J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
(2017) 17:1044–1052
DOI 10.1007/s11668-017-0333-0
TECHNICAL ARTICLE—PEER-REVIEWED
Investigate the Causes of Fires and Explosions at External
Floating Roof Tanks: A Comprehensive Literature Review
Parisa Moshashaei . Seyed Shamseddin Alizadeh . Leila Khazini .
Mohammad Asghari-Jafarabadi
Submitted: 15 March 2017 / in revised form: 11 May 2017 / Published online: 24 August 2017
 ASM International 2017
Abstract In recent years, with the development of
industry, energy (especially fossil fuels) demand is
increasing. This issue is becoming much more serious in
the oil industry. The oil industry, and especially refineries,
normally uses large storage tanks. Storage tanks in addition
to advantages such as saving steel, saving occupied area
and cost-effective construction, contain significant amounts
of flammable and hazardous hydrocarbon fuels and
chemicals. Oil tanks fire and explosion incidents have been
common in recent days and occur frequently and repeat-
edly and are a high threat to life safety. In order to prevent
the occurrence of these incidents, it is necessary to identify
their causes. The aim of this study was to classify the types
of incidents occurred in the floating roof tanks and to
determine their causes. In this study, initially, some of fires
and explosions occurred in the external floating roof tanks
collected by using a large number of various databases.
Then, causes of fires and explosions in the external floating
roof tanks categorized in 11 criteria and 78 sub-criteria.
The results of this study can help the specialists in floating
P. Moshashaei
Health Faculty, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz,
Iran
S. S. Alizadeh (&)
Department of Occupational Health Engineering, Health Faculty,
Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
e-mail: ss.alizadeh2013@gmail.com
L. Khazini
Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemical and Petroleum
Engineering Faculty, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran
M. Asghari-Jafarabadi
Department of Statistics and Epidemiology, Faculty of Health,
Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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roof tanks design and construction. As well as safety and
fire professionals can also use the results from this study to
prevent and control fire and explosion accidents in this type
of tanks.
Keywords External floating roof tanks

Fire and explosion causes
Oil industry
Safety
Introduction
In recent years, with the development of industry, energy
(especially fossil fuels) demand is increasing. This issue is
becoming much more serious, and so the scale of the oil
industry becomes greater and greater [1–6]. The oil
industry, and especially refineries, normally uses large
storage tanks. Storage tanks, in addition to advantages such
as saving steel and occupied area and cost-effective con-
struction, contain significant amounts of flammable and
hazardous hydrocarbon fuels and chemicals [1–3, 7–11].
Thus, the occurrence of a storage tank accident is possible
and usually leads to fires and explosions [8, 12–15]. Oil
tanks fire and explosion incidents have been common in
recent days and occur frequently and repeatedly [1, 16, 17].
Analysis of tank accidents in several studies shows that
most common consequence of a tank accident is a fire
[3, 9, 18]. Although large-scale tank fires are very rare, the
importance of fire control measures should not be ignored
[19–21]. Fire events occur most times as a result of little
detail going wrong and the time of suppressing oil tank fire
is long, so it has many problems [5, 22]. As evidenced by
industry experiences, oil tank fire is huge and has strong
radiation and high flame because it is considered a major
challenge both to control and to extinguish [7, 23]. Fires in
oil tanks are a high threat to life safety [20], and significant
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2017) 17:1044–1052
array of consequences including fatalities, injures, health
issues caused by massive explosions, extended fires, smoke
and toxic vapor clouds formation, significant environ-
mental damages, huge economic damages following asset
and inventory losses, re-engineering and reconstruction
costs, production disruption, legal costs, punitive and
compensation damages, increase in risk insurance premium
costs, not to mention company reputation damage
[9, 24–29].
The storage tank type which used to store flammable and
combustible liquids depends on the physical characteristics
of the product stored and the tank’s location
[7, 15, 19, 30, 31]. These tanks can hold more than
1.5 million barrels of flammable or combustible liquids
[15]. Therefore, atmospheric storage tank incidents are a
major concern [32], with regards to industrial safety
because ignition of a hydrocarbon-air mixture in such tanks
can lead to fire and exploration [33]. The largest spill
occurred in a crude oil atmospheric storage tank in Japan
on December 18, 1974, at the Mitsubishi Oil Refinery in
Kurashiki City, when a 50,000 m3 crude oil storage tank
suddenly broke up and a huge amount of oil leaked into the
sea, following the sinking of the floating roof. These
accidents are associated with serious hazards to employees,
the community around them and the environment [32]. A
historical study of atmospheric storage tank incidents was
conducted by Pitblado et al. in 1990 and highlighted that
the majority of fatalities associated with atmospheric
storage tank fires were site employees and that these usu-
ally occurred in the initiating incident [34].
The purpose of this paper is to categorize the causes of
fire and explosion in the external floating roof tanks. We
hope that this work will be beneficial to tank operators,
engineers and safety experts.
Main Types of Atmospheric Storage Tanks
Main types of atmospheric storage tanks are included
[21, 35, 36].
Fixed Roof Tanks
Fixed roof tanks consist of a cylinder-shaped steel shell
with a permanently affixed roof [37]. These tanks can be
divided into con roof and dome roof types [37]. Losses
from fixed roof tanks are caused by changes in temperature,
pressure and liquid level. Fixed roof tanks are common in
production facilities to store hydrocarbons with vapor
pressures close to atmospheric pressure [31, 38, 39].
Actually, these tanks may be insulated and used to store
liquids such as asphalt, bunker fuels, and other heavy,
viscous liquids [15]. This type of tanks is either freely
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1045
vented or equipped with a pressure/vacuum vent. The latter
allows the tanks to operate at a slight internal pressure or
vacuum to prevent the release of vapors during very small
changes in temperature, pressure or liquid level [15, 37].
Floating Roof Tanks
Floating roof tanks are a type of atmospheric storage tank
[39, 40]. Vertical cylindrical tanks, including the floating
roof type, are the most commonly used metal storage tanks
[23]. Floating roof tanks are which the roof floats directly
on the surface of stored liquid l [37]; these tanks are
commonly used to reduce oil evaporation [41]. There is an
annular space with seal gland between the floating roof and
the tank wall, to separate air when stored liquid float up or
down on the roof, greatly reducing evaporation loss in the
storage process [42]. Floating roof tanks are not intended
for all products; they are mainly to store large quantities of
high volatility products such as crude oil or gasoline
[31, 43, 44]. The aim with all floating roof tanks is to
provide safe and efficient storage of volatile products with
minimum vapor loss to the environment [40].
Evaporation of the product in fixed roof caused a great
loss of money and led to research to develop a roof that can
float directly on the surface of product and reduce the
evaporation losses [37, 41, 45]. So, floating roof tanks were
developed shortly after World War I by Chicago Bridge &
Iron Company (CB & I) [37]. This type of tanks is divided
into two groups.
Internal Floating Roof
Internal (covered) floating roof tanks (IFRT) have a per-
manent fixed roof with a floating roof inside, actually roof
floats on the product in a fixed roof tank [15, 37, 38]. This
type of tanks was developed in the mid-1950s to provide
protection of the floating roof from the elements, including
lightning strikes to the floating roof [46, 47]. Internal
floating roof tank is known as internal floating roof storage
tank, floating roof oil tank, internal floating plate storage
tank, internal floating plate oil tank, etc. [48]. The internal
roof, also known as a ‘‘pan,’’ floats on the surface of the
liquid and rises and falls with the changing level. The pan
either floats on pontoons or has a double deck for floatation
on the liquid surface. These tanks are an environment-
friendly. The tank vapor space located above the floating
roof and below the fixed roof includes circulation vents to
allow natural ventilation of the vapor space reducing the
accumulation of product vapors and possible formation of a
combustible mixture [49–51]. These tanks are usually
made of aluminum, stainless steel or other material to
prevent the liquid from volatilize and widely used in
gasoline, aviation kerosene, and volatile chemical liquid.
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There are two basic types of internal floating roof tanks
[52]:
– Tanks in which the fixed roof is supported by vertical
columns within the tank.
– Tanks with a self-supporting fixed roof and no internal
support columns.
External Floating Roof
External floating roof tanks (EFRT) have a cylindrical steel
shells equipped with a roof that floats on the product in an
open tank. The roof is opening to atmosphere and rising
and falling along with the liquid level [21, 37, 53, 54]. As
opposed to a fixed roof tank, there is almost no vapor space
between floating plate and oil surface, greatly this elimi-
nates breathing losses and reduced evaporation loss of the
stored liquid. The floating roof system consists of a deck,
fittings and rim seal system [37, 52]. Rim seal system is
between the tank shell and roof which is attached to the
deck perimeter and contacts the tank wall to reduce rim
evaporation [55–57]. Floating decks that are currently in
use are constructed of welded steel plate and are of three
general types [37, 38, 53]:
– Single Deck Pontoon type
– Double deck
– Special buoy and radially reinforced roofs
An external floating roof tank is usually used in steel open
top tank large more than 20,000 m3 and commonly used to
store large quantities of petroleum products such as crude
oil or condensate, gasoline and kerosene. [58].
This study aims to investigate the causes of fire and
explosion on external floating roof tanks, therefore, in the
following sections, the accidents that occurred in this type
tanks and their causes will be considered.
External Floating Roof Tanks Accidents
Although accidents such as fire and explosion in storage
tanks have become unlikely due to increased safety and
maintenance, however the failure of the tanks can have
several undesirable effects such as affecting the environ-
ment, endangering personnel and interrupting the
operator’s business. Nowadays, explosion and fire acci-
dents are one of the main reasons for high risk of large-
scale crude oil depots because crude oil is flammable and
combustible. Among the types of tank, large-scale floating
roof tanks are the main type tanks to store crude oil.
Chang and Lin presented a literature review of 242
accidents of storage tanks that occurred in industrial
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facilities over 40 years. Results showed that 74% of the
accidents occurred in petroleum refineries, oil terminals or
storage parks, while fire and explosion account for 85% of
the accidents. The most common tank contents were crude
oil and oil products, such as gasoline, fuel oil and diesel oil.
The study also showed that the fires occurred more fre-
quently in the atmospheric external floating roof tank rather
than fixed roof tanks [18].
Another study by Persson and Lonnermark identified
480 storage tank fire incidents worldwide between 1951
and 2003. The number of tank fires reported by worldwide
media is in the range of 15–20 each year. From total
incidents reported in the media, about one-third (31 per-
cent) have been attributed to lightning atmospheric external
floating roof tank [30, 59–62].
In the LASTFIRE incident survey study, sponsored by
16 oil industry companies in 2012, it was reported that 52
of the 62 initial fire events within the scope of the survey
were lightning-ignited rim seal fires in external floating
roof tank [42, 63, 64]. In another study conducted by the
LASTFIRE project in 1997, it was found that rim seal fires
in external floating roof tank are the most common sce-
narios [64].
In a review of tank incidents, conducted by Thyer et al.
in 2009, 64 single tank fires were identified between 1919
and 2004, with the causes being attributed to many factors,
that most of them is sinking floating roof in floating roof
tank [32]. API collected 22 full surface fire accidents
among the 81 large-scale floating roof tank fire accidents
from 1951 to 1995, which accounted for 27%, and the
diameter of those collected tanks were among 30.5 m to
100 m [65].
Some other of fire and explosion occurred in the external
floating roof tanks showed in Table 1. A large number of
various sources used to collect information for current
study, most important of them include validated articles,
LASTFIRE project, API report, Fire magazines, NFPA
Special Data Information Package and Internet.
There are various fire types can occur in open top
floating roof tanks (Fig. 1). The floating roof tank fire types
briefly described and summarized as following.
Rim Seal Fire [15, 21, 36, 64, 66, 67]
Rim seal fire is the most common type of fire in a floating
roof tank. This has a worldwide statistical frequency of
1.6 9 E–/3 tank year. The ratio rim seal fire to full surface
fire occurred in only one of the 55 rim seal fires on oper-
ational tanks [59, 68]. Rim seal fire occurs when seal
between the tank shell and roof has lost integrity and
vapors leak past the seals between the roof and the shell are
ignited. Effective rim seal fire extinction can be mostly
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Table 1 External floating roof tanks accidents

Date Location Ignition source Comments

1954 … Lightning Fire extinguisher; extinguishment

1954 … Lightning Chemical foam; extinguishment
1961 … Lightning Water lines; foam lines; extinguishment
1964 … Lightning Seal to full surface; over-the-top foam; fixed foam; burned out; extensive
damage
1964 Niigata, Japan Earthquake Five open top floating roof tanks
Lack of extinguishing resources, the fire burnt out within 2 weeks; Earthquake
caused two major fires. 97 tanks containing 1.1 million bbls of crude were
destroyed
1964 Niigata Earthquake Fire being attributed to sparks from the damaged roof being shaken violently
The fire lasted for 13 days
1968 France Spill on roof Fire on the roof of a 50 m diameter tank containing processing solvent escalated
to full surface fire
1969 USA Lightning Fire extinguisher and over-the-top foam; extinguishment
1970 … Lightning Foam lines; extinguishment
1971 … Lightning The fire was extinguished using two foam towers and portable nozzles
1972 Spain Smoking A pontoon explosion occurred in a gasoline tank, which was caused by a worker
smoking. The fire escalated to a full surface fire. One person died
1972 USA Lightning Foam lines; extinguishment
1972 Europe Lightning …
1972 Trieste, Italy Sabotage Four 500 000 barrel, external floating tank
1972 USA … Rim seal fires that had been burning for three days when extinguishment
operations started
1977 Lightning Lightning …
1979 USA Lightning Seal to surface fire
1979 North America Sunken floating roof …
1979 Torrance, USA High vapor pressure Seal to multiple tanks, spread by radiant heat
product
1980 Honolulu, Hawaii, USA … Fire caused by overfilling and ignition of vapors
1980 Joliet, USA Welding Fire caused by hot slag falling to seal area from welding
1980 Honolulu, Hawaii, USA Overfilling …
1982 USA Lightning …
1983 Milford Heaven, UK Flare stack Floating roof. Fire on roof from flare fall-out. Ignited by incandescent carbon
1983 Chalmette, Louisiana, External ignition At that time, the largest fully involved tank fire extinguished in history. The
USA floating roof sunk after the start of the fire
1983 Milford Haven, UK Uncertain opening …
1983 Chalmette, LA, USA Uncertain opening …
1985 Honolulu, Hawaii, USA Static charge Floating roof sank due to rain. Roof foamed while emptying tank
1985 Naples Overfilling Fuel overflowed through the roof of a floating roof tank for almost an hour and a
half
1985 Pearl City, USA Electrostatic discharge Sunken floating roof, static charge during foam application
1988 Singapore Sinking of floating roof The incident involved three open top floating roof naphtha tanks containing a
total of 294,500 barrels of product
1988 California Floating roof failed About 1000,000 gallons of diesel fuel dumped into a California waterway
1989 Borgå, Finland Electrostatic discharge Electrostatic discharge due to foam application
1994 France Electrostatic discharge …
1995 … Lightning Fire extinguisher; water lines; extinguishment
1996 Texas City, USA Lightning …
1996 Sarnia, Ontario, Canada Lightning …
2001 Kansas, USA Lightning Five tanks were destroyed in one incident after fire spread from a tank

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Table 1 continued

Date Location Ignition source Comments

2001 Norco, LA., USA Lightning …
2002 Nigeria Lightning 180000 bbl. (one blue barrel is equal to 42 gallons) was lost when fire fighters
failed to gain control of a rim fire
2002 Poland Lightning This was compounded by the failure of the semi-fixed firefighting system
2003 Australia Lightning …
2006 China Lightning 6 large floating roof tanks, the diameter of these tank roofs is 80–100 m; all the
fires occurred at the seal ring
2007 USA Static charge High flow rate of material flowing caused a static electric discharge in the tank
vapor space, which contained a flammable atmosphere
2014 Mellitah Sinking of floating roof The causes of the sinking are that a large amount of fire water/foam remained on
the pontoon side

Fig. 1 Floating roof tank fire

types

attributed to the installation of rim seal fire protection designed for fires in the rim seal area. Controlling the spill
systems, such as foam chambers. fire is always important before attempting to control the
tank surface fire, since a spill fire would continue to re-
Spill on Roof Fire [33, 64] ignite vapors coming from the tank.

Oil spill may occur for various reasons, such as operational
errors (e.g., overfilling) and equipment failures (e.g., roof
fractures or drain failures). The oil spill on the tank roof is
ignited, but the roof maintains its floating. The causes and
probabilities of ignition in such fires are the same as for rim
seal fires. It was decorated that if there is a spill fire on the
roof, the probability of full surface fire will intensify [59].
It is very difficult to prevent roof spill fire from escalation
to a full surface fire because most firefighting systems are
Full Surface Fire [16, 21, 27, 36, 66]
Full surface fires are one of the most severe ones of all
kinds of accidents in crude oil tanks. This type of fires may
be started directly or by escalation from the smaller fires. If
the flames impinge directly on the tank shell or roof, or if
they are heated by thermal radiation so as to evaporate the
lighter components of their contents, hence full surface
fires escalation may reach to adjacent tanks [27].

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Table 2 Causes of fire and explosion in the external floating roof tanks
(1) Maintenance error (5) Tank crack/rupture (9) Sabotage
Sparks from welding Poor soldering Terrorist attacks and military operations
Lack of considering the safety in repairs of body and Shell distortion Arson
roof tanks Poor fabrication Theft
Cutting torch (Using a cutting torch into the tank Corrosion Auto-ignition
that contains flammable materials are not clean)
High pressure liquid from downstream Use candles or wicks
Sparks resulting from maintenance and during tank vessels back up
cleaning Cigarette
Subsidence Electrical equipment (mobile)
Non-explosion-proof motor
Microbiological sulfate reducing bacteria Oils and other flammable materials
And tools used
Using chemicals
(2) Operational error (6) Piping rupture/leak (10) Open flames
Overfill Low temperature (cracked walls and leaking) Adjoining land fire
Ruby layers to traditional methods Heat stress (caused water vapor or the tilting roof) Hot particles
Deep mixing with metal device (electric Create Flammable liquid leak from a gasket Flammable vapors flare around tanks
Streaming) Leaking on the tank roof
No hot work permit
Hot work on an empty tank
Worker smoking (like throwing cigarette butts)
Operators sampling (a problem in reservoir sample
section)
Oil leakage caused by operator error
High inlet temperature (In the presence of water in
the bottom of the tank, causing the reaction and
possible explosion)
SOP Not Followed
(3) Equipment/instrument failure (7) Static electricity (11) natural disasters
Relief valves failure accidentally opened Lack of insulation of all metal components Lightning
Frozen valve such as ladders and access routes Poor Grounding
Failure or absence of liquid level indicators Rubber seal cutting Lack of timely repairs and inspections
Failure or absence of high pressure indicators Burden of over-capacity Do not use high-quality equipment
Floating roof sunk Wrong connection Lack of adequate training to technicians
Rust vent valve not open Firing caused by current short install
Discharge valve rupture Carelessness in the handling and use of electrical Leaks from the seal edges
devices Direct blows (to use a metal hammer)
Leakage through the fractured meter
Short circuit Leakage of flammable liquids from leaking
Failure vacuum breaker
Static electricity dams
When pumping petroleum products to the tank Earthquake
(spark caused by the liquid level in the tank) Wind (Storm)
Risk of electric charge density in the reservoir wall Heavy rain
Improper sampling procedure
Static discharge and sinking of floating roof (when
heavy rain)
Fluid transfer
(4) Runaway reactions (8) Faulty fire safety system
Volatile heating reactions (despite the iron sulfide in Infrastructure wear and tear and firefighting
presence of water will start to burn) equipment (e.g., fixed foam system failure)
Reaction between hot oil and water emulsion and Inadequate training of staff
create a ignited vapor cloud Incompetent foam and powder to firefighting
High vapor pressure Lack of coordination with urban fire-fighting
equipment
The lack of cooling tanks monitoring
(cooling system and water spray)
Do not operate an early warning tools and
beginning of fire extinguishers

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Historically, the success rate of extinguishment for full
surface oil tank fires is comparatively low, particularly for
larger tanks with diameters greater than 30 m [21].
Bund Fire [21, 36, 66]
Oil may be upside-down to the bund or other enclosure
surrounding the tank by reason of a variety of operational.
The fire may be small, contained and easily fought, up to a
major fire involving the entire bonded area and excellently
impossible to extinguish. If bund fire intrudes on the tank
shell or heats it by radiation, the tank contents may also be
ignited. It may feast to other tanks in the same bund or in
adjacent bunds down wind. Last fire study emphasized that
if there is an impinging bund fire, the probability of full
surface fire increases [59]. Larger tank spacing also enables
the implementation of measures to prevent escalation via
impinging bund fires, such as intermediate bund walls,
sloping bund floors and run-offs to remote impoundment.
Pontoon Fire [27, 33]
An explosion can occur if flammable vapor builds up and is
ignited in a pontoon or other confined space. Such explo-
sions can also occur when the roof is landed on its legs and
air pulled into the vapor space under the roof.
Due to explosion in the chamber of pontoon, while
making holes on the channel for fixing the primary roof
seal of floating roof tank one helper of gas cutting opera-
tion died on the spot with burn injuries. Other three
workers who received burn injuries were shifted to hospi-
tals for treatment, and subsequently one of them
succumbed to injuries later [17]. Another explosion
occurred in the pontoon compartments during restoration
activities on a crude oil tank which had been cleaned up.
Flammable residue was released onto the tank floor causing
a small fire. In another accident, an explosion occurred
when painting work was being done in a pontoon of a
floating roof tank. It occurred while a floating roof was
being changed into an inner floating roof tank. One worker
died and another was injured [69].
Overfill Ground Fire or Dike Fire [15, 21, 36]
The LASTFIRE report shows that 19% of all leaks outside
of a storage tanks were caused by overfilling. An ignited
overflow spill will result in a major fire in the dike area
around the tank as well as a fire at the surface level of the
tank. Overfill ground fires, or dike fires, are common to the
one main type of storage tanks and can be as a result of
tank overfill due to tank leakage, overfill protection
equipment failure or operator error or bot and are consid-
ered the least severe type of incident. There are a large
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number of variables involved in the mechanism for overfill.
Overfill ground fires are common to external floating roof,
internal floating roof, fixed-cone roof and domed roof
tanks.
Sunken Roof [27, 70, 71, 72]
If the floating roof sinks below part or the entire oil surface
may be the exposed oil may ignite, resulting in a full
surface fire; the floating roof may lose its buoyancy and
sink due to gas accumulation underneath it causing it to tilt,
due to damage to its floatation pontoons, snow causing a
roof to sink, frost leading to the failure of a flange joint on
the storm, water drain heavy rain accumulation resulting in
tilting, an inefficient storm water discharge system.
The Causes of Fire and Explosion in the External
Floating Roof Tanks
Effective direct and indirect causes of fire and explosion in
oil tankers were obtained as a result a library research and
data collection of accidents records and documents of oil
tankers through scientific and research written documents,
in the past, including books, articles, theses, reports and
literature. To assign the cases to the floating roof tanks, few
visited from tanks was performed. Business and causes
according to comments several process engineering, safety
and fire were finalized. Causes obtained due to the views of
several process engineering, safety and fire were finalized.
Finally, the 11 criteria and 78 sub-criteria obtained in
accordance with Table 2 are classified.
Conclusion
In this work, a review on the causes of fire and explosion in
the external floating roof tanks in oil industries has been
conducted. In this study, initially some of fire and explo-
sion occurred in the external floating roof tanks collected
by using the large number of various sources. Then, causes
of fire and explosion in the external floating roof tanks
categorized in 11 criteria and 78 sub-criteria. The results of
this study can help the specialists in floating roof tanks
design and construction. Safety and fire professionals can
also use the results from this study to prevent and control
fire and explosion accidents in this type of tanks.
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