
line with increased frequency of the desired trait.

Bulk method – Grow F2 seeds in a bulk plot and allow them to fruit and
produce seeds. Combine the harvested seeds from all the plants. Grow the
F3 seeds and repeat the process until F4–F5. At F5, select superior plants
and harvest F6 seeds separately for each selected plant. Grow F6 seeds
obtained from each individual plant selection in separate rows. Identify
superior lines.
Modifications in the bulk selection can be done such as bulking
plants of similar maturity, height or other distinct character that is easy to
observe.

20
 Back crossing – This is a form of recurrent hybridization wherein the
aim is to transfer one or more superior traits to a single variety.

Single seed descent – At F2, take a single seed from each plant and grow
it to produce the next generation. Do this until F4; at F5, select individual
plants and grow the harvested F6 seeds from each individual plant
selection onto separate rows. Identify and select the best lines.

Recurrent selection – Allard (1960) defines recurrent selection as a

selection method designed to concentrate the favorable alleles present
in the members of the population by selecting among the progeny
produced by mating per se of the selected individuals of the previous
generation. This procedure is done for several generations until the
proportion of the favorable gene (phenotype) is increased.

f. Screening for bacterial wilt resistance. Collect bacterial wilt (BW)-

infected plants around the area (e.g., tomato). Using clean water, test for
the presence of bacterial ooze. Extract the sap from BW-infected tomato
plants and dilute at 1:10 to 1:100. Use the diluted sap to inoculate 2- to
3-week old tomato seedlings using a scalpel. Dip the scalpel or blade into
the solution and cut the 1st leaf of the tomato seedlings. Incubate the
inoculated plants under partial shade. Observe the plants regularly. Two
weeks after inoculation, plants that are susceptible to the bacteria will
begin to wilt. Select the plants without symptoms of BW infection. This
method can also be done for eggplant and pepper.

21
Organic Seed Production

Prior to seed production, the target seed volume, seed quality, and market
should be clear. It is important to set the target seed volume prior to planting
to have an idea on the size of the area that should be planted and the number
or volume of planting materials that would be needed. Seed production can
also be done along with the fresh vegetable production depending on the
crop to have other sources of income.
Organic seed production aims to produce high-qualityseeds that are
compliant with PNSOA. In order to achieve high-quality seeds, the stock
seeds and the nutrient and environmental requirements of the plants
should be provided. Other factors which contribute to the quality of organic
seeds include the harvesting practice and part of the plant where fruits are
harvested, seed extraction techniques, proper seed drying, and seed storage.
The intended market is another important factor when planning the
organic seed production. Market information needed are the preferred
varieties, volume required, certification and quality requirements, and
schedule of deliveries. The target volume should include a buffer of around
20% and requirements for stock seeds for the next seed production cycle.
It is best to have a written organic seed production protocol which will also
be needed if the farm is to be certified as organic. The technical procedure
will include proper forms to be filled up for traceability purposes and risk
assessment. It may be necessary to have more than one location for seed
production such that each location would serve as a back-up of each other.
For example, there can be three areas devoted for seed production and if
one of them is damaged due to a typhoon or due to a high pest or disease
incidence, then the remaining two areas would serve as back-up.
Knowing the crop species is very important. Different crops have different
floral morphology (complete or incomplete, monoecious or dioecious),
blooming habits, and pollination behaviors (self-pollinated, cross-pollinated,
or often cross-pollinated) which would require different seed production
techniques. These characteristics are more or less similar within a family
(Table 5).
There are two main variety types, OPV and the hybrid, which are discussed
in the previous sections. OPVs are cheaper and easier to produce than hybrids
which requirethe maintenance of pure inbred lines and controlled pollination
between these inbreds to produce F1 hybrid seeds. The procedures for the
production of seeds for these two variety types differ from one another.

22
Table 5. Different vegetable crops and the families they belong to.

Family Vegetable Crops

Alliums Garlic, onion, chives

Cucurbits Ampalaya, cucumber, ‘patola’, ‘upo’, squash
Crucifers Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, pechay
Legumes Pole sitao, bush sitao, cowpea, pigeon pea, lima bean,
snap beans, garden pea, ‘samsamping’
Solanaceous Eggplant, pepper, tomato, white potato
Others ‘Alugbati’, ‘kangkong’, corn, ‘adlai’

Factors to Consider in Organic Seed Production

In organic seed production, the use of varieties resistant to pests and
diseases is recommended. It is better if the varieties are developed for organic
production system. The establishment of isolation distance from unwanted
varieties is also important. For eggplant and pepper, the recommended
isolation distance is 200–300 m and 500–800 m for cucurbits. Establish also
barrier crops such as corn and small trees by planting them around the area.
Apply optimum amount of organic fertilizers and pesticides as necessary. Grow
sacrificial plants together with the priority crop as a means of pest control.

Stock Seeds

In seed production, it is also necessary to produce stock seeds. Select the

best plants in the production lot to serve as source of stock seeds. Harvest
these plants separately from the bulk seeds. The quality of stock seeds is
determined by four factors: percent germination, purity, percent true-to-
type (resemblance to the original population), and homogeneity (similarity
between plants).

Lot history and traceability. The area for seed production should be
organic for at least three years or certified organic as provided for by the
PNSOA. It is also important to know the field history of the area where seed
production will be conducted to be able to make preparations for the control
of volunteer crops from the previous season, the weed species (common
and noxious) that normally grow in the area, common plant and seed-borne
diseases, pests with significant effects on crop production from previous
seasons, irrigation and water supply, data on annual rainfall amount and
distribution, and social and political policies.

23
Seed Production Environment

For good to high seed yield, it is best to conduct production in areas with
good soil quality and water availability during the cold, dry seasons. Suitable
conditions for seed production also requires proper soil fertility management,
efficient pest and disease management, roguing of diseased plants to control
seed-borne diseases, and roguing of off-types and mixtures to maintain the
purity of the lines. The adaptability of the particular crop and variety in the
area should also be considered.

Pure Seed Protection

Crops and varieties differ in their pollination habits. The cross-pollinated

crops require wide isolation distance while self-pollinated crops should also
have a certain degree of protection against cross pollination. Pollen grains can
be transferred through wind, water, or with the aid of insects. Different safety
measures to guarantee the purity of the seeds need to be done.

Isolation distance. Crops differ in the nature of the pollen they produce.
For example, pollen grains of corn can be dispersed by wind for up to
500–800 m away from the origin since they are very fine and light. Thus,
the isolation distance also differ among vegetable crops: 800–1,000 m for
cross-pollinated crops, 100–300 m for often-crossed crops, and 5–10 m for
self-pollinated crops. So, if corn is planted for seed production, it should be
800–1,000 m away from other corn plantations planted to a different variety to
reduce the probability of pollen transfer between the two varieties.
If the area is limited and providing the crops with some isolation distance
is not possible, bagging and caging can be done to limit the transfer of pollen
between different varieties. Another strategy is planting crops in alternate
rows such as tomato then pole sitao and so on to minimize chance of cross
pollination among varieties of the same crop.

Bagging. For crops with complete flowers (both the male and female
reproductive parts are present in a single flower), bag unopened flowers
to prevent out-crossing. For crops with the reproductive parts in separate
flowers as in the cucurbits, bag the flowers when performing controlled
pollination. In both cases, contamination of pollen from other varieties is
prevented.

Caging. Caging can be done for crops with determinate growth type such
as pepper, some varieties of eggplant and tomato. Prior to caging, remove the
first fruits and opened flowers. Then, isolate the whole plant by covering it
with nylon net cage or bag. Fruits developed after caging contain selfed seeds.

24
 Cultural Management
The farming practices employed for organic seed production are based
on organic standards and should comply with the PNSOA. If there are nearby
conventional farms, establish isolation barrier by planting small trees such
as ‘bignay’, ‘kakawate’, or ‘ipil-ipil’, among others. Water source should also
be free from contamination from non-organic farms. In terms of farm inputs
to be applied, avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Instead,
apply organic farm inputs such as vermicompost, fermented plant juice (FPJ),
fermented fruit juice (FFJ), vermi tea, oriental herb nutrient (OHN), and others.
As compared with fresh vegetable production, plants for seed production
require higher levels of potassium which can be supplied by the application
of FFJ. Allow some weeds to grow between plots. Use mulch to control weed
growth within plots and to conserve soil moisture. Practice intercropping and
crop rotation to prevent the buildup of insect pest populations and disease.

Roguing of Seed Crop

The existence of off-type plants in the seed crop is a potential source of

genetic contamination. The removal of such plants is termed as roguing.
During roguing, remove the off-types, diseased, and abnormal plants. The
number of roguing required for the seed crop vary with the kind of vegetables,
purity of the seeds sown, and nature of the previous crop, among others.
Roguing may be done at different plant stages, as soon as the off-types are
recognizable: vegetative, flowering, and maturity. Likewise, remove off-types
at different times of the day by walking in different directions of the plot. In
general, the cross-pollinated crop for seed production should be thoroughly
rogued before flowering.

Selection for Stock Seeds

Select superior plants that will serve as stock seeds for the next cycle of
seed production to prevent degradation of the variety. The number of plants
to be selected, usually 30–50 plants, is dependent on the target amount of
seeds to be produced. Tag the selected plants using bamboo pegs or colored
plastic to easily identify them. During harvesting, separate matured fruits
obtained from the selected plants. Once seeds are extracted, label them
accordingly.

Nutrient Management

It is advisable to fertilize the soil where plants acquire their nutritional

requirements and not the plant itself. The nutrient requirements of vegetables

25
are given in Table 6. Listed below are the different practices to improve soil
quality.

• Use of organic fertilizers such as animal manure, compost, vermicasts,

leaves of legumes, wood ash, seaweeds, and azolla
• Use of microbials such as Rhizobium, indigenous microorganisms
(IMO), lactic acid bacteria serum (LABS), FPJ, FFJ, fish amino acid (FAA),
and seaweed extract (SWE)
• Use of water extracts of legumes (kakawate, ‘malunggay’, etc). Half
sack full of legume leaves are soaked in plain water and aerated daily
by pulling the sacks up and down the drum. The water extract is ready
after about a week of soaking.
• Green manuring. Plants rich in nitrogen (such as mungbean, Sesbania,
cowpea, velvet bean) are incorporated into the soil to improve the
soil’s nitrogen content.
• Application of organic farm inputs during different plant stages. In
Bayawan City, the proportion of the different preparations is 60:30:10
ratio depending on the stage of the plant. During the vegetative stage,

Table 6. Vegetable fertilizer requirements.*

Crop Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K)

(kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)

Asparagus 80 – 150 50 – 100 50 – 100

Bean 60 – 120 60 – 120 50 – 100
Broccoli 100 – 200 80 – 150 50 – 200
Cabbage 100 – 200 80 – 150 50 – 200
Carrot 80 – 150 80 – 150 50 – 100
Cauliflower 100 – 200 80 – 150 50 – 200
Corn, Sweet 120 – 240 60 – 120 50 – 150
Cucumber 80 – 150 50 – 100 50 – 200
Eggplant 125 – 150 100 – 250 100 – 250
Garlic 100 – 200 60 – 150 50 – 200
Lettuce 120 – 180 100 – 200 0 – 200
Muskmelon 100 – 150 60 – 120 0 – 100
Onion 120 – 300 60 – 150 0 – 200
Pepper, Chili 80 – 150 60 – 120 0 – 100
Pepper, Sweet 120 – 240 100 – 250 0 – 200
Potato, White 150 – 300 100 – 200 0 – 200
Potato, Irish 150 – 300 100 – 200 0 – 200
Potato, Sweet 80 – 120 60 – 120 0 – 100
Squash 80 – 150 60 – 120 0 – 150
Tomato 100 – 200 60 – 120 0 – 200
Watermelon 100 – 160 60 – 120 0 – 200

* The actual rate of fertilizer for any given vegetable crop should be chosen with consideration
to soil type, recent cropping history, yield targets, and soil test results.

26
 the advisable proportion is 60% FAA, 30% FPJ and 10% FFJ. During
the change-over, it becomes 60% FPJ, 30% FAA, and 10% FFJ. For the
fruiting stage, the mixture is 60 % FFJ, 30% FPJ and 10% FAA.

The nutrient contents of the common farm wastes are shown in Table 7.
Animal manures vary in their chemical composition (Table 8). Under
PNSOA, there is a limit to the amount of manure that can be used in farms.
The nutrient analysis of vermicompost from the Buro-buro farm is given
in Table 9. The analyses will vary, depending on the substrates used. On the
other hand, the proximate analyses of fermented inputs such as FFJ, FPJ, and
FAA are in Table 10. The contents vary greatly depending on the raw materials
and the duration of the fermentation.
Table 7. Nutrient content of agricultural wastes.

Type of Wastes Nutrient (%) per Dry Weight Basis

N P K Ca Mg C:N Ratio

Coconut coir dust 0.39 0.06 1.76 0.13 0.11 117.00

Rice Hull 0.40 0.05 0.38 0.07 0.04 102.00
Rice Straw 0.53 0.27 1.70 0.50 0.48 67.00
Pineapple Trunk 1.18 0.08 2.26 0.09 0.10 37.00
Corn Stalk 1.13 0.44 1.75 0.37 0.18 43.00
Oil Palm frond 0.70 0.07 0.97 0.53 0.14 61.00
Oil palm empty bunch 0.60 0.06 1.92 0.13 0.11 83.00
Chicken dung 1.72 1.82 2.18 9.23 0.86 12.42
Cow dung 2.05 0.76 0.82 1.29 0.48 30.25
Cocoa pods 1.00 0.05 1.08 0.12 0.05 NA

Table 8. Average chemical composition of manures.

Chemical Composition (%)

Manure
Water N P K Ca Mg

Cattle Fresh 79.0 2.06 0.66 0.77 0.70 0.16

Old 71.4 2.41 0.75 0.88 0.81 0.12
Carabao Fresh 71.0 1.22 0.85 0.79 0.15 0.09
Old 67.8 1.09 0.82 0.70 0.19 -
Swine Fresh 73.8 2.76 2.64 1.47 1.26 0.09
Old 70.5 2.11 2.41 0.91 0.35 0.04
Broilers Fresh 82.1 3.17 3.25 2.35 0.52 0.25
Old 44.6 3.17 3.29 2.41 0.65 0.37
Pullet Fresh 79.6 2.60 4.42 3.06 3.38 0.09
Old 53.8 3.61 3.33 2.38 1.39 0.41
Layers Fresh 73.5 4.02 3.71 1.55 4.09 0.14
Old 52.5 4.22 3.82 2.00 4.12 0.48

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Table 9. Laboratory test of Buro-buro vermicompost.*

Vermicompost Composition
Animal Manure Plant / Leaves
Determination Cocodust +
(%) Ipil-Ipil
Rat Chicken Peanut Neem Azolla Ipil-Ipil Kakawate Leaves

Total N 1.40 1.52 1.33 1.06 2.26 2.33 2.74 0.15

Total P2O5 2.53 0.49 0.47 0.73 0.69 0.69 1.33 0.23
Total K2O 0.37 1.28 0.37 0.38 1.52 1.10 3.54 0.04
Total Ca 3.10 0.43 1.09 0.63 0.05 0.15 0.29 0.08
Total Mg 0.40 0.24 0.51 0.30 0.31 0.33 0.52 0.00
Total Fe 1.50 1.47 0.62 0.33 0.49 0.17 0.43 0.16
Total Mn 0.16 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.00
Total Cu 0.02 0.02 0.003 0.003 0.008 0.004 0.005 0.01
Total Zn 0.11 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.02
pH (%) 6.70 7.20 7.20 6.80 6.80 5.70 7.20 4.40

* N – Nitrogen; P2O5 – Phosphorus; K2O – Potassium; Ca- Calcium; Mg – Magnesium; Fe

– Iron; Mn – Manganese; Cu – Copper; Zn - Zinc.

Table 10. Proximate analysis of the fermented inputs.

Nutrient (mg/kg) FFJ FPJ FAA

Nitrogen (N) 429.47 855.06 1,116.34

Phosphorus (P) 61.87 122.72 193.44
Potassium (K) 1,201.70 3,934.20 314.60
Calcium (Ca) 307.23 913.03 377.92
Magnesium (Mg) 119.55 333.64 80.58
Sodium (Na) 51.15 128.19 426.40
Iron (Fe) 15.07 52.24 19.73
Copper (Cu) 0.75 0.87 0.94
Manganese (Mn) 2.19 4.54 1.45
Zinc (Zn) 1.97 3.74 5.84

Pest Management

One of the main problems in farm production, may the product be fresh
or seed, is the occurrence of insect pests and diseases. In organic farming,
the use of chemical pesticides to control such incidents is not acceptable. As
a substitute, the following practices are employed as part of the pest and
disease management system for organic farming:

• Use resistant varieties. There are plant varieties specifically bred with
resistance to some diseases and tolerance to damage caused by some

28
 pests. These varieties are less affected by the presence of such pests
and diseases and would show greater performance as compared to
other plant varieties in terms of reaction to stress caused by pests and
diseases.

• Intercrop and rotate crops. Intercropping and rotation cropping are

ways of planting which may serve as means of controlling the existing
pest population. In intercropping, different crops may be planted
simultaneously within the area; thus, the buildup of a pest population
for a particular crop is prevented since there exists a variation of
crops. In rotation cropping, crops belonging to different familiesare
alternately planted for the succeeding planting seasons. As a result,
the buildup of pest population is prevented by disrupting the pest’s
habitat, food supply, and life cycle for every planting season.

• Plant pest repellents around the area. Aromatic plants such as

marigold, holy basil, lemon grass, and other herbs and spices may
serve as pest repellents since they emit strong aroma and specific
substances which may serve as irritants to some pests. Grow these
plants around the plots to provide protection to the crop plants.

• Grow sacrificial plants. Sacrificial plants are those that are more
preferred by pests than the major crop being planted. For example,
okra may be grown around the plots planted with eggplant since
the former are more preferred by leaf hoppers. Likewise, soybean
are more preferred by beetles as compared to crucifers, carrot, and
eggplant.

• Encourage presence of natural enemies. Aside from insect

pests, there also exists natural populations of beneficial insects and
microorganisms in the area, some of which serve as natural enemies
of insect pests. To encourage the presence of these natural enemies,
avoid the use of chemical pesticides as they also destroy non-target
organisms, grow plant attractants of natural enemies such as Celosia
sp., zinnia, and cosmos, and allow the growth of weeds around the
plots. By boosting the populations of these natural enemies, the
number of predators of insect pests is increased, thereby regulating
the population of insect pests.

• Physical control methods

- Manual removal of insect pests and infected plant parts – Visit the
area in the early morning or late afternoon. Remove insect pests

29
 or infected plant parts to prevent their spread and population
buildup. Upon removal, soak them in a pail containing water and
soap detergent.

- Establishment of physical barriers – In ampalaya, wrap newly

formed fruits using a net bag or paper to prevent fruit flies from
laying their eggs inside the fruit (oviposition).

- Other activities which can drive away insect pests - Practice

fogging/smudging to irritate and drive away insect pests.

• Importance of weeds. Weeds can serve as sanctuaries for beneficial

insects and as alternative host for insect pests. Thus, it is advisable to
allow weeds to grow between and around plots.

• Use botanical pesticides, OHN, biocontrol agents (BCA) spray.

As a means of last defense against pests, organic farm inputs (OHN and
hot pepper extract), detergent solution, and other biocontrol agents
may be used. These are contact pesticides which may be applied only
if the insect pests are present.

Record Keeping

Keeping of records is another important consideration in seed production.

Data on seed source/origin, important characteristics, significant yield, and
other statistics on horticultural traits may be kept in these records. This helps
in the maintenance of identity and lot history of each accession. Record
keeping can also be a means of tracking seed distribution, available seed
supply, changes in germination rates, and other pertinent information on seed
supply.

Harvesting
The basic rule of harvesting is to allow the seed to mature as long as
possible on the plant without the seed or fruit becoming diseased or overly
ripe. Each type of plant has an optimum time for collecting the seed, but
factors such as climate, weather, disease, insects, birds, or rats may require that
the seed be collected at less than the optimum time. Legumes can normally
be left to mature and dry in the field, but during wet, humid weather, it is best
to harvest early and allow the beans to continue maturing and drying under
cover.
There are different indicators of seed or fruit maturity for crops: in pepper,
the fruit skin color turns red; in cucumber and eggplant, the fruit skin color

30
turns yellow; in squash, the peduncle turns yellow; and in legumes such as
pole sitao and beans, the pod color starts to lighten and the seeds tend to
loosen from the insides of the pod. Thus, it is important to be familiar with the
changes occurring in different crops at maturity stage.
The expected yield in organic seed production is given in Table 11.
Table 11. Vegetable seed yield.

Crop Isolation Distance (m) Seed Yield (kg/ha)

Ampalaya 400 – 800 75 – 100

Cucumber 400 – 800 100 – 250
Squash 400 – 800 75 – 100
Eggplant 100 – 200 50 – 100
Pepper 200 – 400 50 – 100
Tomato 25 – 50 100 – 150
Okra 200 – 400 500 – 800
Pole sitao 25 – 50 700 – 2000

Seed Processing
Dry Seed Processing (pods, capsules, seed heads, etc.)

Dry seed processing is applicable to leguminous plants, brassicas, okra,

patola, and upo. For these crops, the change in pod or skin color from green
to yellow green is evident during the maturation process. As the pod/capsule/
fruit dries, the color further changes to light brown then to a darker brown
or dark gray. At this stage, the seeds are ready to be processed. Seeds of
legumes and brassicas often develop a slit along one side of the pod. This
indicates the best time to collect the seed, before the pods start to open and
scatter their seed.
A period of air-drying is important before seeds are threshed. During
air-drying, spread the plant materials (pods, capsules, or fruits) into thin layers
and leave them exposed in ambient condition (well-ventilated room with
low humidity) with regular turning until they are completely dried. Practice
proper drying to avoid damage to seeds which may be caused by the growth
of mold and decay and by the heat produced from decay development. As the
plant material dries, seed pods may split open or shed seed. During this time,
insects, especially weevils may feed on the seeds.
Plants with pods, such as beans and pole sitao, can be threshed by placing
the pods in a large sack, tying it securely, and then placing it on the ground
to be stepped on, jogged on, or danced on with a twisting motion. Okra can
be threshed using rice thresher. Seeds of sponge gourd can be extracted by
opening the end part.

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Wet Seed Processing (crop with fleshy fruits, fermentation)

Wet seed processing is applicable to tomato, cucumber, ampalaya, and

melon among others. For these crops, harvested mature fruits are allowed
to further mature by storing them for a few days. For soft fruits such as
tomato, cut them into halves or quarters, mash them, and ferment the seeds
in their own juice overnight. For cucumber, ampalaya, and melons, cut the
fruits in halves, scrape the seeds out along with the fruit pulp surrounding
them, and ferment the seed-pulp mixture overnight. These types of fruits
have a gel surrounding the seed and this gel contains germination inhibitors.
Fermentation is necessary to remove the gel. During the process, the
microorganisms, principally yeast, break down the gel thus releasing the seed
while killing bacteria and fungi that cause most seed-borne diseases. Do not
add water to prevent premature seed germination.
After fermentation is complete, wash the seeds to remove pulp, pieces of
fruit and debris, and low quality seeds. Floaters are the low quality seeds while
sinkers are the good ones. Repeat the washing process until the wash water
becomes clear. Observe proper care to prevent seed mixtures and loss of
labels.
Once the seeds are completely washed, dry the seeds fairly quickly. Slow
drying may result in mold growth or premature sprouting of the seed. To
achieve quick drying of seeds, either spin dry the seeds in ordinary washing
machine or dry seeds in a room with ceiling fans and air conditioning. During
the drying process, spread out seeds on plywood, window screen, or any
hard, non-stick surface into thin layers (no thicker than ¼” for small seeds)
and stir them several times to ensure balanced drying. The final stage in the
drying process is curing. As the seed moisture content declines, it comes into
equilibrium with the relative humidity.
For artificial seed drying or fast dry procedure, dry seeds in drying
conditions of 10–30% relative humidity (RH) and 35°–40°C for 24–72 hours.
The target seed moisture content (MC)after drying is 10–10.5 % for beans and
corn and 6–8 % for most vegetable seeds. After seeds are completely dried,
obtain some seeds from the lot and use them for quality testing.

Grow-out Tests
Periodic testing for genetic purity of varieties being grown for seed
production is necessary to make sure that the varieties are being maintained
in their true form. This is achieved through the conduct of grow-out testing
wherein at least 200 plants are grown and evaluated based on horticultural
characters.

32
 Germination Test
Testing of germination is necessary to assess the viability of seeds
produced. Different seed germination test procedures may be done such as
top of paper, between papers, and pleat and sand methods. The test can be
performed with 4 or 5 replications using 50 or 100 seeds for each replication.
The temperature can either be constant at 25° or 30°C or alternate with
20/30°C. Light requirement is also considered and differs among crops. Once
the germination test set-up is completed, counting of germinating seeds
is done in several batches: first, interim, and final count. At the end of the
testing, the seeds are categorized as normal, abnormal, dormant/fresh, and
dead.

Seed Treatments
Treatments can be applied to seeds or seedbeds prior to or during seed
germination to enhance seed vigor and viability and to control seed-borne
diseases (Colley, 2008). Some of the treatments acceptable for organic seed
production are as follows:

• Compost and vermicompost teas. To prepare these, soak a sack

containing compost or vermicompost in a plastic drum with water
for about seven days. Apply them as soil drench to the seed bed to
introduce beneficial microorganism that will compete with and control
soil pathogens.

• Biodynamic treatments. Allow preparations consisting of mineral,

plant, or animal manure extracts to ferment. Obtain the liquid part of
the fermented preparation, dilute them to proper concentration, and
stir (dynamization). Apply the treatment in small proportions onto
the compost, manures, the soil, or directly onto the seedlings. As in
the compost and vermicompost tea, biodynamic treatments also help
enhance the biological activity of the soil.

• Herbal treatments. Use plants such as horse tail, malunggay, and

herbs as seed and seedbed treatments. Plants such as lemon grass,
oregano and garlic can also be used as seed treatments against
damping off organisms. The other botanicals that can be used include
neem, turmeric, hot pepper, ‘haluganit’ (Albizzia sp.), ‘lubangan’
(Acorus calamus), ‘balok’ (Pongamia sp.), and curry tree.

33
 • Hot water bath. Hot-water treatments control many seed-borne
diseases in temperatures hot enough to kill the organism. Soak seeds
in hot water bath (40°–50°C) for 10–25 minutes, depending on the
crop species. After soaking in hot water, dip seeds into cold water to
stop the heating action.

Storing Seeds
Seeds kept at storage should have a MC of 10% to keep the seeds viable
for a long time. An assortment of containers such as plastic bags, cans, or
bottles may be used to store seeds as long as they are tightly sealed to prevent
the seeds from reabsorbing moisture.
Aside from the seed MC, the storage environment is also an important
consideration. The RH should be kept at 65% or lower. However, this is
difficult to obtain in hot, humid tropics. In such instances, the use of moisture-
proof containers is necessary.
The ideal storage temperature is at 15°C but keeping seeds at lower
temperatures is also possible. To achieve this temperature requirement, seeds
are stored in the refrigerator/freezer. However, some seeds may be kept at
ambient temperatures but they should be properly dried and packed so as
not to reabsorb moisture. In addition, seeds are kept in areas with no direct
exposure to sunlight as this may shorten the storage life of seeds. If such place
is not available, then seeds should be stored in dark-colored bottles.
For larger quantities, use a special room with controlled humidity and
temperature. The temperatures should not exceed 20°C and RH in the storage
area should not exceed 30%. Keep small seed quantities in air-tight container
inside a refrigerator.
Properly dried and selected seeds do not require seed treatments at
storage. However, several seed treatments (addition of wood ash, pulverized
hot pepper, or turmeric powder to the seed container) may be still applied
to maintain low seed MC and to prevent the growth of microorganisms and
insect pests. In general, properly stored seeds can last for 3–5 years.
It is important to put a proper label for each seed lot to avoid mixture of
seeds. Written on the labels are the name of the variety, the date when the
seeds are produced, and other important information.

34
35
References

Allard, R.W. Principles of plant breeding. USA: Wiley, 1960.

Bonina, J.; Cantliffe, D.J. Seed production and seed sources of organic
vegetables. USA: University of Florida, IFAS Extension, 2004.
Chen, N.C. Eggplant seed production. AVRDS International Cooperators’
Guide. Shanhua, Taiwan: Asian Vegetable Research and Development
Center, 2001.
Colley, M. Organic seed treatments and coatings. OSU. Accessed from:
http://seed.hort.oregonstate.edu/content/organic-seed-treatments-and-
coatings, 2008.
Lawn, C.R.; Kaufman, E.R. Organic seed crop production: A new niche for new
England farmers. FEDCO Seeds. 8p.
MacDougall, N.A. The certified organic seed market: Implications of
delayed development. Accessed from: http://cissc.calpoly.edu/
research/49942FinalReport.pdf, 2005.
Maghirang, R.G. Improvement of vegetable production in Pagadian City.
TAPI-DOST Project. Taguig City: TAPI-DOST, 2004. - (Unpublished Terminal
Report)
Maghirang, R.G. Organic vegetable farming. In: Local Seed Systems
for Genetic Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture Sourcebook.
Fernandez, P.G.; Aquino, A.L.; de Guzman, L.E.P.; Mercado, M.F.O. (eds.).
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines: College of Agriculture, University of the
Philippines Los Baños, 2004. pp. 146–153.
Maghirang, R.G.; Docuyanan, G.D. Organic vegetable, trend in breeding
and selection for our Asia-Pacific Region. Paper presentation during the
Organic Asia Conference; Bangkok, Thailand; August 18–21, 2009.
Maghirang, R.G.; Taylo, L.D.; Guevarra, M.L.D.; M.L.J. Sison. Bestseller vegies for
organic production in the Philippines. Agrinotes, 2009.
Maghirang, R.G. Organic fertilizers from farm waste adopted by farmers in
the Philippines. In: Development and Adoption of Green Technologies
for Sustainable Agriculture and Enhancement of Rural Entrepreneurship.
September–October 2, 2009; Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
McCormack, J. Seed processing and storage. Principles and practices of seed
harvesting, processing, and storage: an organic seed production manual
for seed growers in the Mid-Atlantic and Southern, U.S., 2004. pp. 3–23.
Micheloni, C.; Plakolm, G.; Schärer, H. Report on seed borne diseases in
organic seed and propagation materials. Accessed from: http://www.
organicrevision.org/pub/D_5_1_Seed_diseases_eport_FINAL.pdf, 2007.

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Murphy, K.M.; Campbell, K.; Lyon, S.; Jones, S. Evidence of varietal adaptation
to organic farming systems. Field Crops Res. 102: 172–177, 2007.
Success in Producing Good Seed for Farmer. In: ARC–AVRDC Training Course;
November 19, 2009; Thailand.
Sukprakam, S.; Jutakool, S.; Huang, R.; Kald, T. Saving your own vegetable
seeds: A guide for farmers. AVRDC Publication No. 05 – 647. Shanhua,
Taiwan: The World Vegetable Center, 2005. 25p.

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 Production Team

Technical Writer/Author

Rodel G. Maghirang
IPB-Crop Science Cluster, UPLB

Technical Editor

Bethilda E. Umali
Agricultural Resources Management
Research Division (ARMRD)
PCAARRD

Volume/Style Editor

Paul Jersey G. Leron

Applied Communication Division (ACD)
PCAARRD

Layout

Marina T. de Ramos
ACD-PCAARRD

Editorial Advisers

Rodolfo O. Ilao
Director, ARMRD-PCAARRD

Marita A. Carlos
Director, ACD-PCAARRD

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