1. How According to Marx, is Social Order created and maintained?

Karl Marx defined his theory of Social Order on the basis of transition from pre-capitalist to
capitalist economy and their effects on the society.

a. Economic structure

Economic structure of the society was the key aspect that determines the social order: According
to Marx, in a capitalist society, the gap between the haves and have-nots resulted in dominance
by the privileged exercised upon the working class, which determined the social order.

b. Social relations in production of goods

Marx argued that, the working class did not receive wages worth their work, i.e what they
produced for the rich was much more valuable than what they were paid. This resulted in
unequal distribution of resources and the wealthy part of the society was in possession of surplus.

c. Base and Superstructure

Marx stated that the above mentioned aspects of society (Economic structure and social
relations) were responsible for producing the social order. Other social institutions along with the
State were responsible for maintaining it. He referred to these two components of society as
the base and the superstructure.

d. Relation between the Base and Superstructure

Marx believed that the superstructure grows out of the base and reflects the interests of the ruling
class that controls it. The superstructure justifies how the base operates, and in doing so, justifies
the power of the ruling class. Together, the base and the superstructure create and maintain social
order.

e. Exploitation of working class

Marx concluded that the shift to a capitalist industrial economy throughout Europe created a
class of workers who were exploited by company owners and their financiers. The result was a
hierarchical class-based society in which a small minority held power over the majority, whose
labor they used for their own financial gain. Marx believed social institutions did the work of
spreading the values and beliefs of the ruling class to maintain a social order that would serve
their interests and protect their power.

f. Conflict Theory

Marx's critical view of social order is the basis of the conflict theory perspective in sociology,
which views social order as a precarious state shaped by ongoing conflicts between groups that
are competing for access to resources and power.

2.

Robert Merton, an American sociologist, attempted to redefine structural functionalism. He

contended that consequences of every social action, interaction and relationship, are not always
what was expected. There do exist many unintended consequences that lead in unexpected
directions.

a. Manifest Function:

There are intended, expected and recognized consequences of any social pattern. Manifest
functions are those functions that are usually considered by the functionalist analysts as meeting
or serving what the system needs.

Example: Taking the example of school education. The manifest functions or the intended and
expected consequences of sending kids to school are:

 To get quality education: Teachers, experts and resource person, specially qualified for
each subject provide higher quality subject knowledge, benefitting the clear
understanding of the child.
 Discipline: As children go to schools, they set up themselves to a disciplined routine of
time-tabled activities and regular home work.
 Social Control: Children are made to obey the rules and regulation prescribed by the
school and the society.
  Exposure to different culture: A school being a place where children belonging to
different households integrate together, they get to know about a variety of cultural
practices.

b. Latent function:

These are unintended, unexpected and ‘Hidden’ consequences of any social pattern. It may be
beneficial or harmful. According to Merton, any social activity is likely to have any number of
unintended consequences, which he calls ‘Latent function’.

Example: Analysing the above said example of school education, it has numerous, unintended or
unexpected consequences, They are:

 Working in groups: As children get exposed to different members of same age group,
they identify like minds and prefer to work together in groups.
 Peer pressure: As friends circle gets established, the desire to ‘Fit in’ arises in every
child for which he/she may directly or indirectly be subject to pressure which is known
as peer pressure.
 Social Networks: School system is capable creating social networks and with the
advancement of technology, these networks extend in social media which may even
result in lifetime acquaintances.

c. Positive function:

An expected and intended consequence which is beneficial and has a positive effect upon the
society is referred to as positive function.

Example: Blood donation and blood banking program. Blood from people belonging to various
blood groups is verified and collected and stored in blood banks with an intention and
expectation that it would reach those who are in need of it. And as expected, hospitals during
unfortunate circumstances use this blood from blood banks and treat the needy.

d. Dysfunction:
Merton calls dysfunction as ‘Consequences that lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the
system’. These consequences are beneficial to some parts but may not be so to other parts.

Example: Caste criteria for reservation. The SCs and STs and other backward caste people
belonging to lower economic strata may get benefitted out of the existing reservation policies in
India. Yet, since class and caste are two different components, the children belonging to poor
families yet belong to general category or forward community, suffer the most out of it.