Industrial Technology Final PDF

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Industrial Technology Final
Industrial technologies (Politecnico di Milano)
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INDUSTRIAL
TECHNOLOGY
Khalid A. Gaber
2018

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1.1. INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS:

Production process: It is a set of activities required to produce products or services.
Production system: It is a set of production processes. It uses resources as inputs (raw
materials, energy, information, etc.) to produce products or services as outputs.
Production plant: physical plant where the production system is established.
 Production processes and logistics:

1- Outbound logistic: Material acquisition, data and information retrieval (Procurement).
2- Inbound logistic: Transformation Raw materials into components and parts then
transformation Components and parts into final products. (Production).
3- Outbound logistic: Sales and distribution.
 How to define a production system for a certain product?

1- Production processes “ASME Diagram”: It shows the basic items of major machines and
their relation to another one in the process scheme. Operate
Fasi di
Store
trasformazione
Fasi di
stoccaggio
2- Product structure, drawings, parts list, Bill of Materials. Fasi di

Inspect
controllo
Fasi di
Wait
attesa
3- Cycle times / Production programs. Fasi di

Transfer
trasporto
4- Flow sheet.
5- Layout.
6- Classifications. “Wortmann Classifications”:
Engineer-to-Order (ETO): the product is designed and built to customer’s
specifications. This approach is most common for one-off products (very complex or
specialized or unique products), such as Formula 1 cars.
Purchasing-to-Order (PTO): the product is already designed, but materials for
production are still not in inventory, then they should be ordered.
Make-to-Order (MTO): the product is based on a standard design, but the
manufacturing of the final product is linked to the order placed by the customer's
specifications. This approach is typical for high-end motor vehicles and aircraft.
Assemble-to-Order (ATO): the basic parts of the product according to customer’s
specifications are already manufactured but not yet assembled. A typical example for
this approach is Dell's approach to customizing its computers.
Make-to-Stock (MTS): the product is built according to a sales forecast, and sold to
the customer from finished goods stock such as the grocery and retail sectors.
Khalid A. Gaber Page 1

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 Classification of production systems types:
• The classification scheme considers three criteria:

1) Process: How the product is made through the production process:
• In a process plant, the raw materials are subjected to a non-reversible chemical-
physical transformation, so that the raw materials cannot be identified within the
finished product. No assembly process. Such as the paper, cement, steel, oil, etc.
• In a manufacturing plant, two phases are typically present: firstly, parts production,
then assembly. In this case it is possible to identify the components.
2) Demand: How the company fulfills the demand from the market:
• Production to order: the company reacts to a request, placed by a customer.
• Production to single order, the customer order is unique, it is highly doubtful
to be requested again in the future ETO.
• Production to repeat order, a product is made knowing that in the future it
will be requested again, by the same or other customers MTO.
• Production to stock: the production is done based on the demand forecast and the
products are stocked in a warehouse waiting for orders MTS.
3) Volume: How the production is managed to make the required production volume:
• One of a kind production: a single kind product is produced. This system may
correspond to production to order single or repeat. E.g. ship.
• Batch production: it features an irregular operation, because of the changes from
one product to another, which takes time and cost to prepare the new batch (setup).
• Multi-model production: this features big batch sizes.
• Mixed-model production: this features small or even unitary, batch sizes.
• Continuous production: the system is dedicated to the production of one product
type or similar products, because of the high production volumes and the stability of
the market demand.

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1.2. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS KPIS AND COSTS:

 Production system:
1- Production is handled in work orders.
2- Work orders are planned and scheduled in the production plan, then executed.
3- Modifications to the production plan could happen (changes in priorities, problems).
4- Work orders are moved in the system according to the production / process cycle.
5- Production systems can be organised with different layouts (job-shops, cells,..) , which
guarantee different results in production volume and variety in certain time.
6- Production resources are grouped in production shops. The entire list of production
resources is called shop floor.
 Main Operational Performances of Production Systems:
1- Lead time (throughput time): duration of time from start of the customer order to
customer receipt.
2- Setup time: the time it takes to setup a production machine.
3- WIP (Work In Progress): partially finish goods that are waiting for completion on the
shop floor. Optimal production management aims to minimize work in process.
4- Production rate/ capacity (throughput): number of products that a production
system is able to produce in a time unit [pieces / time]. (pieces / hr.), etc.
5- Cycle time: the time between the exit time of the previous work-piece and exit time of
the next work-piece including setup time. It is the inverse of production rate [times /
piece].
The concept of lead time:
 Other Operational Performances of Production Systems:

1- Utilization (saturation): the ratio of effective production hours (include setup time)
over available working hours of the machine (include maintenance).
2- Flexibility: the ability to easily handle variations in demand mix.
3- Availability: It measures the impact of breakdowns on the time when a machine is
available to be used.

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 Distinguish between performances and operative conditions:

1- Performances (internal-external) are the result of the logistic and productive process.
2- Operative conditions are the external and internal context in which this result is
obtained; they are way of working that can influence a certain performance.
 COSTS of Production Systems:

The main costs to be conisdered when evaluating a production system are:
1- Costs of installation (CAPEX). 2- Operating costs (OPEX).
Costs to be considered in design decisions for a production systems could be:
1- Real costs (CAPEX + OPEX).
2- Opportunistic costs (E.g. depreciation, inefficiency costs, etc.).
Inefficiency costs: It is the loss of income resulting from inefficiency of a machine
or plant due to management inefficientcies such as overtime work costs, setup
costs, subcontrators costs, stock holding costs, stock out costs, etc.
Installation costs in CAPEX “Investment cost non-current assets”:
 Building construction, acquisition of machinies, plant services, intangible assets.
Operating costs in OPEX “current (a year) expenses:
 Non-durable production assets and financial payable to start production; like
inventories, deferred payment, cash for running start-up. (short-term costs).
OPEX types:
 Variable operating costs: all operational costs that depend on the volume of
production; like raw materials, components, commissions, energy, etc.
 Fixed operating costs: all costs that remain the same independently from the
production volume; like selling, general & adminstration (SGA) expenses.
 Semi-variable operating costs: are related not only to the volume of
production, but also have a fixed part, independent of the volume of production.

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1.3. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS:

 Design process:
 Integrated design and engineering process:
 Process engineering design and planning “activities of design sub-process”:

1- Demand planning.
2- Production engineering technologies.
3- Identification of production layout based on expected production volumes, variety.
4- Identification of workload and the number of resources.
5- Design of the production areas, stations, machines, services, safety, etc.
 The design is done in an iterative and recursive way (trials until the best).
 From process planning to FACTORY PLANNING “production system design”:
1- MATERIAL HANDLING DESIGN (material flow): the technology process of the tasks
and materials flow that are assigned to a workplace.
2- WORKLOAD BALANCING (capacity): The capability of the workplace.
3- FACTORY LAYOUT PLANNING: Workplace space is available to execute the process
factory/plant layout.

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1.4. FACTORY LAYOUT PLANNING (FLP):

 FLP concerns the search of the most efficient location of the shops in a factory. The
objectives are minimizing the costs of the relation between shops, respecting plant
constraints (structural constraints, floor maximum load allowed, infrastructures,..), and
optimizing the efficiency of material flows and the relation between shops.
Objective Function = Minimum value of (∑i.∑j (fi,j × ci,j × di,j)).
– fi,j = material flow between two areas/shops i,j
– ci,j = cost per unit of movements between two areas/shops i,j
– di,j = distance between two areas/shops i,j
 FLP Methodology: phases of the project:
Systematic Layout Planning Methodology (Richard Muther)
 Methods and criteria for FLP planning:

Heuristic:
It is a computer application for quick approximate solution that is good enough (but
not the best) for solving the problem at hand.
z

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 We shall assume that the given space is rectangular shaped and every department is
either rectangular shaped or composed of rectangular pieces.
1) Heuristic CRAFT “Computerized Relative Allocation of Facilities Technique”:
 It is layout improvement procedure (not a construction of new layout procedure),
that attempts to find a better layout by pair-wise interchange when a layout is given.
 Inputs:
1- Initial Layout.
2- From-to table.
3- Cost of the movements.
4- Number of departments to be allocated and their constrains.
5- Given a layout, CRAFT first finds the total distance traveled.
6- CRAFT then attempts to improve the layout by pair-wise interchanges. If some
interchange results some savings in the total distance traveled, the interchange
that saves the most (total distance traveled) is selected.
7- Interchanges can be done on one way, with departments of that are next to
themselves (one side at least should be connected).

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• Notes:
1- Sometimes, an interchange may result in a peculiar shape of a department; a
shape that is composed of some rectangular pieces.
2- Estimated cost reduction may not be obtained after interchange.
3- An approximation estimate of average walking required is obtained from the
distance between centroids of two departments.

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2) Heuristic ALDEP “ALDEP - Automated Layout Design Program”:

 ALDEP is a construction procedure. ALDEP does not need any initial layout.
 Given:
1- Size of the facility in terms of blocks.
2- The amount of departments/shops.
3- Size of the departments/shops in terms of blocks.
4- Proximity relationships (activity relationship chart).
5- A sweep width.
 List the steps of the ALDEP and provide a quick example to support your explanation?

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1.5. Manufacturing Execution System (MES):

 MES are computerized systems used to track and document the transformation of raw
materials to finished goods. MES enable the control of the production process elements
(e.g. inputs, machines,…) and support for shop floor operations.
Core functions of MES “Planning System Interface”::
 Work orders Management (WOM):
 MES accepts the Work Order, then releases orders to production and establishes a
current order priority list. MES provides support to make any changes in released
orders such as schedule change or quantity change.
 Workstations Management:
 It is used for implementing the work order and the configuration of the workstation
such as the planning, scheduling, and loading of each workstation.
 Inventory Tracking Management:
 It provides detailed current map of inventory and storage locations, including WIP.
 Material Movement:
 It manages and controls the material movement on the shop floor (what, when,
where, how much). It can be done manually or automatically.
 Data Collection:
 It collects data from shop floor operations and translates it into useful information
manually or automatically.
 Exception Management:
 It provides alternatives when the workstation is suddenly down, or when material is
not available, … by providing the right and timely information.
 Limitations of existing planning systems:
 MES provides a collection of accurate real time data of shop floor, which is not
provided by existing planning systems such as ERP Enterprise Requirements Planning.
This data can be used for flexible decision making at shop floor, leading to better
performance in quality, logistics and production.

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1.6. Introduction to process plants design and management:

Process plants – general features:
 A process plant is a serious of production equipment used to make non- reversible
chemical-physical transformation of materials through a fixed technological routing.
Such as Petrochemical production; Cement, glass, Chemical production; sugar, flour,
drugs, Gasses; Oxygen, nitrogen, Plastics; nylon, Metals; steel, aluminum.
 The production flow can be serial (simple transformation of a raw material to a
product such as paper), analytical (from one material to many products such as crude
oil) or synthetic (from many materials to one product such as cement).
1-Continuous flow production process: Materials are moved continuously through the
production equipment. The continuous flow transformation could be with on a single
product or different products.
2-Batch production process: They are processed as batches of different products but,
there are storage tanks or silos where batches are waiting for the next operations.
 General features:
1) Simple production logistics and management.
2) High plant utilization and equipment efficiency due to high and stable volumes.
3) Qualitative characteristics of products are stable.
4) Low flexibility due to the high volume required.
5) Low need for workforce (Highly automated).
6) High investment needed (Highly automated).
7) High risk of obsolescence.
8) Significant impact of failures.
9) Importance of variations in process conditions.
Process plants – Design (CONTINUOUS FLOW):
EXAMPLE
You have to design a continuous flow plant for the production of nylon. The data are:
Production Target: 20.000 ton. Theoretical Production Capacity: 20 ton/day
Opening days: 200 days/year, 24h/day Scrap Rate (SR): 0,02
Availability (A): 0,95 Scheduling Efficiency (SE): 0,95
To calculate:
a) The Actual Production Capacity
b) The number of the lines
c) The average saturation
d) Considering that all the lines are fully saturated, except one line, evaluate the saturation of the unsaturated line.

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.
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE
You have to design a continuous flow plant for the production of nylon. The data are:
Production Target: 22.000 ton. Theoretical Production Capacity: 23 ton/day
Opening days: 200 days/year, 24h/day Availability (A): 0,98 Scheduling Efficiency (SE): 0,95
For the Scrap Rate, you have to consider the following values, correlated to the saturation of the plant
Saturation (%) 95-100% 90-95% 85-90% 80-85% 75-80%
Scrap Rate 0 0,02 0,04 0,07 0,1
To calculate:
a) The Actual Production Capacity
b) The number of the lines
c) The average saturation
Solution

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Process plants – Design (BATCH):

EXAMPLE
A batch plant for the production of antibiotic has three phases: fermentation, extraction and drying. The
theoretical production capacity and the annual demand are:
Recipe Fermentation (t/h) Extraction (t/h) Drying (t/h) Annual demand (t)
A 5 2 1 20.000
B 3 2 2 10.000
The plant is opened 3000 h/year. Furthermore, the availability is 0.95, while the scheduling efficiency is 0.85.
The setup time lasts 1 hour, and for each product there are 100 batches. The scrap rate is equal to zero.
Determine the number of reactors for the fermentation, the extraction and the drying.
Solution

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2.1. JOB SHOP:

FIRST: GENERAL FEATURES:
 It is a set of different production departments where each department is a group of
same technological capability machines, which enables the possibility to produce
different products with different specifications. Such as metal processing / working
or the semi-conductor manufacturing or machine shops or fabrication shops.
 Inter-operational buffers: they are stock holding points where the material is
temporarily stocked, carrying out decoupling functionality between departments.
They are identified either within each department alone or, more commonly and
economically, as shared buffer between departments, resulting less space required.
 Human resources: The labor is divided according to task specialization. Grouping
machines in departments causes a functional separation, which allows expertise to be
pooled per function, which makes the learning process in each department speed up.
SECOND: STRENGTH:
 High Flexibility due to the high variability of the demand and product types; thanks
to the machine flexibility, the material handling flexibility, the routing flexibility and
the decoupling functionality.
 Short To Medium-Term Flexibility:
 Mix: the ability to meet the market requirements in terms of variety of products.
 Volume: the ability to deal with variations in the demand.
 Product (customization): the ability to meet the demands of the market in
terms of product specifications in a certain time.
 Medium to long-term flexibility:
 Product (innovation): The ability to vary in time of the production mix to
launch a new product.
 Expansion: The ability to add technological and production capacity in the
production system, which leads to more production volumes.
 Subsequently:
 Low impact of breakdowns (short-term): thanks to the routing flexibility and
the decoupling functionality of buffers that containing high WIP, so machines do
not stop because of material starvation or blocking.
 Low obsolescence (long-term): since the job shop has high product mix
flexibility that reduces the risk of system obsolescence. Besides, the expansion
flexibility allows including new technological capabilities machines.
Obsolescence means: the system became outdated (ageing or old technology).

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THIRD: WEAKNESSES:
1- Limitations in machines efficiency because machine flexibility causes penalties
in setup time, effort, cost or performance. That leads to productivity reduction.
2- Qualitative characteristics of products can vary for different pieces because the
tolerance of different machines could be not the same.
3- Production management and scheduling is complex because of the high number
of machines, product types and alternative process plans for each product.
That causes:
A. High WIP.
B. Long and high variability of the lead times.
C. Low utilization rate of machines in short time because of the bottlenecks.
4- It is difficult to calculate production capacity of the machines that depends on:
A. Changing in production mix of jobs.
B. Different process plans of jobs and using alternative routings.
C. Number of machines and their state.
D. Lot sizes.
E. Ability to schedule jobs.
Because it causes changes in the machine workloads → changes in the utilization rates of
machines → different bottleneck machines → different production capacity.

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FOURTH: DESIGN STEPS:

 STEP1: Production mix definition:
 Identify all the product types and departments and estimate yearly demand for each product type.
 Define the lot sizes for each product type and estimate human coefficient and the number of
operators for every machine.
 STEP2: Routing definition:
 Define the main routing for each product type and if possible, define alternative routings.
 STEP3: Machine identification:
 On the basis of routings, it is possible to identify all the machine types that are necessary to
manufacture the production mix.
 STEP4: Calculate the total cycle time for each product type, which has to be done on the same
type of machine Tij. Cycle time does NOT include the set-up times.
 STEP5: Calculate the yearly workload NHi for each type of machine i:
∑
( (∑ ))
( )
i = index of the machine-type & j = index of the product-type & N = number of different product-types
All rates (0 < rate  1):
 Tij = unit cycle working time Qj = quantity of product-type j that has to be produced /year.
 SRij = scrap rate STTij = setup time
 NLj = number of lots of product-type j / year Ai = availability
 HCi = human coefficient TRi = trial rate
 SCRAP RATE SR: percentage of materials out of tolerance (not achieved the target quality).
 AVAILABILITY A: percentage of up time when the machine is available to work (without trials).
 TRIAL RATE TR: percentage of time which is dedicated to trial production.
 YEARLY WORKLOAD NH considers the need to load the machines (on yearly basis).
 STEP6: Calculate the number of hours available for each machine-type i:
AHi (s) = WHi (s) × SE
 WHi(s) =yearly working time available (depending on number of shifts / day).
 SE = time losses due to scheduling complexity efficiency.
 STEP7: Calculate the number of machines of type i necessary to manufacture the production mix,
given the yearly demand:
( )
( )
 STEP8: The number that has been obtained must be rounded up or down depending on:
 Machine-type cost.
 Possibility to outsource the production of some product-types.
 Possibility to use alternative routings for some product-types.
 STEP9: Calculate the saturation rate of all the machines.
 STEP10: Evaluate the number of shifts/day, computing the yearly costs. As a result two possible
choices when evaluating the alternatives of system design under the economical dimension:
Same shifts/day for all the departments vs. optimal shift for each department

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Job shop –Example 1

A company is designing a new production system, organized in job shops. It is installing 3 different departments
(M1, M2, M3) that will serve to produce at least 3 types of product (A, B, C). We have the following information:
Production process
Product Average annual demand (pieces)
(Department, Cycle Time [min / pcs])
A (M1, 15) – (M2, 10) 40000
B (M1, 9) – (M3, 8) 50000
C (M2, 17) – (M3, 7) 60000
The production system will work 3 shifts of 7 hours per day, 240 days/year. Departments have different coefficient.
M1 considers a human coefficient (HC) of 0.96 and an Availability (A) of 0.96. M2 considers a human coefficient
(HC) of 0.95 and an Availability (A) of 0.93. M3 considers a human coefficient (HC) of 0.91 and an Availability
(A) of 0.93. The scheduling efficiency (SE) must be set equal to 0.82. M1 scrap rates (SR) is equal to 0.07, M2
scrap rates is equal to 0.05, while M3 scrap rates is equal to 0.09. In M1 department, setup lasts 2.8 hours for each
change of production; in M2 setup lasts 2.3 hours for each change of production; in M3 setup lasts 1.9 hours for
each change of production. It is expected to produce average batches of about 1000 pieces (regardless of the type of
product). The objective is to determine the number of machines and the rate of saturation for each department.
Solution

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Job Shop – Example 2 with costs
A mechanical SME has to plan a new production system, based on a job shop layout. It will produce 4 pieces (A, B,
C, D), in the following expected demand.
Piece type Expected demand (p/y) Piece type No. lots/y
A 15000 A 200
B 24000 B 100
C 75000 C 125
D 25000 D 150
Piece type M1 (sec) M2 (sec) M3 (sec) Piece type M1 (sec) M2 (sec) M3 (sec)
A 70 80 200 A 600 200 1000
B 75 100 0 B 900 600 0
C 100 50 75 C 300 500 750
D 150 90 80 D 300 400 400
Production times Setup times
Then we know what follow:
 The system will work 220 days/y.
 If it will work for just one shift, it will be active 8 h/day.
 For 2 shifts, it will work 8 h/shift 1 and 7,5 h/shift2.
 For 3 shifts, it will work 8 h/shift 1 and 7,5 h/shift2, and 7 h/shift3.
 A = 0.95 for all the machines
 HC = 0.95.
 SR = 0.05 (the yield is 0.95, the scraps are 0.05).
 SE = 0.80.
Requirements:
1. Design the system with 1, 2 and 3 working shifts.
2. Calculate the expected saturation.
3. With the following cost information, determine the best solution (minimization of the total cost).
M1 M2 M3
Acquisition cost (k€/machine) 150 250 150
k€ (for each machine) M1 M2 M3
Energy and service costs for 1 shift 50 75 70
Energy and service costs for 2 shifts 100 100 100
Energy and service costs for 3 shifts 200 300 250
M1 M2 M3
Number of machines to be handled by one operator 2 1 2
Annual operator cost for 1 shift k€ 44 36 36
Annual operator cost, if we work with 2 shifts 55 45 45
Annual operator cost, if we work with 3 shifts 66 54 54

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Solution

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2.2. MANUFACTURING CELLS:

 It is a set of cells, each cell has different functionally machines that grouped into each
cell on the basis of processing requirements of the similar products that called
product-family. So, no inter-cell moves and material flows are not intertwined. Such
as products for automotive applications or Metal-cutting processes.
SECOND: STRENGTHS:
1- Rationalization of material flows because there is no inter-cell move required.
2- Setup time reduction because no tools changeover in the same part-family.
3- Production management is easier (compared to job-shop) thanks to:
1) Setup time reduction → machine utilization → more production capacity.
2) Low distances between machines → high material handling.
3) WIP reduction → reduced space requirement to stock the WIP in the cell.
4) Lead time reduction → more reliable estimates of delivery lead times.
4- Job enlargement + job enrichment for employees: Due to closeness of machines,
the workers operate through different machines in the cell (job enlargement);
moreover, quality control is assigned to operators (job enrichment).
5- Team work within the cell with common responsibilities which lead to
unification of product and process responsibilities, which enhances quality
control & delivery time control.
6- More quality control on the products as a consequence of:
1) Small batch size, low manufacturing LTs, low time required for
feedbacks to initiate problem solving.
2) The unification of product and process responsibilities.
THIRD: WEAKNESSES:
1- Difficulties with workload balancing between cells because of cells independence.
2- Problems related to production mix variability because it leads to workload
unbalance between cells.
3- In some cases, requirements of more machines than in a job shop due to the
difficulties of workload balancing between cells/machines.
4- Difficulties to manage operations outside the cells because it requires inter-cell
move which will reduce performance.
5- Problems related to breakdowns because the number of machines of the same
type is usually lower than the job shop, so the impact of failure is higher.

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Question: How has the manufacturing cell been designed?

FOURTH: Group technology (GT) – STEPS:
1- Data collection regarding the production mix and technological routings.
2- Classification of products according to their characteristics (shape, dimension, etc.).
3- Rationalization of products avoiding the product variety which is not necessary.
4- Rationalization of technological routings aims at reducing the variety of the
technological routings of different products.
5- Identification of product families based on similar characteristics using informal
method or part coding analysis.
6- Identification of machine groups forming the cells according to the part families using
production flow analysis.
 Product families Identification (PFI) based on the classification of products:
1- INFORMAL METHODS “rely on the visual identification of the part-families”:
This method is simple only when the number of parts-families, technological routings and
machines is limited. It is a quick, and requires no investment (only an expert). But it is
possibly affected by subjectivity (different experts → different classifications) and difficult
repeatability (the same experts at different times → different classifications).
2- PART CODING ANALYSIS (PCA) METHODS “rely on a coding system”:
This is used to assign numerical digits to the product characteristics, then, identifying parts-
families based on the assigned numerical digits. It is more formalized method, which leads
to repeatability and objective outcomes. But, maybe the coding system that is available in a
company is not ready for GT.
 Identification of product families / machine groups forming the cells based on PFA
(Production Flow Analysis):
A. Cluster analysis:
1- ROC (Rank Order Clustering):
The processing requirements of grouping machines can be represented by the machine
matrix formulation. ROC algorithm uses as input the machine matrix and it aims at
rearranging the rows and columns using binary numbers.
2- Similarity coefficients:
This method relies on the computation of similarity coefficients in conjunction with the use
of some clustering algorithm in order to finally form the manufacturing cells. Hierarchical
clustering for Cell Formation usually comprises two macro-stages. Initially, some form of
similarity or dissimilarity between machines is employed, in order to prepare the creation of
machine cells; afterwards, machines are aggregated into a few broad cells, by means of a
clustering algorithm.
B. Graph portioning.
C. Mathematical programming.

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Based on PFA – Rank Order Clustering ROC:

Step 1: read each row as a binary number.
Step 2: order rows according to descending binary numbers.
Step 3: read each column as a binary number.
Step 4: order columns according to descending binary numbers.
Step 5: if on steps 2 & 4 no re-ordering happened go to step 6, otherwise go to step 1.
Step 6: stop.

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Exercise
The following matrix identifies the bill of process of 9 products on 7 machines. The cycles have been defined
with the objective of designing a manufacturing cells system:
Products
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1
Machines
3 1 1 1
4 1 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
7 1 1 1
The objectives are:

(i) The number of cells for the system;
(ii) The types of machine to be installed in each cell.
(iii) How many and what types of products cannot be produced in a single cell?
(iv) Which machine should be duplicated in two separate cells in order to obtain totally independent cells?
Solution
Products
1 8 2 4 6 7 9 3 5
1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1
Machines
4 1 1 1
7 1 1 1
3 1 1 1
6 1 1
2 1 1
Products
1 8 2 4 6 7 9 3 5
1 1 1
5 1 1
4 1 1 1
Machines
1 1 1
7 1 1 1
3 1 1 1
6 1 1
2 1 1

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Based on PFA – Similarity coefficients:

Step 1: compute the similarity coefficients Sij = max (nij/ni or nij/nj).
Step 2: join the couple (i*, j*) with the highest Si*j*, thus forming the machine group k.
Step 3: remove rows and columns related to both i* and j* and substitute them with the row and column of
the machine group k; then, compute the Sk = max (Si*, Sj*).
Step 4: repeat step 2.
Step 5: after the identification of product families and machine groups, the cells design can be based on the
same approach used for the job-shop:
(1) Calculate the number of machines of type i necessary in the cell.
(2) Evaluate the number of shifts/day, computing the yearly costs.

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Rough design of a manufacturing cell:
 It is necessary to look at the flow rates and

directions between resources to establish the
best positioning of the machines in the cell.
 This can be done manually (common sense)
or using “To/From” analysis” that allows to
position WCs trying to linearize flows.
From / To Chart:
From \ To RM WC 3 WC 5 WC 7 WC 8 WC 9 WC 10 WC 20 FG
RM - 5,000 20,000
WC 3 - 8,000 3,000 6,000
WC 5 - 7,000 1,000
WC 7 1,500 - 18,500
WC 8 - 10,000 4,000
WC 9 - 25,000
WC 10 7,000 8,000 -
WC 20 1,500 7,000 7,000 -
FG -
Improving Layouts Using Cells:
 U-shaped may reduce employee movement and space requirements while enhancing
communication, reducing the number of workers, and facilitating inspection.
Virtual Manufacturing Cell:
Virtual Manufacturing Cell (VMC) is an alternative to traditional manufacturing cells,
with the purpose to be more effective with production mix variability. In VCM the
machines that belong to a cell are not physically located together, but are identified as a
group only by the Production Planning and Control system. Virtual cells can achieve the
benefits of repetitive processes without the layout re-arrangement of a job shop.

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2.3. TRANSFER LINES:

 It is a group of machines where a single product flow “single model” or products-
family flow “multi model” resulting in a routing through the machines. The machines
are physically adjacent and integrated with the material handling system.
 The movements of the products are constrained due to the material handling system,
and they are synchronous or asynchronous “buffers”. Such as Production of tube bed
frames or motor engines parts of automotive.
SECOND: STRENGTHS:
1- Simple production management. Transfer line can be modeled as a single machine.
 Management decisions are limited to two main problems:
a. Batch sizing: in the case of single-model.
b. Batch sequencing: in case of multi-model (family-products).
2- High machine utilization because production mix is limited and stable and no setup
time or limited setup time required in cause of products-family.
3- Low space occupied because it is a compact system especially in case of synchronous lines.
4- Low WIP because of the serial production and the workload balancing.
5- Low Lead time due to the automated handling system.
6- Low need for workforce (highly automated).
7- Qualitative characteristics of products are stable because there is no alternative
routings is used, thus avoiding differences due to the usage of different machines.
THIRD: WEAKNESSES:
1- Low flexibility:
 Limited type mix flexibility because of limited technological routing.
 Limited new-product flexibility because it must be same technological routing
of existent product types.
 Limited expansion flexibility because the introduction of new machines
requires a reconfiguration and rebalancing of the whole system.
 Limited volume flexibility because of the needs to rebalance the line with the
introduction of an additional machine.
2- Long time required to start new production due to the changes required in machines,
material handling system and automation system.
3- High investment needed due to the high automation line system.
4- High risk of obsolescence due to the limited technological routing.
5- Significant impact of failures.

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FOURTH: SYSTEM DESIGN:

 Machine identification and line balancing:
1. Define the routing and the operations sequence.
 Identification and breakdown of fabrication processes.
 Definition of precedence diagram.
 Calculation of the exact time for each operation.
 Calculate the total work content Tk = ∑ Sum of stations operation times.
2. Get the required Cycle Time (CT).
3. Compute the theoretical minimum number of workstations “Round up”.
4. Allocate the operations to the workstations and Balance the line.

What is line balancing? Why do the work station times in flow lines have
to be balanced? How is the balance achieved? “Important”
 Line Balancing is the process of allocating tasks to workstations in such a
way that the workstations have approximately equal time requirements.
 Objectives of line balancing:
– Minimizing the idle time along the line in order to achieve high
utilization of machines and labors “reduce bottlenecks”.
– Minimizing number of workstations, cycle time and production costs.
– Maximizing efficiency and profits.
 Using the precedence diagram and the total work content Tk, the
operations are allocated to individual stations. So, the sum of operations
at each station does not exceed the work station time Ts (Ts ≤ CT).
 Allocate all the operation to the current station trying to use all the
available station time. When  Tk of operations in a station > Ts → it is
not possible to allocate more operations to the current station. So, a new
station must be established.

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o The flow is 12 operations A to L (each lasts 1 min.)

Case 1: not achieving a perfect line balancing.
Case 2: perfect line balancing; no bottleneck machine →
perfect line balancing → enhance production rate.
Case 3: perfect line balancing → reduce number of machines →
reduce costs. No bottleneck machine → perfect line balancing.
Line balancing – Parallel stations:
5. Compute the efficiency of the solution:
 N has to be ≥ N min. It is not always possible to have a perfectly balanced

solution in which all stations are highly utilized.
6. Assignment of personnel (if any).
 Including absence, breaks, lunch time, etc., at least supervisors.

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 Which are the methods for balancing a transfer line? “Models for line balancing”
The main point of designing the transfer line is allocating operations and balancing the line.
In order to do this, the methods as:
1- Linear Programming (optimal):
Main assumptions of the model:
A. Times to perform operation are known in order to minimize the probability
of no-completion.
B. Requested production capacity is PC identified in order to minimize the CT
(as it is given as a constraint based on PC).
C. System composed of m parallelized assembly lines;
D. Absence of waste (defective products are reworked in a hospital station).
Once given the CT, we can limit the total idle time, by minimizing the number of stations.
2- Maximum fixed utilization rate (heuristic):
 Without priority rules (i.e. the first available operation is assigned).
 With local priority rules for assigning priorities, such as:
 MaxDur (longest processing time).
 MaxNFol (largest number of immediately following operations).
 With global priority rules for assigning priorities, such as:
 Ranked Positional Weighting.
 MaxFol (largest number of following operations).
Different approaches (using the same rule) can be adopted:
 Task-oriented: when the remaining idle time is not sufficient to assign
the operation, a new workstation is opened → simpler, but less efficient.
 Station-oriented: when the remaining idle time is not sufficient to assign
the operation, before opening a new station, other available operations
are taken into consideration to fill-up → less simple, but more efficient.
Rough design of a mono-product transfer line (single-model):
1- Define the yearly demand, technological routing and operations of the product type.
2- Identify the machine types needed based on the product routing and balance the line
(allocation of operations) on the given Cycle Time CT (seconds / piece).
3- Calculate the theoretical production capacity → TPC = 3600 / CT [piece/hr].
4- Calculate the actual production capacity → APC = TPC × A × (1 – SR) [piece/hr].
5- Compare the actual production capacity and the demand. If APC < Demand, modify
the line and go back to step 2 by including additional machines or parallelization of
more machines for the same operations to reduce CT.

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Example:

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Rough design of a product-family transfer line (multi-model):
Assumption:
 Pieces are manufactured in batches (batch A, B, and so on); changing production
from one batch to another requires a setup.
 Setup times do not depend on the production (batch) sequence because there is
no sequence dependence, or it is the result of an optimization procedure that
enabled to identify best batch sequencing to reduce set-up times.
Design steps:
1- Identify the product type mix estimating the yearly demand.
2- Define the technological routing and operations of the product types.
3- Identify all the machine types needed and balance the line for each product type.
4- Calculate the cycle time for each product type j → CTj = maxh {TLjh} [seconds/piece]
Where: TLjh = unit working time of product type j at workstation [seconds/piece]
5- Calculate the whole time to produce a batch of product type j

Tj = CTj  Qj + STTj [seconds/batch]
Where: Qj = batch quantity of product type j [pieces/batch].
STTj = setup time related to a batch of product type j [seconds/batch].
6- Calculate the time needed for a set of batches (within a production campaign)
T = j=1,N Tj [seconds/batches]
Where: N = number of batches (one batch / product type j in the campaign)
7- Calculate the average theoretical production capacity
TPC = 3600  j=1,N Qj / T [p/h]
8- Calculate the actual production capacity
APC = TPC  A  (1 – SR) [p/h]
9- Compare the actual production capacity and the demand. If necessary, modify
the line and go back to step 3.

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3. Assembly Systems:
GENERAL FEATURES:
 Assembly system consists of assembly equipment and the workforce, which is used to
assemble a product parts that has been already manufactured to identify final product.
 In manual assembly systems, the main resource is the workforce:
• PROS: High flexibility thanks to the operators’ skills.
• CONS: variability of the manual assembly time that determines challenges in the
balancing and sequencing problem.
 Technology:
• Free technology route, with degrees of freedom.
• Operation can be reversible (or irreversible, e.g., welding).
• Process flow is synthetic.
 Cost structure:
• Low relevance of fixed assets depending on utilization & customization of machinery.
• A lot of manual operations that cause workforce utilization.
 Assembly tasks do not usually require specific tools.
 Three independent axes for classification:
• Layout configuration [Fixed position–Assembly shop–Assembly cell–Assembly line].
• Production mix management [Single model - Multi models - Mixed models].
• Task organization.
• Reciprocal movement of assembly, operator & components.
 Single-model system establishes one assembly line for each product which is
suitable for high volumes and stability of product demand.
• PROS: Low management issues.
• CONS: Low flexibility.
 More products are assembled on the same SYSTEM: batch production:
• Setup time is relevant.
• Cycle time and number of workstations depend on the products to be assembled.
• Need of good line balancing.
 More products are assembled in the same LINE:
• They are often implemented with continuous flow and unpaced (asynchronous) lines.
• PROS: Opportunity to follow the demand.
• CONS: Need to reduce setup time & Need to balance the line & Difficult to manage
component flows & Difficult to manage parallel workstations.

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 Definitions applied to assembly, in order to classify the different configurations:

• Variety: Variety of the product types and variety of assembly operations.
• Repetitiveness: Repetitiveness of the assembly operations (opposite to the variety).
• Flexibility: The ability of the assembly system to change - with limited penalties in
costs, times, or performances - in the assembly process and in the material feeding.
• Volume: The ability of the assembly system to assemble a given range of volumes of
assemblies (opposite to flexibility).
 Average assembly time Mk:
• Average assembly time Mk for each operation k and associated standard deviation Sk
can be defined using the following methods: Work sampling / Standard times / MTM.
• These methods calculate the duration of each assembly operation by composition of
elementary operations, and then the duration Mk of the resulting assembly operation
and its standard deviation Sk are calculated by composition.
• In determining the manual assembly times, it must be considered the learning curve
that affects the work time due to the operator’s learning effect. The assembly time
decreases with the number of repetitions of the activity.
 work sampling study method:
o It consists in calculation of the average duration and standard deviation (M k, Sk) of each
operation using the standard statistical approaches. It requires creating a sample of
each operation’s duration by registering the assembly time of the repetition of the same
operation. A drawback of the method is that it requires the availability of a real assembly
station to monitor and collect data.
 Standard times method:
o Standard times are the data on elementary assembly operations calculated with the work
sampling method in a company and stored in its data-base. Therefore, the duration and
standard deviation of a new assembly operation can be calculated by composition of the
standard times of the available data-base.
 MTM (Motion Time Measurement) method “The most commonly method used”:
o MTM method assumes that it is possible to compose any complex operation and calculate
its average duration and standard deviation based on an archive of basic operation data.
o CAD-like computer programs allow modeling basic operator movements and his
interaction with the equipment. Then, the computer program can generate the exact
sequence of the various basic operations and pick up corresponding data from MTM
tables, thus calculating the final values of Mk and Sk.
o Advantages: Quicker and cheaper than time work sampling study and reliable (based on
large number of studies) and it is useful for short runs.

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3.1 Fixed Position Assembly:

• In fixed position, the product does not move while being assembled. All components
flow to one workstation (single site). This creates a complex logistics in managing the
input of components to each site. This solution is applied to heavy and bulky products
(difficult to handle) e.g. ships, airplanes or fragile products because movements could
create scraps (Hi-Fi) or Simple products required in medium quantities and requiring
few parts to be assembled (small toys or subassemblies of more complex products).
• Material handling systems are different for different reasons:
i) For material feeding: having more part numbers for producing different product
types in a product family → trend to variety.
ii) For moving the product on progress: there is some effect of variety but more on
the line balancing and sequencing problem.
SECOND: STRENGTHS:
 High flexibility and low repetitiveness:
• Mix flexibility: (short period) assembling different types of product in the same time,
thanks to the independence of the workstations and the multi-skills of the operators.
• Product flexibility: to introduce a new similar product, operators just need to be
trained for new types of product, while the physical structure can remain the same.
• Expansion flexibility: (long period) it is not difficult to add new workstations, thanks
to their independence; the only constraint is just the space.
 Low investment value: The building of new workstations just requires a place. But the
investment value may increase if necessary equipment is expensive.
 Job enlargement, enrichment and rotation for the employee.
• Each operator executes almost all the assembly process that leads to more gratification.
• Job enlargement (different tasks along the assembly process), enrichment (other kinds
of tasks (control, test, repair, packaging…), rotation (in case of bulky machines).
THIRD: WEAKNESSES:
 Potentials for intertwining of material flows due to all activities happen in single site.
 High WIP because cycle times are high so, many WIP may be stocked.
 Large space requirement due to the high WIP and to allow a safe material handling.
 Labor training might be difficult and time-consuming due to job enlargement,
enrichment and rotation.
 High cost for workforce due to the difficult and time consuming labor training.

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FOURTH: SYSTEM DESIGN:

The number of single sites /stations Nj for the product j can be calculated as follows:
Nj = PCj x Tj
PCj = requested production capacity for product-type j [pieces/h].
Tj= time required to complete the assembly process on a piece of product-type j [h/piece]
Observing the formula:
• If Tj is very high, and PCj is low (heavy and bulky machines) → Nj is low.
• If Tj is low and PCj is medium (simple products) → Nj increase but it is still low.
• Remember that: PCj is generally NOT high because otherwise it wouldn’t be correct to
build up a fixed position assembly.
Example:
A company assemblies 3 different products (A, B and C), which need dedicated fixed position assembly
stations. The requested production capacity for product A is 10 pieces/h, for B is 15 pieces/h, while for C is 8
pieces/h. For assembling product A, 3 operations are necessary: one lasts 0.3 h, the other one 0.4 h and the last
one 0.6h. For product B, 4 operations are requested: one lasts 0.4 h, the other ones last 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1 h.
Finally, product C requires 3 operations to be assembled: one lasts 0.2 h, the other two operations last 0.3 h.
how many stations needed?
Solution:
NA = 10 x 1.3 = 13 stations, NB = 15 x 1 = 15 stations, NC = 8 x 0.8 = 6.4 = 7 stations
Example:
A company assemblies 3 different products (A, B and C), which need dedicated the same fixed position
assembly stations. The requested production capacity for product A is 9 pieces/h, for B is 12 pieces/h, while
for C is 7 pieces/h. For assembling product A, 3 operations are necessary: one lasts 0.2 h, the other one 0.4 h
and the last one 0.6h. For product B, 4 operations are requested: one lasts 0.2 h, the other ones last 0.5, 0.3 and
0.1 h. Product C requires 3 operations to be assembled: one lasts 0.2 h, the other two operations last 0.3 h. how
many stations needed?
Solution:
NTOTAL = (9 x 1.2) + (12 x 1.1) + (7 x 0.8) = 29.6 = 30 stations

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3.2 Assembly Shops:

 The product being assembled is moved through different stations.
 Different product types can be produced within the assembly shop stations thanks to the
decoupling of stations to launch different product types. Each station has an upstream
(input) buffer and a downstream (output) buffer; and if they are properly sized the
system doesn’t depend on the handling system.
 The handling system can be traditional or Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV). In case of
AGV, there are many possible configurations, for instance:
o TAXI: The product is handled by the AGV and it is dropped in the upstream
buffer of a station, then the AGV moves away to perform another transfer. After
the product assembly, the operator drops the product in the downstream buffer
and he calls back the AGV.
o WORKING TABLE: Instead of dropping products in buffers, AGV are provided
with adjustable working tables which allow operators to perform assembly
activities while moving. It is recommended when the cycle time is short.
SECOND: STRENGTHS:
1) The stations are decoupled by buffers. So, the cycle time is not a constraint.
2) The flexibility is high (Mix, product and expansion) thanks to the high routing
flexibility and the decoupling of stations.
3) It is ensured a good degree of variety and repetitiveness.
THIRD: WEAKNESSES:
1) Investment value depends on the level of automation of the system.
2) It might be difficult to manage the flows of products.
3) The complexity of production planning can cause bottlenecks and idle-times.
3.3 Assembly Cells:

 It is Suitable solution for the assembly of a medium range of medium volume products.
The product moves during assembly through a number of stations. The organization of
work is based on team-work following similar rules adopted for manufacturing cells.
 The whole assembly process can be made by the operator (testing & quality control) and
operators can be given production responsibilities regarding the cell.

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3.4 Assembly Lines:

 Each line consists of a set of linked stations. Thanks to the material handling system, the
workpiece visits all stations in a serial and rigid way. Every line could be involved in the
assembly of different types of product. Each station is dedicated to a few operations; and
it is just equipped with its specific tools. Such as car assembly and electrical assemblies.
 Cycle time is short because each operator executes a small part of the assembly process.
SECOND: STRENGTHS:
1) Rationalization of material flows thanks to the serial and rigid handling system.
2) Low WIP because the components are stocked in buffers or remain at the station just
for the duration of a short cycle time.
3) Limited space requirement because of low WIP and also the rationale transfer system.
4) Labor training might be easy. (High repetitiveness of operations).
5) Low cost for workforce because they don’t require high skills (High repetitiveness).
THIRD: WEAKNESSES:
1) Low flexibility by definition it is a rigid system linking workstations together.
2) Long time required to start new productions because of rebalancing of the stations.
3) Repetitive work, which may lead to operators’ dissatisfaction.
4) Line balancing might be difficult especially for complex products and large variants.
TYPES OF ASSEMBLY LINES (Paced line & unpaced line):
– CONTINUOUS FLOW PACED LINES (continuous and constrained & synchronous):
 The material handling system moves at a constant speed and operators follow the piece
to perform the assembly tasks. A common cycle time is given which restricts process
times at all stations. The workstations are not separated by buffers (synchronous).
– We can classify paced lines into 2 categories:
 Machine-paced line (operators cannot stop the continuous paced line):
 The pace is kept up by transferring the workpiece automatically as soon as the cycle
time is elapsed, or by forcing operators to finish their operations before time elapse. So,
at each station, there is the risk of failing to complete the assigned tasks within the CT.
due to the time variability of manual activities. To avoid this:
o Increase cycle time; this implies a reduction of the line production capacity.
o Increase the number of stations; this implies the disadvantage of additional costs.
 PROS: Cycle time and production capacity are perfectly controlled.
 CONS: Probability of no-completion of unfinished pieces.

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 Operator-paced line (intermittent & synchronous)

(Operators can stop the continuous paced line):
 The material handling system doesn’t move automatically the products, it moves them
only when all operators are approving, by pushing a bottom.
 PROS: no problem of no-completion of unfinished pieces.
 CONS: Cycle time is variable and it is determined by the slowest operator.
– UNPACED LINE (Continuous, NON-CONSTRAINED):
Workpieces are transferred whenever the operations are completed. It can be synchronous
without buffers or asynchronous with buffers. In case of asynchronous, workstations are
separated by buffers where workpieces can be stocked waiting for next operations.
Therefore, operators are not forced to finish their tasks within the CT.
 PROS: No problem of no-completion pieces.
 CONS: Cycle time and production capacity are not perfectly controlled.
FOURTH: SINGLE-MODEL LINE SYSTEM DESIGN “Assembly Line Balancing (ALB)”:
1) Identification of the production mix and the target demand.
2) Definition of balancing constraints such as cycle time, Precedence relationships among
operations, Constraints related to space, workers or material feeding or Incompatibility
between operations using Assembly Graph or Hoffman matrix or a precedence table.
3) Evaluation of the time of each assembly operation using MTM or by measuring the
execution of an operation for a certain number of times, then calculating the mean value
and standard deviation.
4) Calculation of the cycle time CT = 1/P (requested production capacity due to the target demand).
5) Balance the line then it is then known the required number of stations.
6) The number of operators doesn’t necessarily coincide with the number of stations.
7) In unpaced lines buffers must be correctly sized; in order to guarantee an adequate
decoupling of operations between stations.
Design of unpaced lines – buffer size:
1) Buffers allow for partial independence between the stations, thereby protecting the line
against assembly time variability by provide space to hold a certain number of pieces.
2) Since buffers have finite capacity, two kinds of problems could happen:
o Problem of blocking: when a buffer is full; the upstream station can’t drop the piece.
o Problem of starvation: when a buffer is empty; the downstream station can’t take the piece.
3) Production capacity increases with the rise of the buffer size until a specific size then it
will be constant causing the problem of starvation and the importance of buffers
increases with the amount of assembly time variability.

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 Models for assembly line balancing:

 Which are the methods for balancing a manual assembly line?
The main point of designing the assembly line is allocating operations and balancing the
line. In order to do this, the methods as:
1- Linear Programming (optimal):
Main assumptions of the model:
A. Times to perform operation are deterministically known; to exclude the
objectives to minimize the probability of no-completion.
B. Requested production capacity is PC; to exclude the objective to minimize the
CT (as it is given as a constraint based on PC).
C. System composed of m parallelized assembly lines.
D. Absence of waste (defective products are reworked in a hospital station).
Once given the CT, we can limit the total idle time, by minimizing the number of stations
2- Maximum fixed utilization rate (heuristic):
 Without priority rules (i.e. the first available operation is assigned).
 With local priority rules for assigning priorities, such as:
 MaxDur (longest processing time).
 MaxNFol (largest number of immediately following operations).
 With global priority rules for assigning priorities, such as:
 Ranked Positional Weighting.
 MaxFol (largest number of following operations).
Different approaches (using the same rule) can be adopted:
 Task-oriented: when the remaining idle time is not sufficient to assign
the operation, a new workstation is opened → simpler, but less efficient.
 Station-oriented: when the remaining idle time is not sufficient to assign
the operation, before opening a new station, other available operations
are taken into consideration to fill-up → less simple, but more efficient.
3- Probability of no completion:
 It is a method used in order to minimize the total cost of the line by
reducing the number of stations and the total idle time; taking into
account the risk of probability of no completion due to the operators’
coefficient of the assembly processes against given cycle time.

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EXAMPLE
In the following station 4 operations are realized:
Oper. Precedence Mean time Std. dev.
(min) (min)
1 - 6 1
2 1 3 1
3 1 2 1
4 3 7 1
The cycle time (CT) is equal to 20 minutes. Which is the probability of no-completion?
SOLUTION

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EXAMPLE
To organize the line respecting the constraints of maximum saturation (85%) and of probability of no-completion
(10%). The volume is 500 pieces/day, and the available time is 420 min.
Oper. Precedence Mean time (sec) Std. dev. (sec)
A - 20 5
B A 1 1
C B 2 0,9
D C 17 7
E - 15 3
F E 12 3
G F 12 3
H D,G 12 2
I D,G 12 2
J D,G 10 2
K D,G 10 2
SOLUTION “Saturation”
Task Precedence Duration (s) Sum Ti Res Time Saturation StdDev (s)
A 20 20 30.4 40% 5
B A 1 21 29.4 42% 1 Station
C B 2 23 27.4 46% 0.9 1
D C 17 40 10.4 79% 7
E 15 15 35.4 30% 3
Station
F E 12 27 23.4 54% 3
2
G F 12 39 11.4 77% 3
H D,G 12 12 38.4 24% 2
Station
I D,G 12 24 26.4 48% 2
3
J D,G 10 34 16.4 67% 2
K D,G 10 44 6.4 87% 2
The operation K saturates Station 3 over the constraint. So, it is necessary to create a (Station 4)
V 500 unit/day
AH 420 min
S 85% max
Pk 10% max
Tk 123 sec
Tc (CT) 50.4 sec
Nmin 2.44047619 3

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SOLUTION “Saturation and compl.”

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3.5 Design of Automated assembly line Systems:

1) In the automated assembly lines operations are performed by machines rather
than by operators, so that, in the scheme the assembly line can guarantee:
o Every line can be modeled as a series of workstations linked by a rigid transfer system.
o Low flexibility because stations are rigidly connected to each other.
o Low variety and high repetitiveness.
o High volume because the configuration of the system allows fast assembly (low CT).
o All different configurations may be found paced or unpaced lines.
o Every line could be involved in the assembly of a different type of product.
o It is a solution chosen for products for which demand is high.
o It is constantly guarantee accuracy within the operations.
2) Unlike manual lines, automated systems have the following characteristics:
o Determinism of time: since machines repeat the same operations with constant
conditions, also the execution times of the operations are almost constant; therefore,
this absence of uncertainty avoids the no completion phenomenon.
o Machines stoppages due to blockages caused by sensors detecting problems.
o Automated assembly cells are flexible based on products-family. However, the
similarity of products must be high in order to realize cost effective assembly cells.
Questions for revision

 Be aware of the procedure for dimensioning and balancing assembly lines.
 For which kinds of products are the different assembly layouts used? some examples.
 How can you plan the assembly shop for a target volume of production?
 How do you determine the assembly time of operations using the time study and the
MTM methodologies?

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4.1 Factory physics:

 Factory physics is a description of the behavior of manufacturing systems. They describe
the relationships between the logistic objectives and the potential for influencing them.
Thus, they can be applied to assess the impact of individual behaviors with regards to
the logistic objectives.
Little’s Law:
 Little law allows understanding relationships among WIP, Throughput TH and Lead
Time LT flowing, given the input rate is constant. TH = WIP / LT
Where:
 TH = Throughput: average output of the process per unit of time (Production Rate).
 WIP: inventory processed or waiting in production.
 LT “Lead time”: average time between release of an order and its completion.
 WIP* “critical WIP”: the WIP level at the maximum throughput “THmax”.
 Descriptors of a Line:
 Bottleneck Rate (rb): Rate of the station having the highest long-term utilization.
 Raw Process Time (T0): Sum of the average process working times (sum of lead
time) of each station.
 Critical WIP (W0): the WIP level in which a line having no congestion would
achieve maximum throughput (i.e., rb) with minimum throughput time (i.e., T0).
W0 = rb *T0
LITTLE LAW – EXERCISE
Calculate Minimal Lead Time (LTmin), critical WIP* and the bottleneck Throughput (THcb = THmax). Then plot
the supposed Little Law of such a system. Set up time is null as well as motion time.
This production system is made of three shops (M1, M2, M3), which works single pieces.
M1 is made of 3 identical machines, with a working time of 12 min/piece.
M2 is made of 2 identical machines, with a working time of 10 min/piece.
M3 is made of 4 identical machines, with a working time of 15 min/piece
SOLUTION

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The Penny Fab case Law:

If we increase the input rate of parts to the
system, then WIP will increase progressively
and TH will increase linearly, while LT will
remain constant, but:
 1- When we reach a critical WIP*, TH will achieve its maximum and will never increase
more, while LT will start increasing.
 2- If we want to decrease LT, while maintaining TH constant, we have to reduce the WIP.
TH vs. WIP: Best-, practical worst- and worst-case performance TTP vs. WIP: Best, practical worst- and worst-case
Systems are subjected to variability:

1) Variability is anything causes un-regular behavior to the production system.
2) Prevalent sources of variability in manufacturing environments:
1- Natural variability due to differences in operators, machines, and materials.
2- Non-preemptive outages including setups, maintenance, break time, …
3- Random and preemptive outages including machine failures, operator unavailability,
shortages of materials, etc.
3) Variability cases:
o Low variability (LV) BEST CASE: Process times without outages.
o Moderate variability (MV) PRACTICAL WORSE CASE: Process times without short adjustments.
o High variability (HV) WORST CASE: Process times with long outages.
Work Content model (hr): it is a measure of the working time required by an operation
on a workstation. Working time or process time is used as synonymous.
Operating time TOP (SCD): it expresses the time needed in order to complete the job.
ROUTmax (hr/SCD): it expresses the maximum working hours per day provided by a
workstation to perform the requested jobs without performance losses.

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EXAMPLE
The VITE Spa Company that is specialized in the production of metal parts for the oil & gas sector decided to
install a new production system to realize some specific products. The new system will be configured as a flow
shop with two s hops (R1 and R2) where different machining operations will be carried out (M1 for R1, M2 for
R2). In the first shop metal parts are cut; in the second shop drilling operations will be carried out. The two shops
will process different products and a buffer will be located between the two shops. The capacity of the buffer can be
considered “infinite”.
The following are the data about production mix: Working time and setup time are provided:
Working time M1 Working time M2
Product type Yearly demand Lot size per order Product type
machine (min/piece) machine (min/piece)
X 5000 20
X 3 10
Y 10000 40
Y 4 14
Z 8000 50
Z 5 11
Opening time will be 7 hours on 200 days per year. Setup time R1 Setup time R2
Product type
The mix will be realized homogeneously along the year. shop (min/order) shop (min/order)
X 3 10
You are required to identify: Y 3 7
1) Number of resource (i.e. number of machines) for Z 3 8
each shop to satisfy the demand;
2) The minimum value of WIP to let the bottleneck working for the required annual demand.

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SOLUTION

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4.2 Availability:
Maintenance policy:
A. Corrective Maintenance CM (after the failure):
maintenance intervention is performed after failure occurrence.
B. Preventive Maintenance PM (before the failure):
maintenance intervention is performed before failure occurence.
We have 3 types of PM:
B.1) Cyclic “Time based Maintenance TBM”: Actions are carried out at set-times
(clock-based) or at a fixed age of usage of the component (age-based). It requires the
statistical knowledge of the failure mode. It is well suited if:
- the failure rate has a well defined and growing shape.
- the cost of the TBM policy is lower than the cost of the CM policy.
B.2) Condition Based Maintenance CBM: Actions that monitor the actual condition of
the asset to decide what maintenance needs to be done. It is well suited if:
- the cost of the CBM policy is lower than the cost of the CM and TBM policy.
B.2.1) Predictive Maintenance PdM: Actions that help to determine the condition
of in-service equipment to estimate when maintenance should be performed.
C. Opportunistic maintenance:
maintenance actions that made on secondary components of a stand-by machine due to
a corrective or preventive maintenance operation.
D. Productive maintenance:
It is the set of continuous improvement actions in order to improve equiment reliability
and maintainability.
System availability – problem setting:
In manufacturing systems, the occurrence of failures leads to performance losses at each
machine (downtime state), thus; the impact of failures can be different depending on the
configuration of the system. The impact at system level may be partial, not totally leading
to zero production rate in case if there are parallel machines.The system availability can
analyze the configuration of the system based on the availability of each single machine.
The availability depends on many factors, such as:
 Technological characteristics of product types.
 Number of machines and their state.
 Ability to schedule preventive maintenance.

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EXAMPLE
A transfer line works 220 days/year, 8 h/shift, 2 shifts/day. The number of stations in the line is 4. In station 2 and 4
there are 2 machines that work in parallel. Working time at each machine of the line (unmanned):
 Single Machine in Station 1: 35 [sec/piece];
 Single Machine in Station 4: 70 [sec/piece].
The availability, equal for all machines, is 0,99. Some hypotheses are:
 The line is an asynchronous transfer line; its buffers have the function to decouple the operations, allowing
parallelization (station 2 and 4); the size of the buffers is not enough to completely avoid propagation of the
effect of machine downtimes;
 other causes of production capacity loss are not considered (setups, scraps, blockages);
 Machine failures are independent of each other.
Evaluate the expected hourly production capacity of the line, the annual production capacity of the line, and
the availability of the line.
SOLUTION

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EXAMPLE
Transfer line working 240 days/year; 7.5 hours/shift; 1 shift/day. Number of stations in the line: 4; in station 2 there
are 3 machines working in parallel; in other stations there is only 1 machine working; total of 6 machines in the
line. Working time at each machine of the line (unmanned):
 Single Machine in Station 4: 35 [sec/piece].
Availability (equal for all machines): 0,985. Hypotheses:
 The line is an asynchronous transfer line; its buffers have the function to decouple the operations of station 2
from the other stations (thus allowing parallelization); the size of the buffers is not enough to avoid
propagation of the effect of machine downtimes from station 2 to others;
 Other causes of production capacity loss are not considered (setups, scraps, blockages);
Evaluate the expected hourly production capacity of the line, the annual production capacity of the line,
and the availability of the line.
• 1 state with all machines functioning: CT = 37 [sec/piece];
• 3 states with 1 faulty machine in station 2: CT = 54 [sec/piece];
• 3 states with 2 faulty machines in station 2: CT = 108 [sec/piece];
Exercise
A transfer line works 220 days/year, 8 h/shift, 2 shifts/day. The number of stations in the line is 3. In station 2 there
are 2 machines that work in parallel, in station 3 there are 3 machines that work in parallel. Working time at each
machine of the line (unmanned):
The availability, equal for all machines, is 0,98. Some hypotheses are:
 The line is an asynchronous transfer line; its buffers have the function to decouple the operations, allowing
parallelization (station 2 and 3); the size of the buffers is not enough to completely avoid propagation of the
effect of machine downtimes;
 Other causes of production capacity loss are not considered (setups, scraps, blockages);
Evaluate the expected hourly production capacity of the line, the annual production capacity of the line, and
the availability of the line.
• 1 state with all machines functioning: CT = 39 [sec/piece];
• 6 states with 2 faulties (1 in st.2 and 1 in st.3): CT = 78 [sec/piece];
• 3 states with 2 faulties in station 3: CT = 108 [sec/piece];
• 6 states with 3 faulties (1 in st.2 and 1 in st.3): CT = 108 [sec/piece];

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4.3 Discrete Events Simulations DES:

A. Simulation is re-creating of the behavior or function of a real-world process or system
over time.
B. Simulink function is a block that creates a function which operates on signals.
C. Computer Simulation is a technique where experiments are conducted on a computer
in order to re-create the function of a process or a system over time.
D. The Simulation software has to be able to realize the different parts of the system
(entity, resources, queues, attributes) and to describe the different behavior of the
system (status, events, activities).
DES – Definitions of Main Components:
A. Entity: a thing with a temporary existence that passes through a system. (E.g.: a piece
that should be assembled, a client to the bank office).
B. Entity Resources/server: things with active and permanent existence that provide a
service to entities (e.g. machine tool, conveyor, a banker, …).
C. Entity Queues: things with temporary and passive existences that are formed by entities
which are waiting for a resource (that is not free at that time). The queues can be FIFO,
LIFO or priority queue. We can define the capacity of queue as the maximum number of
entities allowed in the queue.
Entity Queue (FIFO) Resource Entity Terminator
D. Variables and Attributes: data and information about entities or resources (e.g.
warehouse capacity, cycle time).
E. Status: Description of all the values attributes of an entity or a resource, in a specific
instant of time.
F. Event: The time in which the model status of entity or resource is changing.
G. Activities: Operations has been done during an event (started and ended).
Examples of DES: Call center / Gas station / Restaurant / Airport / Factory / …
Simulation Software types:

A. General-Purpose Languages:
 Procedural (Fortran, C, Pascal, Basic)
 Object-oriented (C++, Objective C, Java...)
B. Simulation Languages: Siman, Slam, Modsim.
C. Simulators: simulation packages (PlantSimulation, Arena, Simul8, Matlab-Simulink).

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Simulation supports:
A. Design of new systems.
B. Improvement of actual systems.
C. Performance analysis (e.g. productivity, bottlenecks, resources saturation).
D. WHAT-IF analysis: how outputs change according to variation of process parameters.
E. Training.
Evaluation Criteria of the chosen software:
A. Flexibility / Ease of development / Model execution speed / Animation / Statistics /
Output visualization / Interface with other data / Reusability / Customer support / Cost.
Simulation Phases:
Model Assessment and Validation:

A. ASSESSMENT: accuracy, completeness and consistency of the simulation model respect
to conceptual model.
B. VALIDATION: accuracy, completeness and consistency of the simulation model respect
to real system.


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Industrial Technology Final

Industrial technologies (Politecnico di Milano)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Nicholas Salis (legozmc@hotmail.it)

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS:

 Production processes and logistics:

 How to define a production system for a certain product?

2- Product structure, drawings, parts list, Bill of Materials. Fasi di

3- Cycle times / Production programs. Fasi di

Khalid A. Gaber Page 1

 Classification of production systems types:

• The classification scheme considers three criteria:

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1.2. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS KPIS AND COSTS:

 Other Operational Performances of Production Systems:

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 Distinguish between performances and operative conditions:

 COSTS of Production Systems:

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1.3. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS:

 Integrated design and engineering process:

 Process engineering design and planning “activities of design sub-process”:

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1.4. FACTORY LAYOUT PLANNING (FLP):

 Methods and criteria for FLP planning:

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2) Heuristic ALDEP “ALDEP - Automated Layout Design Program”:

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1.5. Manufacturing Execution System (MES):

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1.6. Introduction to process plants design and management:

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Process plants – Design (BATCH):

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2.1. JOB SHOP:

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FOURTH: DESIGN STEPS:

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Job shop –Example 1

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Job Shop – Example 2 with costs

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2.2. MANUFACTURING CELLS:

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Question: How has the manufacturing cell been designed?

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Based on PFA – Rank Order Clustering ROC:

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