UNIVERSIDAD MAYOR DE SAN ANDRES

FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES Y CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN

LINGÜÍSTICA E IDIOMAS

PROFESSOR : Dr. FERNANDO ESPINOZA.

STUDENTS : APAZA SULLCANI ROXANA

CONDORI SANTOS PATRICIA DANIELA
GAMARRA FLORES ANA LAURA
LAYME GONZA FRANZ VLADIMIR
TANCARA MUGA CINTYA MARICELA
TAPIA CHIRI ANGELICA IRMA
SUBJECT: MORPHOLOGY L2

La Paz – Bolivia

2020
SUMMARY OF THE TEXT SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
WORD FORMATION

In this first part this book explains some concepts about the use of the term word-formation
is of value when the rules for the formation of words are not identical with the rules for the
formation of sentences. However, other languages have various categories of word-
formation set up, but the same syntactic and semantic points.

In other hand, the rules that must be stablished for forming words depend on what counts as
a word in any given language. Words such as the Eskimo might most suitably be
considered as being formed by the rules of syntax, however, Turkish and Latin might be
more suitable to consider the formation of the words as being explained not by syntactic
rules but by rules which depend on syntactie factors.

Despite word formation can denote either a state or a process, and it can be viewed
either diachronically through different periods in history or synchronically at one particular
period in time, the processes involved in word-formation must be fairly strictly limited.

INFLECTION, DERIVATION AND COMPOUNDING

Inflections are words which differ in their endings, not only tense and person, but case and
number ending. On other hand, process of derivation also difference between the classes of
ending, however, the distinction is fairly clear on an intuitive basis.

Compounds is a process of putting two words together to form a third. When speaking
about compound is important the number of elements involved, whether they are written as
one or two words or whether they are hyphenated.

WORD, WORD FORM, LEXEME

The word form has a phonological and orthographic form while a lexeme is a much more
abstract unit, however the word forms represent the lexeme. A word-form always occurs in
context, be it in oral or written form. It is typically characterized by its grammatical. A
word form is a word with meaning and form.

MORPHEME, MORPH, ALLOMORPH, FORMATIVE MORPHOLOGY

When we talk about these definitions we have to start by explaining that morphology is the
study of the structure of word formation and we can analyze it with morphemes, there is a
very clear example, the word form untouchables this can be segmented to show its
constituend elements thus: un - touch - able - s each for this segments has its own form (or
set of forms), its own meanings and its own distribution, thus (un) has the fixed
phonological form /an/ a meaning of negation and recurs in words like untouchables,
unbelievable, undone.

(Touch) has a fixed phonological form and a fixed meaning and recurs in word form like
touched, touches and touchy; (able) has a fixed meaning and recurs in word form like
advisable, comparable, and for for ultimate (s) has a ranger phonetic forms but a constant
meaning of plurality and recurs in words like cats, boys.

None of the segments can be further subdivided into smaller segments which fiction in the
some king of way us they do; each of them represent a morpheme and the morpheme also
represents the minimum grammatical unit.

A morph is a phonological segment (of phonemes) that cannot be divided into smaller parts
that have a grammatical function and corresponds to a word form.

An allomorph is a morph that has a unique set of grammatical or lexical characteristics. All
allomorphs with the same characteristics form a morpheme. in synthesis a morpheme and is
a set of allomorphs that have the same set of characteristics.

For example the morpho 's' is linked to three different allomorphs and these indicate in the
morpheme class,

If it is attached to a noun, mark the plural; if it is attached to a verb, mark the third person
singular of the verb; if it is next to a noun phrase, it indicates possession.

In linguistics we represent it by listing its main allomorph but also each morpheme can
have a different set of allomorphs.

BOUND, FREE

A morph which can occur in isolation is termed a free morph. A morph that only occur in a
word-form in conjunction with at least one other morph is termed a bound morph, can
occur in isolation as a word-form, and is a free morph, while -er and -s can only occur if
they are attached to other morphs, and are bound morphs.

In some languages, like Latin, the morphs that perform lexemes are regularly linked
morphs, the linked morphs that don't realize that unanalyzable lexemes are affixes. Affixes
can be divided into prefixes, which are attached before a base. Infixation is practically
unknown in English. For clear examples of infixation, it is necessary to turn to non-Indo-
European languages. In Bontoc, a Filipino language, for example, fikas means 'strong'
while f • um • ikas means 'it is getting strong', where the infix -um- is added after the initial
consonant of the citation form of the lexeme. In English, as in many other Indo-European
languages, the prefixation is always derived, while the suffixation can be derivative or
inflectional.

PRODUCTIVITY

It is generally said that any process is productive if it can be used synchronously in the
production of new forms, and not productive if it cannot be used synchronously in this way.
In Middle English it was possible to place the subject after the verb in declarative sentences
and to place the object before the verb.The rules that allowed this are no longer productive
in modern English, so they are no longer acceptable in modern English. Productivity can
also be exemplified in word formation.

TRANSPARENT, OPAQUE

A lexeme is said to be transparent if it is clearly analyzable in its constituent morphs and a

knowledge of the morphs involved is sufficient to allow the speaker-listener to interpret the
lexeme when in context. Airmail and blackmail can be analyzed in their constituent
morphs, but while the meaning of airmail is predictable from this information, blackmail is
not, so airmail is transparent, while blackmail it is opaque. Or consider another example,
this time from French, not all forms that can be parsed are necessarily transparent (note the
blackmail mentioned above), so analyzability should not be confused with transparency.

ROOT, STEM, BASE

'Root', 'root' and 'base' are terms used in literature to designate the part of a word that
remains when all affixes have been removed.
A root is a shape that cannot be analyzed further, neither in terms of derived or inflectional
morphology. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflexible and derivational
affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme. In the
untouchable form.

A stem is of interest only when it comes to flexural morphology. It may be, but it does not
have to be, complex, either because it contains derived affixes. In the untouchable form the
stem is untouchable, although in the touched form the stem is touched; In wheelchairs, the
stem is a wheelchair, although the stem contains two roots.

A base is any form to which affixes of any type can be added. This means that any root or
stem can be called a base, but the set of bases is not exhausted by the union of the set of
roots and the set of stems, that is, touchable can act as a basis for the prefixation to be
untouchable, but in this process cannot refer to touchable as root because it is analyzable in
terms of derivational morphology, nor as stem, since it is not the sum of flexures. affixes in
question.

INFLECTION, DERIVATION

In this section, the author begin explain the inflection is a process produced from the stem
of a given lexeme and all the word-forms of the lexeme what occur in a context
syntactically determined; beside the inflections are involved in a closed system, that is to
say, it assign a particular grammatical property without change its category of that word,
the cases that this infection occurs in the aspect of tense, number, possession, or
comparison.

The author means by “closed system” to the add of the one variable into the word and also
he mentions that this distinction in form dates back to the Middle English period when the
more complex inflectional affixes found in Old English were slowly dropping out of the
language and that this meant a radical change to the case-system of English.

The next point about inflection that the text mention is when is talked in term of
commutability that is to say in a series of word-form like bang, calls, covers, loves, tickets,
walks the –s is commutable with –Ø, -ing, -ed; but not with –let and –ish. Other example
in I am covering the wall with paint the –ing can’t commute with –s, -ed, –Ø. But also there
are affixes with criteria inflectional for example in they walked home from school show
high commutability within the sentences with –Ø.

Likewise the text show that morph whose form is specified by rules of agreement are
inflectional, defining agreement like accordance between concord and government,
understanding to concord as the system whereby two or more lexemes are obligatorily
marked for the same morphological categories to show a specific syntactic relationship
between them; for example the agreement between adjectives an nouns in the number and
gender. On the other hand, government like the system whereby one element in a sentence
determines which morpheme is added to another element, for instance, in the prepositions:

He walks into town

He walks in the town
He walks around the town

In first sentences, the preposition in govern the accusative case, and the meaning is
direction; but in the second, in governs the dative case and the meaning is direction.

COMPLEX, COMPOUND

Compound are two (or more) lexemes, which could potentially be used as stems, those are
combined to form another stem. Therefore, Word-formation can now be defined as the
production of complex forms. "Complex is used by other scholars to mean" produced by
derivation. In addition, a form produced by derivation will be termed a derivative. Word-
formation produces complex forms; derivation produces derivatives and compounding
produces compounds.

ENDOCENTRIC, EXOCENTRIC, APPOSITIONAL, DVANDVA

Compound nouns can be further subdivided into four groups according to semantic criteria:

 Endocentric compounds may be headed by other lexical classes (E.g.: armchair).

 Exocentric compounds are there referent of the entire compound is not the same as
the referent of one the composing elements (E.g.: Redskin)
 Dvandva compounds, they are the lexemes that have equal weight, and are in
apposition (E.g. Rank-Hovis).
  Appositional compounds are lexemes that have two contrary attributes that classify
the compound (E.g.: maidservant).

CLASS-MAINTAINING, CLASS-CHANGING

A class-maintaining process of derivation produces lexemes, which belong to the same

form class as the base, while a class-changing process of derivation produces lexemes,
which belong to a form class other than the form class of the base. In English, prefixation is
typically class-maintaining, and derivational suffixation is typically class-changing.

CONVERSION

It is the change in form class of a form without any corresponding change of form. The
exact status of conversion within word-formation is unclear. In addition, conversion is
frequently called zero-derivation, that many authors accepted term.

SUMMARY

Morphology deals with the internal structure of word- forms. In morphology, the analyst
divides word-forms into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing
roots or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of each formative. Morphology
can be divided into two main branches, inflectional morphology and word formation.
Word-formation can be subdivided into derivation and compounding (or composition).
Derivation is sometimes also subdivided into class-maintaining derivation and class-
changing derivation. Compounding is usually subdivided according to the form class of the
resultant compound: that is, into compound nouns, compound adjectives. It may also be
subdivided: exocentric, endocentric, appositional and dvandva compounds.

DERIVATION AND INFLECTION

What is a derivation?

Derivation produces new lexemes. New words can be created and incorporated into the
system.

In Latin the etymologically derived form -sc- appeared in a few verbs like.

For examples:
MATURESCO ‘to ripen’ COGNOSCO

It has an inchoative meaning, it was used to form new lexemes.

Inflection

What is an inflection?

Inflection produces new forms of a single lexeme. Inflection occurs when the word is used
to express various meanings. It occurs with inflections that are used to distinguish its case,
gender, mood, number, voice, etc.

For examples:

Bon bonne

Paysan paysanne

It seems counter- intuitive that the same formal and semantic modification.

There are many instances in which the way a Word is inflected doesn’t seem to follow any
rules, and this are known as irregular inflections.

Or the entire lexeme can change:

For examples:

Can be used as an adjective in that it can be used attributively to modify a noun.

a married man

(Adjective) the destroyed building

a heated argument

Or other words depending in the surroundings:

For examples:

Look a moose (singular)

Look all those moose (plural)