Application of Plant Biotechnology for sustainable agriculture.

Introduction
The term genetically modified (GM), as it is commonly used, refers to the transfer
of genes between organisms using a series of laboratory techniques for cloning
genes, splicing DNA segments together, and inserting genes into cells.
Collectively, these techniques are known as recombinant DNA technology. Other
terms used for GM plants or foods derived from them are genetically modified
organism (GMO), genetically engineered (GE), bioengineered, and
transgenic. ‘Genetically modified’ is an imprecise term and a potentially confusing
one, in that virtually everything we eat has been modified genetically through
domestication from wild species and many generations of selection by humans for
desirable traits. The term is used here because it is the one most widely used to
indicate the use of recombinant DNA technology. According to USDA standards
for organic agriculture, seeds or other substances derived through GM technology
are not allowed in organic production.

History of GMO crops

GMO foods are such an embedded part of our food system these days, but it's not
difficult to think back to a time when food was simpler and healthier. How did we
get to the point that genetically modified organisms infiltrate so much of what we
eat? In a recent issue of Rosebud Magazine, GMO expert GL Woolsey took a look
at the history of GMOs. We present that here now.
1935-DNA Discovered Russian scientist Andrei Nikolaevitch Belozersky isolates
pure DNA.
1973-Recombinant DNA Created The idea for man-made DNA, or rDNA, comes
from a grad student at Stanford University Medical School. Professor Herbert
Boyer and a few of his biologist colleagues run with it.
1975 - Asilomar Conference A group of biologists get together with a few
lawyers and doctors to create guidelines for the safe use of genetically engineered
DNA.
1980 - First GMO Patent Issued A 1980 court case between genetic engineer at
General Electric and the U.S. Patent Office is settled by a 5-to-4 Supreme Court
ruling, allowing for the first patent on a living organism. The GMO in question is a
bacterium with an appetite for crude oil, ready to gobble up spills.
1982 - FDA Approves First GMO Humulin, insulin produced by genetically
engineered E. coli bacteria, appears on the market.
1994 - GMO Hits Grocery Stores The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
approves the Flavr Savr tomato for sale on grocery store shelves. The delayed-
ripening tomato has a longer shelf life than conventional tomatoes.
1996 - GMO-Resistant Weeds Weeds resistant to glyphosate, the herbicide used
with many GMO crops, are detected in Australia. Research shows that the super
weeds are seven to 11 times more resistant to glyphosate than the standard
susceptible population.
1997 - Mandatory Labels The European Union rules in favor of mandatory
labeling on all GMO food products, including animal feed.
1999 - GMO Food Crops Dominate Over 100 million acres worldwide are
planted with genetically engineered seeds. The marketplace begins embracing
GMO technology at an alarming rate.
2003 - GMO-Resistant Pests In 2003, a Bt-toxin-resistant caterpillar-cum-moth,
Helicoverpa zea, is found feasting on GMO Bt cotton crops in the southern United
States. In less than a decade, the bugs have adapted to the genetically engineered
toxin produced by the modified plants.
2011 - Bt Toxin in Humans Research in eastern Quebec finds Bt toxins in the
blood of pregnant women and shows evidence that the toxin is passed to fetuses.
2012 - Farmer Wins Court Battle French farmer Paul Francois sues Monsanto
for chemical poisoning he claims was caused by its pesticide Lasso, part of the
Roundup Ready line of products. Francois wins and sets a new precedent for future
cases.
2014 - GMO Patent Expires Monsanto’s patent on the Roundup Ready line of
genetically engineered seeds will end in two years.

List of Major Biotech Crops to date 

 Soybean
 Papaya
 Squash
 Alfalfa
 Canola oil
 Potato
 apple
 Rice
 Corn

Applications of GMO crops in the field of agriculture

Different crops are modified for different purposes. They are given below:

1.Rice
The golden rice is the famous GMO crop in the world used mostly for the purpose
of providing of nutritional balance as vitamin A.
2.Corn (field & sweet)
The GM version of field corn protects the crop against corn rootworms
and the Asian corn borer. Like GM field corn, GM sweet corn also protects the
crop against destructive pests.
3.Soybeans
The GM soybean plant is resistant to pests and disease as well as being tolerant
of herbicides that are most effective, allowing for less herbicide use overall.
4.Cotton
GM cotton requires fewer pesticides and protects against the cotton bollworm.
5.Canola
Canola has been modified through biotechnology to make it tolerant to some
herbicides. This allows for a reduced amount of chemicals needed for weed
control. The modified plant also has resistance to pests and fungus.
6.Alfalfa
The GM version of alfalfa is tolerant of some herbicides, allowing for a
reduced amount of chemicals needed for weed control.
7.Sugar Beets
The GM sugar beet has increased tolerance to some herbicides, allowing for a
reduced amount of chemicals needed for weed control. GM sugar beets also
have virus and pest resistance traits.
8.Papaya
The GM version of papaya makes the plant resistant to the prevalent Papaya
Ringspot Virus.
9.Squash
GM squash has traits that improve the plant’s defense against viruses.
10.Arctic Apple
Developed by Okanagan Specialty Fruits of British Columbia, Canada,
this new fruit  was developed by turning off the enzyme in apples that cause
them to brown when cut, bruised or bitten.
11.Innate Potato
This new potato  that resists browning and has fewer unsightly wasteful bruises
has been approved by the USDA for commercial planting.

GMO production procedure

The characteristics of all living organisms are determined by their genetic makeup
and its interaction with the environment. The genetic makeup of an organism is its
genome, which in all plants and animals is made of DNA. The genome contains
genes, regions of DNA that usually carry the instructions for making proteins. It is
these proteins that give the plant its characteristics. For example, the colour of
flowers is determined by genes that carry the instructions for making proteins tion
of plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into the plant’s genome, giving
it new or different characteristics. This could include changing the way the plant
grows or making it resistant to a particular disease. The new DNA becomes part of
the GM plant’s genome which the seeds produced by these plants will contain.
involved in producing the pigments that colour petals Genetic modification of
plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into the plant’s genome, giving it
new or different characteristics. This could include changing the way the plant
grows or making it resistant to a particular disease. The new DNA becomes part of
the GM plant’s genome which the seeds produced by these plants will contain.
 Figure: Steps of making GMO by genetic engineering

Step 1: Identify a trait of interest

In order to identify a desirable new trait scientist most often look to nature.
Successful discovery of a new genetic trait of interest is often a combination of
critical thinking and luck. For example, if researchers are searching for a trait that
would allow a crop to survive in a specific environment, they would look for
organisms that naturally are able to survive in that specific environment. Or if
researchers are aiming to improve the nutritional content of a crop, they would
screen a list of plants that they hypothesize produce a nutrient of interest.
An example of a trait currently in GMOs that was identified through this
combination of luck and critical thinking is tolerance to the herbicide Roundup.
Monsanto created “Roundup Ready” plants after finding bacteria growing near a
Roundup factory that contained a gene that allowed them to survive in the presence
of the herbicide [8]. Although it is not on the market in the United States, Syngenta
has designed Golden Rice with an increased amount of pro-vitamin A, which the
human body may turn into the vitamin A. Researchers at Syngenta identified the
gene sequence that produces pro-vitamin A and compiled a list of plants to screen
with that sequence . With a little luck, there was a plant in nature, maize, that
contained a gene that would make Golden Rice produce pro-vitamin A at a level
that could meet the nutritional needs of vitamin A deficient communities.

Step 2: Isolate the genetic trait of interest

Comparative analysis is used to decode what part of an organism’s genetic makeup
contains the trait of interest. The genomes of plants with the trait are compared to
genomes in the same species without the trait, with the goal of identifying genes
present only in the former. The genomes of different species with the same trait
may also be compared in order to identify a gene, as was the case while developing
Golden Rice. If there is no database of genetic information for comparison,
scientists will purposefully delete, or “knock out,” parts of the genome of interest
until the desired trait is lost, thereby identifying the genes that lead to the trait.

In order to expedite this process, Monsanto has developed and patented a method
known as seed chipping. Through this method Monsanto shaves off parts of seeds
for high-throughput genetic sequencing while leaving the rest of the seeds viable
for planting. This creates a genetic database for plants before they are even grown,
where a barcode system is used to match plants to their genotypes. Researchers
may then use this database to identify new traits of interest as well as to optimize
the desirable traits in a crop by selecting for the best genotypes based on plant
phenotypes.

Step 3: Insert the desired genetic trait into a new genome

Altering the genome of plant seeds is difficult due to their rigid structure. Many
biotech companies use “gene guns” that shoot metal particles coated with DNA
into plant tissue with a .22-caliber charge. Monsanto no longer uses gene guns, but
instead takes advantage of bacteria, called Agrobacterium tumefaciens, that
naturally invade seeds and alter plants by inserting pieces of their own DNA into a
plant’s genome.

In biotechnology research it is common to genetically engineer bacteria to produce

a desired protein. This is done by using enzymes to cut and paste a DNA strand of
interest into a plasmid, which is a small, circular molecule of DNA. Bacteria are
then shocked using heat or electricity so that the cells accept the engineered
plasmid. By modifying A. tumefaciens, which is easier to modify than plant seeds
themselves, researchers may use the bacteria’s naturally invasive behavior as a
Trojan horse for inserting desirable traits into a crop’s genome.

Step 4: Growing the GMO

After a genetic trait has been successfully inserted into an organism’s genome, the
modified organism must then be able to grow and replicate with its newly
engineered genome. First, the genotype of the organisms must be checked so that
researchers are only propagating organisms in which the genome was modified
correctly.
Biotech companies invest large sums into keeping these plants alive and
reproducing once they have been successfully created. The companies use special
climate-controlled growth chambers, and biologists often check on the plants by
hand to make sure that they are growing as expected.

The Advantages of Genetically Modified Crops

1. Better for The Environment

Since GMOs require much less chemicals to thrive, the impact on the
environment is lessened. The pesticides and other chemicals commonly used
on non-GMO crops emit greenhouse gases and pollute the ground soil.
2. Resistance to Disease
One of the modifications made to the crops is an added resistance to disease
that would normally kill off the crops. This keeps the yields high and the
prices for the consumers low.
3. Sustainability
GMOs provide a stable and efficient way to sustain enough crops to feed the
ever-growing population of people in the world. This was the main goal of
GMO crops in the first place.
4. Increased Flavor and Nutrition
Along with resistances to insects and disease, the genes of the crops can also
be altered to have a better flavor and increased nutritional value. This is
good all around.
5. Longer Shelf Life
Genetically modified foods have a longer shelf life. This improves how long
they last and stay fresh during transportation and storage.
 6. Keeps It Affordable
One of the biggest effects that the use of GMOs has had on our everyday life
is the prices of produce and other foods. Since more crops can be yielded,
the prices can be much lower.

The Disadvantages of Genetically Modified Crops

1. Cross Contamination
The pollen from the genetically modified plants is also contaminated. When
this pollen is around other plants, even things like grass or weeds, they cross
pollinate. This could develop “superweeds” that have the same resistance
properties as the crops.
2. Allergies on The Rise
Ever since the introduction of GMO foods, the amount of childhood food
allergies has risen significantly. The exact link to GMO has not yet been
found, but many believe this is due to insufficient research in the area.
3. Less Effective Antibiotics
The crops that have been genetically modified have antibiotic properties put
into them in order to make them immune to certain diseases. When you eat
these foods, these properties are left in your body and can make many
antibiotics less effective.
4. Not Enough Testing
There has been very little testing and research done on genetically modified
foods and the long-term effects have not been discovered yet. This makes
many people feel uneasy at the high use of these foods.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

As enunciated in the 1990 “Farm Bill,” sustainable agriculture means “an

integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a sitespecific
application that will, over the long term: (1) satisfy human food and fiber needs,
(2) enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the
agricultural economy depends, (3) make the most efficient use of nonrenewable
resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural
biological cycles and controls, (4) sustain the economic viability of farm
operations, and (5) enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole”.
Agricultural sustainability is the fruitful administration of assets for agriculture to
fulfill changing human needs, while keeping up or enhancing the quality of the
environment and conserving natural resources. It includes novel agricultural
methods to protect the environment, conserve natural resources, diminish the use
of chemical compounds, and promote financial independence. Sustainable
agriculture is in fact an economical and environmental necessity in poorer nations
where production technologies and frameworks, in which waste constitutes a huge
extent of production expenses, cannot be afforded. Thus, advancement should be
assessed by a combination of qualitative and quantitative criteria and the effects of
agricultural development on social, environmental, and health aspects. Sustainable
agricultural framework that is indivisible part of rural development in various
nations is actually environmentally flawless, financially and economically
reasonable, and socially adequate. Although various factors are included in the
sustainability of agricultural framework, supportive institutional and infrastructural
technologies have an important role in this regard. As such, sustainability and
productivity are certain when looking to protect the environment and diminish
rural poverty. Sustainable agricultural technologies were broadly acknowledged
because of concerns about the environmental impacts of modern agriculture,
dependence of agriculture on nonrenewable resources, and long-term productivity
of agricultural systems relying on huge external inputs. Although many factors are
involved in the sustainability of agricultural systems, supportive institutional and
infrastructural technologies have a significant role in this respect.

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE

Biotechnology has the potential to facilitate and promote sustainable agriculture

and rural development. These technologies have environmental benefits, especially
considering the fact that renewable genetic inputs are efficient alternatives to
dependence on external agrochemical inputs. The potential of genes or genotypes
(e.g., varieties or species) to replace renewable resources is highly important in
further promotion of sustainable agriculture and rural development. It must be
underlined that biotechnology should not be comprehended as a substitute for
conventional tools of crop improvement, but incorporating recombinant techniques
into traditional breeding programs could substantially enhance the efficiency of
agricultural research and development. The innovations of biotechnology have
generally led to the following achievements:

 Better interpretation of plants’ functions and reactions to the environment.

 Purposeful objective selection in programs to enhance the efficiency and
productivity of crops, trees, farm animals, fish, and quality of food storage.
 Increased crop productivity through increasing resistance to diseases and
draught.
 Improved nutritional value: With raised interest in greater nutritional value,
taste, and nutritional composition of food products, high-protein GM
products with more desirable nutrients, amino acids, and starch levels have
been developed for people with inappropriate diets.
 Fresher products: Genetic modification can augment the durability of
products. By easier transfer of fresher products, consumers will have more
access to complete foods with higher nutritional value. In addition,
preventing spoilage, damage, and reduced nutritional value will be
facilitated.
 Application of molecular markers (DNA) in making insight and the ability to
select main characteristics and limit the variety of possibilities in a farm.
 Molecular tools for elucidation, protection, and application of genetic
resources.
 Powerful molecular diagnoses to help detect and manage parasites, pests,
and pathogens.
 Making domestic animals and fish resistant to life-threatening diseases.
 Natural benefits: As GE decreases the dependence on insecticides, lower
levels of insecticide will remain in food. The leaching of insecticides into
groundwater will hence be reduced and farm workers’ contact with
hazardous and deadly compounds will be minimized.
Plant biotechnology for industrial application
Plants have always provided food, fuel, food additives, drugs, pesticides, pigments,
resins, perfumes and other important industrial, medicinal and agricultural raw
materials. The techniques of plant, organ, tissue and cell culture have evolved since
the beginning of this century and combined with recent advances in genetics and
using conventional plant breeding, the plant biotechnology is having a significant
impact on agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Some examples of the current
applications in agriculture are micropropagation, somatic embryogenesis, virus
andpathogen elimination, embryo rescue, germplasm storage and plant
modification by somaclonal variation and genetic engineering. Another significant
potential of plant biotechnology is in vitro production of fine chemicals using plant
celVorgan cultures. However, there are several problems associated with such
production technologies and the commercial processes are confined to a few
examples, mainly in Japan. The whole field of plant biotechnology is expanding
fast; with increased understanding of plant biochemistry, molecular biology,
physiology and parallel developments in analytical sciences, instrumentation,
bioreactor design and downstream processing the future can hold exciting
possibilities.

SHIKONIN PRODUCTION
Process formats adopted for plant cell culture systems that are either operational or
at pilot plant stage favour a two-stage approach using mainly batch cultures. The
ftrst stage is used for biomass growth and the second stage for production which
involves the change of medium from growth promoting to product promoting. The
bioreactors used in different stages may be the same type. Shikonin was the fIrst
commercial product obtained from plant cell culture (Fujita,1988a). Shikonin and
its derivatives are purple-red compounds with naphthazalin skeleton which are
found in the outer surface of the roots of Lithospermum erythrorhizon
(Boraginaceae). Shikonin derivatives are used as an antibacterial agent for external
injuries, as an anti-ulcer agent, and as a food pigment. The plant which is almost
extinct in Japan and difflcult to cultivate, normally contains 1-2 % shikonin
derivatives in its roots.
From the very fIrst experiments of Mizukami et al. 1978, callus cultures have been
selected for their high pigment content eventually leading to callus cultures which
produced shikonin derivatives at higher levels than the whole plant. Experiments
with suspension cultures indicated that the type of nitrogen source affected
production significantly. When nitrate was the sole source, production was stable,
but, when ammonium was the nitrogen source, it inhibited production.
In the original two-stage process, biomass growth takes place in Linsmaier and
Skoog medium and in the second stage the medium is changed to White's medium
to produce shikonin derivatives. The effect of the concentration of each component
of these media led to new media formulation for growth and production resulting
in about 1400 mg/l of shikonin derivatives. For the growth stage 200 I tanks are
used while production takes place in 750 I tanks. The period of production is 23
days (Fujita, 1988b).
The maximum oxygen consumption rate of L. erythrorhizon cells is 0.5-1.0 mM
oxygen! g cell- h. The volumetric oxygen mass transfer coefficient is 10 h-l.

1. Nutrient Supplementation
One of the biggest uses of biotechnology is the infusion of nutrients into food in
situations such as aid. Therefore, it provides food with heavy nutrients that are
necessary in such situations. An example of this application is the
production Golden Rice where the rice is infused with beta-carotene. The rice has
Vitamin A, which the body can easily synthesise.
2. Abiotic Stress Resistance

There is actually very little land on earth that is arable with some estimates place it
at around 20 percent. With an increase in the world’s population, there is a need for
the food sources available to be as effective as possible to produce as much food in
as little space as possible. There is also needed to have the crops grown to be able
to make use of the less arable regions of the world.

This means that there is a need to develop crops that can handle these abiotic
stresses such as salinity, drought and frost from cold. In Africa and the Middle
East, for instance, where the climate can be unforgiving, the practice has played a
significant role in the development of crops that can withstand the prevailing harsh
climates.

3. Industrial Biotechnology

The industrial applications of biotechnology range from the production of cellular

structures to the production of biological elements for numerous uses. Examples
include the creation of new materials in the construction industry, and the
manufacture of beer and wine, washing detergents, and personal care products.

4. Strength Fibres

One of the materials with the strongest tensile strength is spider webs. Amongst
other materials with the same cross-sectional width, spider webs can take more
tensional force before breaking than even steel. This silk has created a lot of
interest with the possible production of materials made from silk including body
armour such as bullet proof jackets. Silk is used because it is stronger than Kevlar
(the material most commonly used to make body armour).

Biotechnological techniques have been used to pick the genes found in spiders and
their infusion in goats to produce the silk proteins in their milk. With this initiative,
it makes production easier as goats are much easier to handle compared to spiders
and the production of silk via milk also help make the processing and handling
much easier compared to handling the actual silk strands.

5. Biofuels

One of the biggest applications of biotechnology is in the energy production sector.

With fears over the dwindling oil resources in the world and their
related environmental impacts, there is a need to protect the globe’s future by
finding alternative environmentally friendly fuel sources. Biotechnology is
allowing this to happen with advances such as using corn to produce combustible
fuel for running car engines. These fuels are good for the environment as they do
not produce the greenhouse gases.

6. Healthcare

Biotechnology is applied in the healthcare sector is the development of

pharmaceuticals that have proven problematic to produce though other
conventional means because of purity concerns.
Conclusion
1. Present status of GMO crop is satisfactory considering among South Asian
countries but not up to the level comparing population growth. Bright scopes are
waiting to utilize GMO to meet country demand.
2. The concept of the consumer is not clear about GMOs. Scientist communities
especially agro knowledge based society should give effort to remove fear facto of
consumer about GMO.
3. Genetically modified organism (GMO) foods are feared and hated by
environmentalists and the public alike. Yet the scientific assessment of GMOs is
remarkably different. Every major scientific evaluation of GMO technology has
concluded that GMOs are safe for human consumption and are a benefit to the
environment.

References:
 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-2468-3_9
 https://www.bestfoodfacts.org/what-foods-are-gmo/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops
 https://www.greenamerica.org/blog/gmo-timeline-history-genetically-
modified-foods
 http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/how-to-make-a-gmo/