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Norms in Social Media: The Application of Theory of Reasoned Action and

Personal Norms in Predicting Interactions With Facebook Page Like Ads

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DOI: 10.1080/08824096.2015.1089851

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Norms in Social Media: The Application of Theory

of Reasoned Action and Personal Norms in
Predicting Interactions With Facebook Page Like
Ads

Soojung Kim, Joonghwa Lee & Doyle Yoon

To cite this article: Soojung Kim, Joonghwa Lee & Doyle Yoon (2015) Norms in Social Media:
The Application of Theory of Reasoned Action and Personal Norms in Predicting Interactions
With Facebook Page Like Ads, Communication Research Reports, 32:4, 322-331, DOI:
10.1080/08824096.2015.1089851

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 Communication Research Reports
Vol. 32, No. 4, October–December 2015, pp. 322–331

Norms in Social Media: The

Application of Theory of Reasoned
Action and Personal Norms in
Predicting Interactions With
Downloaded by [University of North Dakota] at 09:40 28 October 2015

Facebook Page Like Ads

Soojung Kim, Joonghwa Lee, & Doyle Yoon

This study employs the theory of reasoned action and personal descriptive and injunctive
norms to predict individuals’ intentions to interact with Page Like Ads on Facebook,
which are a type of ad that individuals may ‘‘like,’’ ‘‘share,’’ or make a ‘‘comment’’
on. The survey findings from 631 respondents indicate that attitudes toward the beha-
vior, subjective norms, and personal descriptive norms influenced behavioral intentions
to interact with page Like Ads. In addition, this study found that subjective norms, per-
sonal descriptive norms, and personal injunctive norms were shaped by interpersonal
influences (e.g., family). This study contributes to research on the theory of reasoned
action and personal norms and provides practical implications for media practitioners,
especially for advertisers and marketers.

Keywords: Facebook Page Like Ads; Interpersonal Influences; Personal Descriptive

Norms; Personal Injunctive Norms; Social Norms Approach; Theory of Reasoned Action

Soojung Kim (PhD, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, 2015) is an assistant professor in the Communication
Program at the University of North Dakota. Joonghwa Lee (PhD, University of Missouri–Columbia, 2012) is an
instructor in the Communication Program at the University of North Dakota. Doyle Yoon (PhD, University of
Missouri–Columbia, 2003) is an associate professor in the Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communi-
cation at the University of Oklahoma. Correspondence: Joonghwa Lee, O’Kelly Hall Room 332, 221 Centennial
Drive Stop 7169, Grand Forks, ND 58202; E-mail: joonghwa.lee@und.edu

ISSN 0882-4096 (print)/ISSN 1746-4099 (online) # 2015 Eastern Communication Association

DOI: 10.1080/08824096.2015.1089851
 Communication Research Reports 323

Prior research based on the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and the social norms
approach (SNA) has demonstrated that individuals’ behaviors can be predicted by
their attitudes toward the behavior and normative perceptions regarding the behavior
in question (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Perkins, 2003). Since
subjective norms in the TRA and personal descriptive and injunctive norms in the
SNA are considered personal-level norms, but conceptually distinct (Park & Smith,
2007), research using both the TRA and SNA is needed to better understand the role
of norms in behavior changes.
Given that the interconnected nature of social media enables individuals to be
exposed to others’ behaviors, such exposure is expected to create normative percep-
tions about a particular behavior and individuals’ behaviors on social media (Chu
& Kim, 2011; Zeng, Huang, & Dou, 2009). Furthermore, norms would also play a
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significant role in understanding social media advertising effects. Traditional

advertising is usually considered a media message that is inserted into the mass media
content that the audience is intended to consume. Consequently, it is hard to imagine
that individuals would wish to actively interact with traditional advertising messages.
Social media advertising, however, enables individuals to become a part of creating,
developing, and distributing advertising content. Focusing on the fact that an indivi-
dual’s interactions with social media ads are visible to others in his or her social net-
work, exposure to others’ interactions with social media ads helps create an
individual’s perceptions about others’ evaluations or opinions about such interaction
behaviors (i.e., normative perceptions) and ultimately influences his=her future
interaction behaviors.
This study focuses on individuals’ interactions with page Like Ads on Facebook,
which is a type of Facebook sponsorship advertisement that displays Facebook
friends’ interactions with a page, app, or event on News Feed. Considering the visi-
bility of interaction behaviors on Facebook, this study examines whether normative
perceptions based on the TRA and SNA predict individuals’ intentions to interact
with page Like Ads on Facebook.

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

The TRA is one of the most popular theoretical frameworks to understand one’s
behaviors based on attitudinal and social factors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The
TRA includes an individual’s intention to perform a behavior, attitudes toward
the behavior, and subjective norms, in that an individual’s intentions to perform
the behavior in question are determined by attitudes toward the behavior and sub-
jective norms (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Attitudes toward
the behavior refers to the overall evaluations of the performance of a behavior in ques-
tion, and subjective norms refers to perceived pressure from relevant social networks.
Generally, individuals who have more favorable attitudes and perceive stronger
subjective norms regarding a behavior are more likely to show greater intentions
to perform that behavior. Research has shown that attitudes toward the behavior
and subjective norms influence intentions to perform health behaviors (e.g., Roberto,
 324 S. Kim et al.
Krieger, Katz, Goei, & Jain, 2011), pro-environmental behaviors (e.g., Bamberg &
Möser, 2007; Kim, Jeong, & Hwang, 2013), purchase behaviors (e.g., Jin & Kang,
2011), and online behaviors (e.g., Chu, 2011; Lee & Lee, 2011). Thus, the following
two hypotheses are posed:
H1: Individuals’ attitudes toward interacting with page Like Ads on Facebook will be
positively related to their intentions to interact with page Like Ads on Facebook.
H2: Individuals’ subjective norms regarding the interactions with page Like Ads on
Facebook will be positively related to their intentions to interact with page Like
Ads on Facebook.

Personal Descriptive and Injunctive Norms

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According to the SNA, personal norms refers to individuals’ beliefs or perceptions of

what their significant others (e.g., family) think an individual should do and what they
actually do (Smith et al., 2008). Personal norms are categorized into two types:
descriptive and injunctive norms (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990; Park & Smith,
2007; Perkins, 2003). Personal descriptive norms refers to the perceived popularity of
a behavior among an individual’s significant others, whereas personal injunctive norms
refers to individuals’ perceived approval of a behavior by significant others. In the
domain of online communication, Lee, Kim, and Ham (2011) found that personal
injunctive norms are positively related to individuals’ intentions to watch online video
ads. Zeng et al. (2009) also found that normative influences affect consumers’ accept-
ance of advertising placed in social networking sites. In the risk communication
domain, personal descriptive and injunctive norms tend to predict individuals’
behavioral intentions to participate in household recycling (White, Smith, Terry,
Greenslade, & McKimmie, 2009) and risky sexual behaviors online (Baumgartner,
Valkenburg, & Peter, 2011). Taken together, individuals’ beliefs about whether the
interactions with page Like Ads on Facebook are popular among significant others
and are approved by them can affect their intentions to interact with page Like Ads
on Facebook (e.g., clicking on ‘‘like’’). Thus, the following two hypotheses are posed:
H3: Personal descriptive norms will be positively related to individuals’ intentions to
interact with page Like Ads on Facebook.
H4: Personal injunctive norms will be positively related to individuals’ intentions to
interact with page Like Ads on Facebook.

Interpersonal Influences as the Determinants of Norms

In the TRA, subjective norms are determined by the sum of accessible normative
beliefs (i.e., an individual’s beliefs that particular individuals or groups believe one
needs to perform a behavior) and the motivation to comply with these specific
individuals or groups (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Interpersonal influences in the
context of page Like Ads on Facebook refer to the extent to which an individual
believes that significant others (e.g., family and friends) think s=he needs to interact
with page Like Ads on Facebook. Interpersonal influences have been found to affect
 Communication Research Reports 325

individuals’ subjective norms of purchasing products online (George, 2004; Lin,

2007) and adopting a new brand (Ryan, 1982). Therefore, it is expected that the more
individuals perceive behavioral expectations from significant others, the more they
feel pressure to interact with page Like Ads on Facebook. Thus, the following
hypothesis is posed:

H5a: Interpersonal influences will be positively related to subjective norms related to

interacting with page Like Ads on Facebook.

Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) conceptualization of normative beliefs and motivation to

comply can be applied to personal descriptive and injunctive norms (e.g., Boer &
Westhoff, 2006; David, Cappella, & Fishbein, 2006; Egebark & Ekström, 2011; Lin,
2007). In the context of page Like Ads on Facebook, individuals who perceive a
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higher level of behavioral expectations from significant others are more likely to
believe that interaction behaviors are popular among significant others and that those
behaviors are approved by them. Thus, the following two hypotheses are posed:

H5b: Interpersonal influences will be positively related to personal descriptive norms

related to interacting with page Like Ads on Facebook.
H5c: Interpersonal influences will be positively related to personal injunctive norms
related to interacting with page Like Ads on Facebook.

Method
A total of 744 undergraduate students were recruited from two large U.S. Southern
universities receiving extra credit for their voluntary participation. Given college stu-
dents’ substantial use of Facebook, such that 86% of Internet users aged 18 to 29 and
about 70% of users who have college degrees use Facebook (Pew Research Center,
2013), they were deemed to be an appropriate sample in this study. Those who have
never experienced page Like Ads on Facebook were excluded from the beginning of
the survey through a screening question. As a result, 631 (84.8%) participants were
included in the final data analysis. The average age of the respondents was 21.26 years
old (SD ¼ 2.98), ranging from 18 to 34 years. Females (60.5%, n ¼ 382) outnumbered
males (39.5%, n ¼ 249). Most of the participants were Caucasians (75%, n ¼ 473),
followed by African Americans (13%, n ¼ 82), Hispanics (3%, n ¼ 19), Native Amer-
ican or Alaskan Native (2%, n ¼ 13), Asians (2%, n ¼ 13), and others (5%, n ¼ 31).

Data Collection Procedure

The online survey was conducted with voluntary participation. An invitation e-mail,
which included a customized link to an online survey site, was sent to potential
participants. Those who agreed to participate in the study were asked to click the link
to complete the survey. After a consent form on the first page of the survey, the
definition of page Like Ads on Facebook and the example of page Like Ads were
provided. After reading this definition, respondents were asked to answer a screening
 326 S. Kim et al.
question. Next, participants who indicated that they have experienced page Like Ads
on Facebook in the past 6 months were considered to meet the screening criterion
and in turn were asked to complete the survey. The survey included questions about
the key variables, which will be discussed in the measures section, and demographics.
The survey took approximately 15 minutes to complete.

Measures1
All variables are measured by 7-point Likert-type scales, ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), unless mentioned otherwise. Each variable—behavioral
intentions (BI), subjective norms (SN), personal descriptive norms (PD), and per-
sonal injunctive norms (PI)—was measured by three measurement items. The sample
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items include: [BI] ‘‘I intend to interact with page Like Ads’’; [SN] ‘‘It is expected of
me that I interact with page Like Ads’’; [PD] ‘‘Most people whose opinion I value
have interacted with page Like Ads’’; [PI] ‘‘Most people who are important to me
would endorse my interactions with page Like Ads.’’ Attitudes toward interacting
with page Like Ads were measured based on three 7-point semantic differential scales,
ranging from 1 (negative, bad, and unfavorable) to 7 (positive, good, and favorable).
Regarding the interpersonal influences, four reference groups were identified: close
friends, family, romantic partner, and classmates. The interpersonal influences were
measured by the strength of each normative belief and motivation to comply with each
reference. A sample item for normative belief and motivation to comply includes,
‘‘Generally speaking, how much do you care about what your close friends think that
you should do?’’ and ‘‘My close friends think that I should interact with page Like
Ads’’ respectively. The response options of the strength of each normative belief
ranged from 1 (extremely unlikely) to 7 (extremely likely) and that of motivation to
comply with each reference ranged from 1 (not at all) to (very much) using 7-point
Likert-type scales. The strength of each normative belief was multiplied by motivation
to comply with each reference,P and the resulting products were summed across all
items of reference groups (i.e., nimi for each reference) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).

Results
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was run using AMOS 21.0 to validate all
assessed items as the measurement construct of the hypothesized model. All the
standardized factor loadings were significant; thus the CFA results confirmed the
constructs of the hypothesized model (Bentler, 1990; Byrne, 2001; Hair, Anderson,
Tatham, & Black, 2006).2
Composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and maximum
shared variance (MSV) for each of the constructs showed acceptable convergent
validity (see Table 1) (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2006). The square root
of the average variance extracted for each construct confirmed was higher than the
correlations involving the construct (see Table 1), suggesting acceptable discriminant
validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2006).
 Communication Research Reports 327

Table 1 Composite Reliability (CR), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Maximum

Shared Variance (MSV), and Correlation Between Constructs
Correlation between constructs

Constructs CR AVE MSV BI ATT SN PD PI INT


BI 0.95 0.85 0.40 0.92
ATT 0.92 0.78 0.38 0.61 0.89
SN 0.86 0.68 0.40 0.63 0.43 0.82
PD 0.91 0.77 0.36 0.48 0.39 0.60 0.88
PI 0.89 0.74 0.35 0.45 0.44 0.55 0.59 0.86
INT 0.95 0.81 0.30 0.49 0.37 0.54 0.42 0.42 0.90
Downloaded by [University of North Dakota] at 09:40 28 October 2015

Note. BI ¼ Behavioral intentions to interact with page Like Ads on Facebook; ATT ¼ Attitudes toward interact-
ing with page Like Ads on Facebook; SN ¼ Subjective norms; PD ¼ Personal descriptive norms; PI ¼ Personal
injunctive norms; INT ¼ Interpersonal influences.

The numbers in the diagonal row are square roots of the average variance extracted.

Hypotheses Testing
A structural equation modeling (SEM) with maximum likelihood (ML) estimation
was performed using AMOS 21.0 to test the hypothesized model, suggesting a good
degree of fit of the measurement model (Bentler, 1990; Byrne, 2001; Hair et al., 2006).
Figure 1 presents the results of all hypothesized paths.
Standardized path coefficients are provided along the paths. The solid arrow
reflects the significant path, whereas the dashed arrow reflects the nonsignificant
path.

 
Figure 1 The results of hypothesized model. Note. p < .01, p < .001.

v2 (135) ¼ 432.40, p < .001, v2=df ¼ 3.20; GFI ¼ .93; NFI ¼ .96; CFI ¼ .97;
TLI ¼ .97; IFI ¼ .97; RMSEA ¼ .06.
 328 S. Kim et al.
The results indicate that attitudes toward interacting with page Like Ads, subjec-
tive norms, and personal descriptive norms were positively related to individuals’
intentions to interact with page Like Ads on Facebook. This indicates that individuals
who are favorable to interacting with page Like Ads, feel social pressure in terms of
interacting with page Like Ads, and perceive the interaction behaviors to be popular
are more likely to engage in those interaction behaviors in the future. Therefore, H1,
H2, and H3 were supported. However, personal injunctive norms were not signifi-
cantly related to behavioral intentions, indicating that individuals’ perceptions
whether interacting with page Like Ads would be approved by their significant others
do not influence their subsequent interaction behaviors. Thus, H4 was not supported.
Interpersonal influences were positively related to subjective norms, personal descrip-
tive norms, and personal injunctive norms. Therefore, H5a, H5b, and H5c were
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supported.

Discussion
Applying both TRA and SNA in the context of individual behaviors on social
media, this study contributes to expanding the TRA framework and provides practi-
cal implications for media practitioners. Subjective norms were found to be a stron-
ger predictor than attitudes toward the behavior. According to Trafimow and
Fishbein (1994), the predictive power of attitudes and subjective norms varies
according to the type of behaviors. Given the importance of normative perceptions
in determining individual behaviors on social media (Chu & Kim, 2011; Zeng
et al., 2009), the finding indicates that individuals’ interactions with page Like Ads
on Facebook can be considered norm-controlled behaviors.
Prior research on TRA has demonstrated that both attitudes and subjective norms
are useful for predicting individuals’ behaviors (Chu, 2011; Lee & Lee, 2011).
Subjective norms, however, are not comprehensive enough to capture other types
of normative perceptions (e.g., Park & Smith, 2007; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003). Thus,
this study contributes to expanding the normative part of TRA by examining
personal descriptive and injunctive norms as additional predictors of individuals’
behaviors on social media.
In the traditional media environment, there are few interaction functions with
marketing communication messages, and thus, people cannot observe others’ inter-
actions with those messages. Given the emergence of interactive media, including
social media, individuals have been able to actively interact with social media
messages, which are visible to others (Chu & Kim, 2011; Zeng et al., 2009). Conse-
quently, this study highlights the roles of personal norms in predicting individuals’
interactions with advertising messages on social media, suggesting norms as critical
factors to predict people’s behaviors in the social media context.
The findings of this study provide practical implications for media practitioners.
Particularly, given the significant positive influence of subjective norms on behavioral
intentions, strategic communication practitioners are encouraged to create page
Like Ads with socially desirable elements, such as donating money to a charitable
 Communication Research Reports 329

organization in exchange for individuals’ interaction behaviors. When individuals are

exposed to their Facebook friends’ interactions with a page Like Ad with a socially
desirable element, they are more likely to perceive pressure from people in their social
network to interact with the page Like Ad.
The findings of this study also have implications for electronic word of mouth. In
addition to e-mails and online opinion platforms that used to be main platforms for
generating eWOM or conducting viral marketing (Golan & Zaidner, 2008; Phelps,
Lewis, Mobilio, Perry, & Raman, 2004), features available in social media that show
an individual’s evaluations or opinions about media messages (e.g., like, comment,
and share for Facebook; favorite, reply, and retweet for Twitter) can provide various
opportunities generating eWOM and carrying out viral marketing. Therefore, adver-
tising and marketing practitioners are encouraged to strategically adopt these features
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in generating eWOM or conducting viral marketing.

This study has some methodological limitations. Given that this study is based on
a college student sample, the results may not be generalizable to the whole popu-
lation. Additionally, since this study is based on cross-sectional survey data, it may
hard to make causal claims among variables. Nonetheless, this study offered empirical
evidence that normative perceptions are important constructs in understanding indi-
viduals’ interaction behaviors in the context of social media advertising.

Notes
[1] The appendix, which includes all measurement items used in this study, is available upon
request from the corresponding author.
[2] The CFA results are available from the corresponding author.

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