Personal Identification (DACTYLOSCOPY)

NATURE OF FINGERPRINTS

A FINGERPRINT is a composite of the ridge outlines which appears on the skin

surface of the bulbs on the inside of the end of joints of the fingers and thumbs. The
ridges appearing in a fingerprint are commonly referred to as papillary or frictional
ridges. The ridges have a definite contour and appear in definite individual details by
which positive identification can be made.

Take Note:

Ridge – literally, the top of long hill

Ducts – these are little pockets underneath the skin where oils or sweats are
carried by small holes to the surface of the skin.

Ridge Destruction: Creases – little white lines that are found on a fingerprint
that look like sears (burn/blister). These are not permanent, and will not show any
turning or “puckering.” Skin conditions such as warts and blisters of temporary
impairments caused by certain occupations, e.g. bricklayers, carpenters, have no
permanent effect and the individual characteristics revert to their natural alignment once
the temporary skin condition has been corrected.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS

Are there any ancient records concerning the use of Finger and Palm Prints?

1. On the face of a cliff in NOVA SCOTIA, there has been found prehistoric Indian
picture writing of a hand with crudely marked ridge patterns.
2. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets recoding business
transactions in ancient Babylon and clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing
thumbprints. Some of these seals can be seen in the SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C. Chinese documents identified with the
Tang Dynasty (618-907) refer to fingerprint being impressed upon business
contracts. It is conjectural as to what extent these earlier instances of
fingerprinting were intended for actual identification of the persons impressing the
prints. History shows that Emperor Te In Shi was the first on to use fingerprint in
China.
3. In the Bible, Apostle Paul concludes in one of his epistles with the words, “The
Salvation of Paul with my own hand, which is the token in every epistle, so
I write.” Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his finger
impressions as a distinctive signature.
4. In Persia, 14th century, various government papers were reportedly impressed
with fingerprints, and a government official who was also a physician made the
observation that no fingerprints of two persons were exactly alike.
5. In Holland and China, identification of individuals was by means of branding,
tattooing, mutilation, and also manifested by wearing clothes of different designs.
6. In Old Mexico, the Aztecs impressed their hands accidentally or intentionally on
the molded and still soft clays of their hand-made idols to serve as their trade
marks. The authorities stamped their hands on the death warrants for the men
and women who offered their lives to sacrifice for their idol-gods.
7. In France, numerous rock carvings and paintings featuring hand designs and
fingerprints have been found on the granite wall slabs in the Neolithic burial
passage of the L’lle de Gavr’nis. Other specimens were also found in the
Spanish Pyrunees caverns, the numerous digital relics left by Indiana at
Keuimkooji Lake in cliff dwellings in Nova Scotia, in the Balearic Islands,
Australis, New England coasts and in Africa.
8. In Babylonia, the first use of fingerprints for personal identification originated
when Babylonian Magistrates ordered their officers in making arrests and
property confiscation to secure the defendants’ fingerprints.
9. Kom Ombo Plain, on the east bank of river Nile, Egypt, lump of hundred much
found in Sebekian deposit which shows a portion of an adult palm during 12,000
B.C.
10. In Judea, Paul, the Apostle, used his own fingerprints to sign his letters (II
Thessalonians 3:17 – “I, Paul, greet you with my own hand. This is the mark in
every letter. Thus I write.”). Other significant quotations are found in Job 37:7 –
“He sealeth up the hand of all men, that every one may know his works.”
Revelations 13:16 – “It will cause all, the small and the great, and the rich and
the poor, and the free and the bond, to have mark on their right hand or on
foreheads.”
11. In Jerusalem, fingerprint relics were found in clay lumps during the 4 th and 5th
centuries of the Christian Era. The excavation of Palestine by the late Dr. Bade
yielded fragments of such specimens (fingerprints).
12. In China, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purposes
of identification was found on a Chinese clay seal made not later than the 3 rd
century B.C.
13. During the Tang Dynasty, fingerprints were used in connection with the
preparation of legal documents. Kia Yung-yen, an author during this time stated
that, “Wooden tablets were engraved with the full terms of the contract, and
notches were cut in the sides where they were identical so that the tablets could
later be matched or tallied, thus proving them genuine.”
14. The code of domestic relations as described in the Chinese Law Book of Yang
Hwui states: “To divorce a wife, the husband must write a bill of
divorcement and state the reasons or grounds that are due for action, and
then impress his palmprint thereon.” For contracts, fingerprints were also
used as signatures of those who were illiterates, who could neither read nor
write. This was under the subject of “Land Tenure.”
15. Early in the 12th century, in the novel, “The Story of the River Bank,”
fingerprinting found itself already in the criminal procedure of China; and in the
16th century, a custom prevailed in connection with the sale of children.
 16. In Japan, deeds, dotes, and certificates to be used as proofs were sealed by the
mark of the hand (Palm-print) called “Tegata.” In the treatment of criminals, the
imprint of the thumb (bo-in or bo-an) was taken. The criminal signed only by
thumb-print with regard to his sentence and it was considered as an inferior sort
of signature.
17. In Constantinople, in a treaty of ratification, the sultan soaked his hand in a
sheep’s blood and impressed it on the document as his seal.
18. In England, Thomas Bewick, an English engraver, author, and naturalist
engraved the patterns of his own fingers on every wood-work he had finished to
serve as his mark so as to establish its genuineness.

Are there any early publication concerning Fingerprints?

1. 1684-Nehemiah Grew published a report which was read before the royal
society of London, England. He described the ridges and pores of the hands and
feet.
2. 1685-G. Bidloo published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges.
3. 1685-Midle wrote a book, “Human Anatomy,” in which he included a drawing of
the thumb print showing the ridge configuration of the whorl pattern.
4. 1686-Professor Marcelo Malpighi, an Italian anatomist (GRANDFATHER OF
DACTYLOSCOPY according to Dr. Edmond Locard – “Father of Poroscopy”),
commented in his writings on elevated ridges on the fingertips and alluded to
diverse figures on palmar surfaces.
5. 1751-Hintzo wrote on the ridge formation, but dealt with the subject from the
viewpoint of anatomy rather than identification.
6. 1764-Albinus followed along the same lines as Hintzo had written.
7. 1788-J.C.A. Mayer stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein Nebst Dazu
Geharigen) that although the arrangement of the skin ridges is never duplicated
in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are closer among some individuals.
8. 1823-Johannes Evangelist Purkinje, (FATHER OF DACTYLOCOSPY) a
Czechoslovakian professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published a
thesis in Latin (Commentio de Examine Physiogico Organi Visus Et
systematis Cutansi – A Commentary of the Physiological Examination
System: Dec. 22, 1823, Breslau, Germany) describing the ridges, giving them
names and established certain rules for classification (nine groups). He involves
vague differentiation of fingerprints or use them for identification.
9. 1856-Herman Welcker took the prints of his own palm. In 1897, (forty one years
later) he printed the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (Principle
of Permanency).
10. 1883-Kollman, an anthropologist who wrote his book on ridges and pores. He
did not associate fingerprints with identification.

What are the historical events concerning Fingerprints as Method of

Identification?
1. 1858-Sir William J. Herschel (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY), in Hoogly, district
of Bengal, India, he used fingerprints in India to prevent fraudulent collection of
army pay account and for identification of other documents. He printed the palms
of natives in order to avoid impersonation among laborers. Prints of the entire
palms were used instead of signatures. The first person Herschel printed
appears to have been one RAJYADHAR KONAI.
2. 1880-Dr. Henry Faulds, an English (Scottish) doctor stationed in Tokyo, Japan,
wrote a letter to the English publication, “NATURE” – “On the Skin Furrows of
the Hand”, (dtd Oct. 28, 1880) on the practical use of fingerprints for the
identification of criminals. He recommended the use of a thin film of printers ink
as a transfer medium and is generally used today.
3. 1880-Sir Francis Galton, a noted British anthropologist and a cousin of scientist
Charles Darwin began observation which led to the publication in 1882 of his
book “Fingerprints.” Galton’s studies established the individuality of classifying
fingerprint patterns.
4. 1882-Gilbert Thompson, a U.S. geological surveyor in charge of a field project
in New Mexico used his own fingerprints in commissary orders to prevent
forgery.
5. Isaiah West Taber – A photographer in San Francisco advocated the use of the
system for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.
6. 1883-An episode in Mark Twain’s life on the Mississippi relates to the
identification of a murderer by his thumbprint.
7. Twain (Samuel L. Clemens) further developed his theme. Eleven (11) years
later, he causes the publication of “Puddin Head Wilson”, a novel based on
dramatic fingerprint identification demonstrated during a court trial. His story
pointed out the infallibility of fingerprint identification.
8. 1888-Sir Edward Richard Henry, succeeded Sir William J. Herschel at his post
in India. He became interested in fingerprints and devised a classification of his
own and published his work in book form and titled it “Classification and Uses
of Fingerprints.”
9. 1889-Sir Richard Henry at Dove, England read a paper detailing his system
before the British association for Advancement of Science.
10. 1891-Juan Vucetich, an Argentinean police official, installed fingerprints files as
an official means of criminal identification; based his system of the pattern typed
by Sir Francis Galton; and he also claimed the first official criminal identification
by means of fingerprints left at the scene of crime.
11. In 1892, at La Piata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas who had murdered her
two sons and had cut her own throat, though not fatal, blamed the attack on a
neighbor. Bloody fingerprints on a door post were identified by Vucetich as those
of the woman herself which led to her confession.
12. 1892-Sir Francis Galton, an English Biologist, wrote his first textbook. He
devised a practical system of classification and filing. 1894-Sir Francis Galton’s
report on fingerprint as a method of identification, along with his system, was
read at Asquith Committee of London, England. His system was officially
adopted on February 12, 1894.
 13. 1900-Alphonse Bertillon’s system of body measurement had by this time
spread throughout the world.
14. 1901-Sir Edward Richard Henry was appointed assistant commissioner at
Scotland Yard. His system was so applicable that Henry emerged as the “Father
of Fingerprints,” at least as the first man to successfully apply fingerprints for
identification. 1901-marked the official introduction of fingerprinting for criminal
identification in England and Wales.
15. The system employed was developed from Galton’s observation and devised by
Edward Richard Henry, the Inspector-General of Police in Bengal, India. He later
became commissioner of London’s Metropolitan Police.
16. 1914-Fingerprints were officially adopted in France, replacing Bertillon age.

What are the important dates concerning the development and use of fingerprint
in the United States?

1. 1882-Gilbert Thompson of the Us Geodetic survey used thumb print for camp
orders on an expedition to New Mexico. This was not official but it was proven
useful (the record was dated Aug. 8, 1882).
2. 1902-Sir Henry P. Forest, chief Medical examiner of New York Civil Service
Commission and an American preacher in fingerprint science in the US for the
New York Civil Service commission to prevent applicants from having better-
qualified persons to take the test for them.
3. The New York Civil Service Commission, on Dec. 19, 1902 required all civil
service applicants to be fingerprinted. Dr. Henry P. Forest, put the system into
practice.
4. 1903-New York State Prison in Albany claims the first practical, systematic use
of fingerprints in the US to identify criminals.

5. 1903-Fingerprints identification was adopted in the following penitentiaries:

Singing Sing, Napanoch, Auborn and Clinton prisons
6. Captain James Parke of the institution installed the identification system where
the fingerprints of prisoners were taken and classified and the fingerprint system
was officially adopted in June of the year. Today, New York State uses the
American system that is similar to the Henry System and represents the system
initiated by Capt. Parke in 1903.
7. 1904-Maj. R. Mccloughry, the warden of the Federal Penitentiary of
Leavenworth when the office of the Atty. General of the U.S. granted permission
to establish a fingerprint bureau therein. It was the first national government use
of fingerprints.
8. 1904-John Kenneth Ferrer (Perrier) of the Fingerprint Branch of the New
Scotland Yard, attended the St. Louis Missouri Worlds Fair. He had been
assigned to guard the British Crown Jewels. American police officials became
interested in fingerprint through him and he became their instructor.
9. 1904-The City of St. Louis Missouri, became the first city to adopt fingerprint.
The police department officials adopted the system on October 29, 1904.
10. 1905-Fingerpritning was officially adopted by the U.S. Army. It was known as
the first military use of fingerprint.
11. 1907-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Navy (January 11, 1907).
12. 1908-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps.
13. 1910-Frederick A. Brayley published what appears to be the first American
book in fingerprints.
14. 1911-The State of Illinois, made the first criminal conviction based solely upon
fingerprint evidence. It was known as the first judicial ruling on such evidence,
(People vs Jennings, 252 Illinois 543-96 NE 1007, 43 LRA (NS) 1206 for 1991).
15. 1915-The International Association for Criminal Identification was founded.
The word “criminal” was later dropped from the Association’s name. It is the first
organized body of professional identification experts.
16. 1916-The Institution of Applied Science established at Chicago, Illinois was
the first school to teach fingerprint identification (June 16, 1916).
17. 1916-Frederick Kuhne published a book entitled “The Fingerprint Instructor,”
which probably the first authoritative book in fingerprint to be circulated in the
U.S. Munn and Co., served as the publisher.
18. 1919-Marked the publication of “Fingerprint and Identification Magazine”
(Chicago). The first monthly journal devoted exclusively to fingerprint science,
(July 1919).
19. 1920-The Exceptional Arch, a new pattern, was adapted to Henry’s system by
American experts. The pattern was added after the study made by the assembly
members at annual convention of the International Association for Identification
in 1920.
20. 1922-Haken Jersengen, the sub-director of police in Copenhagen, Denmark
introduced first a long distance identification to U.S. at a police conference here.
The method was adopted and published in a magazine entitled “Publications” of
the International Police Conference, (New York City Police Department, 1932).
21. Mary K. Holland – the first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy.
22. 1924-The Identification Division of the FBI was established after J. Edgar
Hoover was appointed Director.
23. 1924-The book entitled “Single Fingerprint System” by T.K. Larson, was first
published in U.S., (Berkley, Police Monograph Series) D. Application and Co.,
New York City.
24. 1924-The First National Bureau of Identification was created by the act of
Congress. The bureau was established within the U.S. DOJ (Washington DC).
25. 1925-Harry J. Myers II installed the first official fact fingerprint system for infants
in Jewish Maternity Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
26. 1925-The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania used compulsory foot and
fingerprinting of new born infants and mothers which was enacted into law by Act
of General Assembly as approved on April 20, 1925.
27. 1932-The International Exchange of Fingerprint date was initiated with a
number of other nations on February 15, 1932.
28. 1933-The Bureau of Identification, U.S. Department of Justice, adopted the
single fingerprint identification system. The first national use of single print for
identification purposes for certain crimes only, (Feb. 1933).
29. 1933-Latent fingerprints section, for making technical examination of latent prints
or have inked prints on an individual basis was instituted on November 10, 1933.
The Civil Identification on Section was established.

30. 1937-The Institute of Applied Science installed Photographic and Firearms

Identification (Forensic Ballistics) laboratories. The institute was the first private
school in U.S. which installed laboratories for instructional purposes only.
31. 1938-A book by Harry J. Myers II, “History of Identification of fingerprints in
U.S.” was published in Fingerprint and Identification Magazine (Chicago, Illinois,
Vol. 20, no. 4, Oct. 1938).
32. 1946-the 100th millionth fingerprint card was received in the identification
division of the FBI. The total grew to 152 million in May 11, 1959.
33. 1967-“Minutiae” was initiated by the FBI, a computerized scanning equipment to
read and record fingerprint identifying characteristics.
34. 1972-the prototype automatic fingerprint reader was delivered.
35. 1973-implementation of the first phase of the automated Identification System
(AIS-1), which was to establish the database consisting of the name, description,
and criminal record of all first offenders with birthdates of 1956.
36. 1978-Journal of Forensic Science – reported that certain properties of
perspiration and body oils contained in latent print residue will luminesce without
pre-treatment and to a degree that photographs could be taken when activated
by continuous Argon-ION Laser. Hence, the FBI’s Latent Print Detection
System was put into use.
37. 1979-AIS-2 replaced AIS-1. This phase involved the automated searching by
name and other descriptor information of incoming fingerprint cards against the
database.
38. 1979 (Oct. 17, 1979)-A latent fingerprint was developed and lifted from the hand
of a victim in Miami, Florida murder resulting in identifying the suspect. This was
the first known case where a fingerprint from a human skin was used in the
identification, prosecution and conviction of a perpetrator of a crime.
39. 1982-Missing Children Act was signed into law which requires the Attorney
General to acquire, collect, classify, and preserve any information which would
assist in the location of any missing person (including an unemancipated person
as defined by the laws of the place of residence of such person) or assist in the
identification of any deceased individual who have not been identified.
40. 1983-Completion of the conversion of the FBI criminal fingerpint searching from
manual to automated searching. Also, AIS records became available by mail
upon request of the National Crime Information Center’s (NCIC’s) interstate
identification index (III) – an interstate record exchange.
41. 1984-AIS records became available “ON-LINE” through the NCIC program.
Records from the NCIC and AIS, and participating state and local
telecommunication networks became available w/in seconds to authorized
criminal justice agencies.
42. 1985 (Jan. 2) – a contract was awarded for building the final phase of the
Identification Division Automated System (IDAS).
 43. 1989-IDAS implementation. Its features are: integrated document transport
equipment; on-line automated technical fingerprint search; and simplified
processing flow. All, for expeditious response time of fingerprint cards.

What about Historical Development of Fingerprints in the Philippines?

1. 1900-Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Phil.
Constabulary.
2. 1918-The Bureau of Prisons records show that carpetas (commitment and
conviction records) already bear fingerprints.
3. Under the management of Lt. Asa N. Darby during the American occupation in
the Philippines, a modern and complete fingerprint file has been established for
the Philippine commonwealth.
4. 1937-The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Phil.
Constabulary was Mr. Generoso Reyes. Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City
Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Gurrero of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) gave the first examinations in fingerprints.
5. 1933-The first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme
Court of the Phil. in the case People vs. Medina and this case is considered the
leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence concerning fingerprinting
(December 23).
6. The science of fingerprinting was first offered as a subject in the Philippines
through the effort of the Plaridel Educational Institution.

STUDYING FINGERPRINTS

What are the basic principles of Fingerprint Science? (3 dogmatic Principles)

1. Principle of Individuality (Variation) – There are no two fingerprints that are

exactly alike unless taken from the same finger.

2. Principle of Permanency (Constancy/Perennial/Immutable) – The

configuration and details of individual ridges remain constant and unchanging till
after the final decomposition of the body.

3. Principle of Infallibility – That fingerprint is a reliable means of personal

identification and all courts accept and adopt fingerprint as a means of personal
identification.

What are the two main layers of the Skin?

1. Outer scarf or Epidermis

2. Inner Scarf or Dermis
Take Note:

1. Stratum Malpighi or the layer of the Malpighi – the ridges are formed into
patterns by virtue of the fact that the epidermis is penetrated and molded by the
dermal papillae
2. Damage to the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge
destruction, whereas damage to the dermis will result to permanent ridge
destruction
3. We can identify many fingerprints which we cannot classify.

State the principal uses of fingerprints - Some of the uses of fingerprinting include:

1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the scene of

the crime
2. Identification of fugitive through a comparison of fingerprints
3. Assistance to prosecutors in presenting their cases in the light of
defendants’ previous records
4. Imposition of more equitable sentence by the courts
5. Furnishing identification data to probation and parole officers and to
parole boards for their enlightenment in decision making
6. Exchanging of criminal-identifying information with identification
bureaus of foreign countries in cases of mutual interest
7. Means of personal identification
8. Recognition by the government of honored dead
9. Identification of unknown deceased
10. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants
11. Identification of persons suffering from amnesia where fingerprints are
on file
12. Identification of missing person
13. Personal identification of victims of disaster works
14. Identification of unconscious persons; and
15. Licensing procedures for automobile, firearms, aircraft and other
equipment.

Give some important Events, Dates or Personalities showing the basis of the
Legality of Fingerprinting

1. In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of the People vs. Jennings (252 Ill. 534,
96NE 1077 (1911) ) pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.
2. In that case, fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of identification may
give their opinions as to whether the fingerprints found at the scene of the crime
correspond with those of the accused. The court’s conclusion were based on a
comparison of the photographs of such prints with the impressions made by the
accused, there being no question as to the accuracy or authenticity of the
photographs. It was stated that the weight to be given to the testimony of experts
in the fingerprint identification is a question for the jury.

3. Following the Illinois case was one in New Jersey, State vs. Cerciello, in which
fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced
4. In the Cerciello Case, the defendant argued that it was an error to allow the
testimony by experts explaining the comparison of fingerprints obtained from the
defendant voluntarily with those fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the body
of the deceased when the body was discovered. The New Jersey Court of Errors
and Appeals held, “in principle, its admission as legal evidence is based upon the
theory that the evolution in practical affairs of life, whereby the progressive and
scientific tenderness of the age are manifested in every other department of
human endeavor, cannot be ignored in legal procedure.

5. In the case of State vs. Conners (87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812 (1915) ) it was held
competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints upon the balcony post of a
house entered, without producing that post in court, and to show by expert
testimony hat the fingerprints found on the post were similar to the fingerprints of
the defendant.

6. In the case of Lamble vs. State (Lamble V. State, 96 N. T. L. 231; 114 ATL.
(N.J.) 346 (1921) ) which involved the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an
automobile, the court was of the opinion that it was not necessary to produce the
door as an evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the fingerprints noted
on the door should be sufficient along with the identification of the fingerprints by
an expert to show these of the defendant. The court referred the case of States
V. Conners (Supra).

7. In the case of Commonwealth vs. Albright, (101 Pa. Sup. C.L. 317 (1931) ) a
fingerprint expert testified that the fingerprint on a piece of glass, establish to be
from a pane in a door that had been broken to effect entrance to the house was
the same as the impression of the defendant’s left index finger and he explained
in detail the points of identity which led him to that judgment. The court stated,
“it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on the fingers of every man,
woman and child possess an individual character different from those of any
person and that the chances that the fingerprints of two different persons may be
identical are infinitesimally remote.

8. In a California case, People vs. Coral (224 cal. 2d300 (1964( ), the court stated,
“it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the
 identity of a person.” This Doctrine was reasserted in another California case,
People V. Riser (47 cal. 2d566 (1956) ) in which the court stated, “fingerprint
evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone to
identify the defendant.”

9. The US Supreme Court in the case of Schmerber vs. California (Schmerber v.

California, 384 us, 757, 763 764 (1966) ), held that the introduction into evidence
of fingerprint impressions taken without consent of the defendant was not an
infringement of the constitutional privilege against self incrimination. The high
court held that it is constitutional to obtain real or physical evidence even if the
suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital environment, submit to
fingerprinting, photographing or measurement, write or speak for identification,
appears in court, stand or walk, assume a stance or make a particular gesture,
put on a cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as evidence when it is material.
The Schmerber case points out the fact that the privilege against self-
incrimination is related primarily to “TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION”.

10. In the Philippines, several decided cases could be cited where fingerprint
evidence was admitted, considered and appreciated by the appellate courts with
even lesser number of ridge similarities. In the BILANGAWA vs. AMADOR
case, (Court of Appeals No. 37320-b), a fingerprint expert and constabulary
sergeant testified and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight
identical ride points.

11. People vs. Medina (59 Phil. 330) - The first leading judicial decision in the
Philippine jurisprudence on the science of fingerprinting.

Admissibility of Fingerprint Testimony

Expert’s testimony as to the identity of thumb marks or fingerprints is admissible.

The method of identifying fingerprints is a science requiring close study. Where thumb
impressions are blurred and many of the characteristic marks far from clear, thus
rendering it difficult to trace the features enumerated by experts as showing the identity
of the impressions, the court is justified in refusing to accept the opinion that a distinct
similarity in some respects between the admittedly genuine thumb mark and the
questioned thumb mark is evident.

This method of identification of persons has become a fixed part of our “SYSTEM
OF JURISPRUDENCE”. Proof of the accused found in the place where the crime was
committed under such circumstances that they could only have been impressed at the
time when the crime was committed may be sufficient proof of identity to sustain
conviction.
Number of Ridge Characteristics as Basis for Absolute Identity

There are no national or international rules or laws that fix the number of ridge
characteristics that must be present in both the questioned and standard prints that
should be used as a basis for establishing absolute identity. Experts of different
countries differ in the requirements of the minimum number. In England, the minimum
is 16 and in USA, the minimum requirement is 12. However, fingerprint experts in these
countries believe that identity can be established in lower number of guidelines laid
down by the famous French Criminalist Dr. Edmond Locard:

1. Clearness of the pattern.

2. Rarity of the type
3. Presence of core or delta in the decipherable part
4. Presence of pores
5. The perfect and clear identity of the width of ridges and furrows, of the
direction of the lines, and the angular value of the furrows.

Weight of Fingerprint

The weight to be given to evidence of correspondence of fingerprint when offered

to prove identity of the accused as the person committing a crime is for the
determination of the court in the light of all the surrounding facts and circumstances.

To warrant a conviction the fingerprints corresponding to those of the accused

must have been found in the place where the crime was committed under such
circumstances that they could only have been impressed at the time when the crime
was committed.

Can Fingerprint be destroyed?

John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, attempted to erase

his fingerprints by burning them with acid but as time went by the ridges were again
restored to their “natural” feature. The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the
epidermis of the bulbs of his fingers but re occur later.

Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful experiments on

themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal had
shown that after the healing of the epidermis (outer skin), the original patterns of
fingerprints reappeared.

Can Fingerprints be forged?

The authorities conducted various experiments and although they could almost
make an accurate reproduction’s till there is no case on record known or have been
written that forgery of fingerprints has been a complete success.
Give the reasons why Fingerprints is one of the most Infallible Means of Personal
Identification

1. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and

will remain unchanged throughout life until the final decomposition of the body.
2. The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar
characteristics upon which a person can always be identified by fingerprint
examiners.
3. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world
accept, adopt and utilize the fingerprint system as a means of absolute
identification of a person.
4. The court and other authorities had taken cognizance of its importance and
reliability as a means of identification.
5. That fingerprint will speak for itself as it shows the owner thereof in
accordance with the principle of re ipso liquitor (a thing will speak for itself).

FINGERPRINT CHARACTERISTICS AND FORMATIONS

Allied Sciences of Fingerprints

Dactyloscopy – identification of persons through examination and comparison of

fingerprint. Taken from Greek words: Dactylos – a finger and skopien – to examine

1. Poroscopy – Science of palm print identification.

2. Chiroscopy – Science of palm print identification.
3. Podoscopy – Science of foot print identification.

Pattern Interpretation

1. Arches – 5%
2. Loops – 60%
3. Whorls – 35%

Take Note: According to studies, the appearance of arches is less followed by

whorls and the loops.

What are the Types of Ridge Formation?

1. Recurving ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in which it

started.
2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose
closed end is angular and serves as a point of convergence.
3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly
separating, one ridge going one way and the other ridge, another way.
4. Bifurcating ridges – A single ridge which splits into two ridges forming a “Y”
shape formation or structure.
5. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – it is a single ridge which bifurcates where the
bifurcating ridges converge at a certain point to form again into a single ridge.
6. Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or
dots.
7. Short or Series of Short Ridges – they are fragmentary ridges formed by
short or series of short ridges.
8. Ridge Ending - It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
9. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of short
ridges embodied intensely. These ridges are considered in the classification of
fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick as the surrounded ridges within
the pattern area.
10. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in
length than the main ridge.
11. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
12. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed,
thin, short or broken which appears in the depressions between two well formed
ridges.
13. Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any
appendage, and a butting at right angle.
14. Appendage – A short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right
angle.
15. Core – It is a point on a ridge formation usually located at the center or heart
of a pattern.
16. Delta or Triradial Point – It a point on the first ridge formation at or directly in
front or near the center of the divergence of the type lines.
17. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
18. Friction ridges – Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our
fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are made. They are also called
papillary ridges or epidermal ridges.
19. Furrows – Are depressions or canals between the ridges which maybe
compared with the low area in a tire tread.
20. Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a
loop pattern.
21. Up thrust - Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from
a horizontal place.
22. Dissociated ridges – are unusual ridge structures having no well defined
patterns; the ridges are extremely short, appear like a series of “patches” caused
by a disturbance of developmental process at early fetal life of the individuals.
23. Shoulder of a loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely
turns or curves.
24. Puckering – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curl slightly.
25. Creases – Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or
formed side to side, across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
26. Staple – Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
 27. Spike – an ending ridge at the center of a pattern which forms the up thrust.

Type Lines and Pattern Area

1. Type line – basic boundaries of most fingerprints.

2. Pattern area – The part of the fingerprint which lies within the area
surrounded by the type lines.

What are the Rules on Core and Delta Location?

The rules in CORE location are:

1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains ending ridges or rod rising as
high as the shoulder of the loop further from the delta. The exemption to this rule
is when both shoulders are equidistant to the center of the sufficient recurve.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising
as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod
whether it touches the looping ridge or not.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the further one of the
two center rods, the two rods being treated as though they were connected by a
recurving ridge.

Take Note - Always base on the entrance of the pattern in the fingerprint.

The rule in DELTA location is:

1. A dot can be a delta when there is no other alternative.

Rules in Delta location when there is a choice between two or more Delta

1. The delta may be located at a bifurcation which does open towards the core.
2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta,
equally close to the point of divergence, the bifurcation is selected.
 3. When there is a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at the point of
divergence of two type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the
delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the
type lines toward the cores but at the nearer end only. The location of the delta
depends entirely upon the point of origin of the ridge between the type lines
toward the core.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from the point below the divergent type
lines. The delta must be located at the end nearer (inner terminus) to the core.

Ridge counting and Ridge tracing

1. Ridge Counting – It refers to the process of counting the intervening ridges that
touch or cross an imaginary lien drawn between the core and the delta.

Take Note - It applies only to loops.

2. Ridge Tracing – Is the process of tracing the ridges that emanate from the lower
side of the left delta towards the right delta to see where it flows in relation to the
right delta.

Divisions of Fingerprint Patterns

A. LOOPS
1. ulnar
2. radial

B. ARCHES
1. Tented
2. Plain

C. WHORLS
1. Plain whorl
2. Central pocket loop whorl
3. Double loop whorl
4. Accidental whorl

RULES ON FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

1. Radial Loop - “R” - derived its name from the radius bone of the forearm; it is
one type of fingerprint patterns in which the ridges run its direction to the radius
bone or to the thumb.
2. Ulnar Loop is one type of fingerprint pattern in which the ridges flow toward the
ulnar bone or little finger. Ulnar loop therefore derived its name from the ulna
bone of the forearm, or little finger. Its symbol is letter “U” in classification
purposes.

Take Note - A pattern to be a loop must have the following four (4)
essential requisites:
a. It must have a core
b. It must have a delta
c. An imaginary line must pass between
the core and the delta
d. It must have a ridge count of a minimum
of at least one (1)

3. Plain Whorl - Symbolized by letter “W” in the classification. It is a fingerprint

pattern which there are two (2) deltas and in which at least one (1) ridge makes a
turn through one complete circuit, an imaginary line drawn between the two (2)
deltas must touch or cross at least one (1) of the circuiting whorl ridges within
the pattern area.

4. Central Pocket Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “C “ in the classification. It

is a fingerprint pattern which for the most part of a loop, but which has a small
whorl inside the loop ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern, which
means that it is made up of two (2) patterns in one, a whorl inside a loop.
It has two (2) deltas, one of which appears as the edge of the pattern area, as in
plain loop. And one shows inside the pattern area just below the counterpart
ridges.

5. Double Loop Whorl - Symbolized by letter “D” in the classification. A double

loop whorl is a pattern consisting of two (2) separate and distinct loop formations.
One of the loops surrounds or overlaps the other, also called COMPOSITE
PATTERN, like the central pocket loop whorl. It arises from the fact that these
patterns are a composite or combination of two 92) patterns in one, with two
cores and two deltas.

6. Accidental Whorl - Symbolized by letter “X” in the classification. It is a pattern

which is a combination of two or more different types of pattern except in the
PLAIN ARCH. It is a pattern which is a combination of two or more different
types of pattern except in the PLAIN ARCH. It can be a combination of a loop
and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop whorl, or any combination of two or
more different loops and whorl type patterns.

7. Plain Arch - Symbolized by letter “A” in the classification. It is a fingerprint

pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern and flow towards the
other side with a rise at the center with not more than one of the four (4) essential
 requisites for loop pattern and with no recurving ridge, no angular formation and
no upward thrust.

Take Note - It enters to the left and flows towards the right.

8. Tented Arches - Symbolized by letter “T” in the classification. It is a variety of

arch family, but their ridge formations are not simple as those of the plain arch,
also considered TRANSITIONAL PATTERN between a plain arch and a loop.
Generally speaking, TENTED ARCHES are formed in any of these three (3) way
formations, to wit:

a. One or several ridges in the center of the form an up thrust.

b. The ridge or ridges in the center formed a well defined angle.
c. The pattern may have two or three or four essential requisites of a
loop pattern.

Take Note - An up thrust must have an ending

ridge.

REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Real Impressions - Impressions of the finger bulbs with the use of the printing
ink on the surface of the paper. Any other coloring materials may be used but less
visible and indelible.

Methods of Producing Real Impressions

1. Plain Method.
2. Rolled Method

Methods of Recording real Fingerprints

Step 1- Ink the roller. Apply a small amount (about ¼ inch long stream) of
fingerprint ink on the right side of the slab, toward the back. Roll out a two to three inch
wide layer of ink on the back portion of the slab-lifting the roller off the slab after each
stroke and return to the starting point (do not use a back-and-forth motion with the
roller). Repeat several times until a thin film of ink forms on the roller.

Step 2 - Next, using the same roller motion (without rolling back and forth),
spread the layer toward the front edge of the slab, until a smooth, uniform coating of ink
forms. The front edge is where the fingerprints are rolled. When the ink on the front
edge becomes too thin, replenish the ink roller on the back edge of the slab and repeat
step two.
 Porelon Pad Method - No advance preparation is needed to use the Porelon
pad. However, the pad surface should be cleaned occasionally to remove oil and dirt
deposits by wiping the surface lightly with a soft, dry, lint-free cloth.

Print Matic Method - Like the slab and roller method, the Print matic method
requires that the ink is embedded within the Print Matic roller, and coating the slab
requires only a few passes of the roller in the same direction to apply a thin, even layer
of ink.

Equipment Used in Preparation for Taking Fingerprint using Slab and Roller
Method

1. INKING PLATE – A 12 inches plate is long enough for most set of 0 fingers. The
width of the plate should not be less than 8 inches, ten (10) is a better width. A
10 inch plate is also wide enough to ink a complete palm in one operation
whenever it becomes necessary.
2. CARD HOLDER – The simplest is a U-shaped spring clamp. Made of spring
steel, stainless steel or brass of gauge sufficient to hold its shape in heavy
usage.
3. ROLLER – 6 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter. The handle should have
supporting posts or legs to suspend the rubber roller from developing flat sides
and to keep unused portions of the plate and table top from being smeared with
ink.
4. INK - black printers ink is the most commonly used for taking fingerprint
impression. It is a consistency suitable for rolling into a thin film and it is quick
drying when transferred to a card as an inked impression. Yet it does not dry too
fast. Usable for several hours after a film has been rolled.

What are the reasons why FOUNTAIN PEN INK, COLORED INK AND STAMP
PAD INK are objectionable to be used as fingerprint ink?

a. They are too thin

b. Dry too quickly
c. Stamp pad smears easily
d. Impressions using stamp pad reproduce ‘weave” of the pad stamp
covering the inked impression.
e. Unsatisfactory for comparison purposes.

5. FINGERPRINT STAND – 32 inches high, the inking surface of a fingerprint stand

should be approximately 12 inches above the top of an ordinary desk making the
printing surface approximately 44 inches from the floor for the average person.
6. STANDARD EIGHT BY EIGHT INCHES FINGERPRINT CARD – It is found to
be adequate for receiving five rolled impressions across the card the size
convenient for handling and filing.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN TAKING LEGIBLE FINGERPRINTS

 1. Cleanliness of equipment
2. The right kind and correct amount of ink.
3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.
4. The distance of the subject from the inking on the fingerprint card.
5. The advice of the operator to the subject to relax and never to aid in the
operation.
6. The pressure exerted must be slight and even the rolling be continuous
movement including lifting.
7. The nail of the fingers should be at rights angle to the slab or to the card before
starting the rolling and always roll the fingers until the other side of the nail is
reached (180 degrees).
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first of the fingers.
9. The thumbs should be rolled towards the subject’s body and all other fingers
away from the subject’s body.

STEPS IN TAKING FINGERPRINTS

1. The first and most important step is clear the plate thoroughly.
2. A daub of printer’s ink is deposited near the edge of the plate away from the
operator.
3. The subject’s hand and fingers must be relaxed.

STANCE FOR TAKING PRINTS

Most operators stand on the left side of the person whose prints are being taken
for the simple reason that more people are right handed and then normally work more
efficiently and do better advantage toward the right. Therefore, most fingerprint stands
are made so that the printing is done on the left front corner.

Take Note:

Rolled Impression – the subject must be relaxed

Plain Impression – the subject may not be relaxed

FINGER DISABILITIES THAT NEED EXTRA-ATTENTION IN TAKING PRINTS

1. Temporary Disabilities

a. fresh cuts or wounds or bandaged fingers

 b. Occupational marks (dry skin) – carpenters, bricklayers, etc.
c. Excessive perspiration

2. Permanent Disabilities

a. lack of fingers – in-born or amputated

b. crippled fingers – bent or broken
c. deformities – webbed, extra fingers (poly dactyl)
d. old age
e. split fingers/thumbs

EXTRAORDINARY TAKING OF REAL FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

1. Excessively sweating fingers - Impressing shall be made after temporarily

suppressing sweating by wiping fingers with a lightly squeezed piece of gauze to
which formalin alcohol liquid (100 ml. of ethyl alcohol liquid containing 1-3 ml. of
formalin pharmacopoeia) is applied.

2. Fingers with stiff joints - Impressing shall be made after shaking a subject’s
hand grasped by the wrist up and down several times to smoothen the joint
movement. In this case, if the impressing plate and the glass plate are placed
somewhat higher while having the subject stand somewhat away from the table,
handling would be easier.

3. Fingers with stiff surface skin, coarse fingers and fingers suffering from
dermatophytosis - Wrap fingers in a steamed towel for several minutes then
impress. In this case, somewhat denser ink and somewhat weaker impressing
will be better.

FINGERPRINT IMPRESSING TECHNIQUE FOR A DEAD BODY

1. Fingers soon after death - Wipe out fingers with a piece of gauze containing
alcohol if they are stained. In case where satisfactory roll impressions are not
obtainable by the ordinary impressing technique, the impression paper shall be
cut to a proper size, and impressing shall be made onto it using such aids as a
fingerprint taking pallet from a dead body.

2. Stiff fingers of a clenched fist - Impressing shall be made using an aid such as
a spatula for taking fingerprints from a dead body.

3. Blanched and wrinkled fingers

Take Note:

Finger without percolate - Wipe them with a piece of alcohol – containing

gauze, soften them thoroughly with your finger tips, stretch wrinkles, and then impress.
 Fingers with percolate - Take their mold with silicon after drying with
lycopodium powder. In order to obtain fingerprint impressions from silicon molds,
strippable paint or cortex shall be used this technique is as follows:

Fingers with peeled-off surfaced skin - Wind that surface skin around the
operator’s finger. Apply ink to it and impress. When the true skin is exposed, take
photo after applying ink to the true skin or drying it with an aqueous marker in water or
alcohol.

Finger of Charred Body - In case where it is feared that they will disintegrate by
even the slightest, their photo shall be taken as they are.

Mummified fingers. Take their mould with silicon, make films with strippable
paint or cortex, and impress.

CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Chance Impressions - These are fingerprints which are imprinted by mere

chance or without any intention to produce the print. Chance print may be

1. Plastic impression – impressions made by chance on cellophane tapes or

any plastic materials.
2. Visible prints – impressions made by chance and visible without chemical
treatment.
3. Latent prints – impressions which are visible grossly but made visible by the
addition of some substances. These are fingerprints found at the scene of a
crime.

Search for Scene of Fingerprint Impressions

In order to collect scene fingerprints, it is necessary to clarify where they were

impressed. Most scene fingerprints are usually found at the points of entry, and
departure, places ransacked, etc. Therefore, searching for scene fingerprints should be
made with emphasis on such places but be thoroughly made on their surroundings.
Further, there may be cases where a suspect uses gloves, wipes out his fingerprint after
committing a crime, or makes other actions in connection with fingerprints. Thus, even
when glove impressions or other traces of actions have been found as result of a
fingerprint search, it is necessary not to give up but to make a thorough search all over
the scene of the crime.

How to collect Chance Fingerprints?

The methods of collecting fingerprints are roughly classified into eight, i.e., solid
method (powder method), liquid method, gas method, lifting method, flame method,
molding method, photographing method and development with lasers.
SOLID METHOD (POWDER METHOD)

This solid method is also called the powder method since powder is used, and is
the most basic method.

The kinds and properties of powders commonly used are as follows:

Name color adhesiveness composition

Aluminum silver extremely crushed

Powder (gray) white strong aluminum foil
Highnium silver moderately charge-proof
Grayish strong processed gray
Ultranium grayish weak resin and
areic
Acid processed
Aluminum powder

Black black weak mixture of

Powder carbon black and
graphite
Brown powder sepia weak manganese
(black powder B-5) dioxide
powder
White powder sepia weak powder mixture
of zinc oxide and talc
Lead pure weak Basic lead carbonate
Carbonate white
Lycopodium light extremely spores of club
Powder yellow weak moss (lycopodium)
Yellow powder yellow weak yellow color, or
Lycopodium yellow color
Red lead vermilion weak trilead
Tetroxide Powder
Indigo purple weak Indigotin (for drying)
Fluorescent yellow weak organic zinc
Powder sulfide or Zinc
sulfide
Magnetic blackish weak carbon-
added
Powder gray electrolytic Iron
powder

Each powder has its own properties of color, adhesiveness, grain size,
delineability, etc. A suitable powder is selected and used according to the conditions of
impression and object. Sometimes, two or more kidns of powder are used in mixture.
This is called mixture powder. By using mixture powder, color and adhesiveness can
be adjusted. For example, by mixing lead carbonate with indigo, the disappearance of
fingerprints lifted to gelatin paper can be prevented, while by mixing aluminum powder
(gray) with lycopodium, the excessive adhesion of aluminum powder (gray) can be
prevented.

POWDERING METHODS

Powdering methods include the brushing method, rolling method, spraying

method and light hitting method

1. The brushing method is a method where, after affixing powder to an object

to be examined with a brush (developing brush) to whose tip a small quantity of
powder has been affixed a fingerprint is developed by lightly sweeping it with
another, powder less brush (finishing brush) to remove excessive powder.
2. The rolling method is method where, after placing a proper quantity of
powder on an object to be examined, lightly moving it by bending and tilting,
spreading out powder all over the object to have powder adhere to the
fingerprint, the fingerprint is developed by flipping the back side of the object to
remove excess powder.
3. Also, there is another method called the sprinkling or tapping method
where, after having powder adhere to a fingerprint by lightly tapping the object to
be examined, the fingerprint is developed by lightly tapping a part of the object
with one’s fist, etc. to remove excess powder.
4. The spraying method is a method where, after evenly spraying powder
over the object to be examined from a distance of approximately 30 cm, the
fingerprint is developed by removing excess powder by an air spray or with a
brush, etc. This method is suitable for cases where development is made from a
porous or solid object using lowly adhesive powder.
5. In cases where development has been made by using fluorescent powder,
the effect is doubled if observed by utilizing an ultra-violet ray emitter.
6. The light-striking method is a method where, after having powder adhere
to a fingerprint by, say, lightly striking the object to be examined with a brush tip
to which powder has been applied, the fingerprint is developed with another
brush to which no powder is applied or by air blowing with a blower-brush or a
spray to remove excess powder. This method is suitable for development from
an object with a porous or adhesive surface.

LIFTING METHOD
 Collecting method by lifting fingerprint developed with powder include methods
employing cellophane tape, vinyl tape or other adhesive tape, and methods employing
silicon rubber.

1. The lifting technique with gelatin paper or lifter is as follows:

2. Cut gelatin paper or lifter to proper size.
3. Pull off the backing.
4. Direct the adhesive face toward the fingerprint.
5. Press on corner to the paper firmly to the object.
6. Press the rest of the paper to the object in stages, from the point already affixed
towards the fingerprint.
7. Press it lightly and evenly with your palm, etc. Less air should be trapped.
8. Peel it off after lifting.
9. Stick it to the backing in the same manner of lifting.

The lifting method using silicon rubber follows the following:

1. Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of paper or cloth.
2. Add 5-10% by volume of hardener to silicon base.
3. Mix them thoroughly.
4. Stretch the above thinly and evenly onto a proper-sized piece of paper or cloth.
5. Apply above to a fingerprint to be lifted.
6. Press lightly and evenly with a palm, etc. to prevent bubbles from being trapped.
7. Pull off after silicon has hardened.

Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint collection by solid

method is over, the object should be restored to its original state by removing powder
which has been affixed to it. This is called “restoration.” Wipe the object lightly with a
piece of cloth or a brush which contains 0.5-1% synthetic cleanser liquid or 2-5% soap
liquid.

LIQUID METHOD

1. Affix some chemicals to latent or visible fingerprint to cause a chemical change in

the excreta elements.
2. Develop or clarify it.
3. Record the print by photographing it.

This method is effective for developing a latent print from an object such as
paper, wood or metal and to collect a visible fingerprint such as a blood fingerprint. This
is a chemical collecting method whose principle is that the element of the chemical
liquid reacts to the element in excreta or blood by changing color.

1. Reagent (chemical liquid) - Reagents commonly used are ninhydrin, silver

nitrate, etc.
 2. Method to affix reagent - Method to affix reagent include the painting method,
soaking method and spraying method.
a. The painting method is a method where an object is painted evenly with a
brush 9flat brush for liquid) with ample reagent to affix the reagent to the
fingerprints. This method is suitable for a large or solid object to be
examined.
b. The soaking method is a method to affix reagent to fingerprints by soaking
an object to be examined into regent in a tray or other vessel. This
method is suitable for cases where a small object is to be examined for
development.

The spraying method is as follows:

1. Fill a sprayer for liquid with reagent.

2. Spray evenly over the object to be examined about 30 cm. From the nozzle for
affixing the reagent to the object.

a. This method is applicable to three-dimensional as well as flat-

surfaced objects either large or small.
b. The sprayer used for the thin method should be capable of
spraying as fine as mist as possible.
c. A ninhydrin sprayer is an aerosol-type sprayer exclusively for
fingerprints which sprays the reagent (0.5% acetone solution of ninhydrin) by
means of pressurized gas. Meanwhile, since silver nitrate reagent corrodes
the metallic portions of a sprayer, it should not be used in development by
spraying method.

Take Note: Method of Restoration - When the fingerprint collecting work by

the liquid method is complete, the article should be restored to its original state by
removing fingerprints impressed thereon and stains produced by development, this is
called restoration. Restoration methods vary according to types of reagent used for
development. For restoration of a case using silver nitrate reagent, the object shall be
washed in water after being soaked in 2% alcohol liquid of corrosive sublimate. There
is another method of soaking in saturated solution of sodium thiosulphate after soaking
in saturated solution of iodine or of potassium ferry cyanide.

For restoration of a case using ninhydrin reagent, the object shall either be
applied with “Osyfull” oxygenated water) and be warmed, or be applied with 3% solution
of ammonium, or be soaked in hot water at 80 degrees or over.

GAS METHOD

This is a method where a latent fingerprint is developed by means of coloring by

affixing gasified reagent or by causing chemical change in elements of excreta, and
then collected by photographing or by lifting onto lifting material. This method is
suitable for developing fingerprints from papers, unpainted wood and textiles.
 Iodine is exclusively used as a reagent. The developed pattern disappears with
in a few minutes. Therefore, reduction is unnecessary.

a. The methods of affixing the reagent include a method where gas is blown
on to an object to be examined using an iodine gas generator or a method
where gas is filled up into a box in which an object has been placed. Also,
there is another method where gas is blown into a vinyl bag in which an
object has been placed.
b. Since the fingerprint developed disappears within a few minutes, it is
collected by being photographed.
c. One of the recently developed method is to develop a fingerprint in white
by affixing gas generated from cyan acrylic instant adhesive. It proves
effective for developing fingerprints from a blackish object, especially the
adhesive face of adhesive tape.

This method follows the following:

1. Apply cyanoacrylate to a plastic or similar plate.

2. The place on which a fingerprint is supposedly impressed shall be placed and
fixed face to face about 3 mm above the plate.
3. Leave it under a cover.
4. The fingerprint is developed about 3 minutes later at the earliest.
5. The developed fingerprint shall be collected by being photographed.

LIFTING METHOD

This method includes a method where a visible fingerprint is directly lifted to

lifting material, a method where a fingerprint which has been directly lifted is processed
with powder, chemical liquid, etc., and a method where a fingerprint is lifted using lifting
material processed in advance with chemical liquid, etc., and then preserved as it is or
photographed. These are effective for collecting dust fingerprints, oil/grease
fingerprints, and blood fingerprints.

Lifting material - All lifting materials used for lifting under the solid method,
gelatin paper, lifter, cellophane tape, transparent vinyl tape, and other adhesive tapes
can be used; but in most cases, gelatin paper is used.

Lifting method - The method of lifting directly to the lifting material is mostly
used for collecting a dust fingerprint or oil/grease fingerprints.
The method using processed lifting material is to lift the material to whose
surface chemical liquid etc. has been applied in advance. This method is used for
collecting an oil/grease fingerprint and a just fingerprint.

Major collecting methods by tape of visible fingerprint are as follows:

 a. Dust fingerprint - In cases where dust quantity is small, a fingerprint shall
be lifted directly to gelatin paper (black). Whenever the fingerprint has
become unclear after lifting, the transparent plate shall be peeled off and
photograph shall be taken by lighting from the rear side, or the fingerprint
shall be developed by having lycopodium stick to the peeled backing by
rolling method 7-9 days after lifting. Also if the transparent plate is peeled off
after lifting, its impressed face is turned upwards, and the plate is soaked in
ethyl alcohol for 1-3 minutes, its gelatin film hardens and further change is
prevented.

b. Blood fingerprint - In cases where a blood fingerprint has just been

impressed on an unabsorptive object, it shall be directly lifted on gelatin
paper. In cases whir lifting is difficult as it has become slightly dryer, it is
better to apply gelatin paper to and lightly press the blood fingerprint following
the technique of lifting, to peel off the paper after moistening the blood, to
stick aluminum powder or gray to the blood fingerprint by brushing, and to lift
it onto other gelatin paper.

c. Oil/grease fingerprint - When the surface is dry, it shall be collected by

lifting it onto Binio roll lifter as it is. If not dry, it shall be lifted after drying in
the shade. Meanwhile, in cases of fluid oil/grease, a fingerprint cannot be
collected by this method.

FLAME METHOD

This is a method of developing or clarifying by affixing soot to a latent or unclear

fingerprint. The developed fingerprint shall be collected by lifting in onto lifting material
or by photographing. This method is suitable for collection from metal or other object
with a porous surface.

Soot-generating materials (burning material) include magnesium (photo flash

powder), camphor, pine resin, benzene, kerosene, edible oil, paraffin and candles.

MOLDING METHOD

This is a method of collecting visible fingerprints with a molding material, and is

suitable for collecting from an object with so complicated and uneven a surface that
lifting with lifting material is unfeasible. This is also suitable for collecting a latent
fingerprint developed from a heated object.

The molding materials include silicon rubber, plaster, “Aljix”, strippable paint,
paraffin was, and plastic liquid. Collection shall be made by taking a photograph or just
preserving the mold.

PROTOGRAPHING METHOD
 Space age technology is being used to enhance latent prints that heretofore
were of insufficient quality to be used. While image processing has been used for some
time, the high cost of computers precluded the use of such technology in most crime
laboratories. Major advances in the “microchip” industry and the resulting proliferation
of relatively inexpensive microcomputers have placed this technology within the budgets
of many laboratories.

DEVELOPMENT WITH LASERS

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The use of lasers for

detection of latent fingerprint is relatively new and dates from 1976. By 1985,
approximately 50 forensic science laboratories, or approximately 15 percent of the
crime laboratories in North America, used lasers.

With nonporous items (e.g., plastic bags, glass, and so forth), the evidence is first
fumed with cyanoacrylate. If prints are not visible by means of normal techniques
employed, the material is washed with a methanol solution of rhodamine. Excess
rhodamine is washed off with methanol, using a laboratory plastic wash bottle. If prints
are present, the small amount of excess rhodamine will adhere to them and show up
under laser illumination can be used. A zinc chloride solution is used to change the
Ruheman’s purple coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids
present in the prints, to a yellow-orange color. The color change is luminescent in laser
light, and visible prints may be photographed.

On porous items of evidence (e.g., paper, cardboard, and the like), evidence is
treated in the usual way with ninhydrin. If prints are visible but have insufficient ridge
detail, laser illumination can be used. A zinc chloride solution is used to change the
Ruhemann’s purple coloration, caused by the reaction of ninhydrin with the amino acids
present in the prints, to a yellow-orange color. The color change is luminescent in laser
light, and visible prints may be photographed.

At this time there are three types of lasers used in latent print work: the argon ion
laser, copper vapor laser, and neodymium: YAG laser.

LATENT FINGERPRINTS ON HUMAN SKIN

Techniques for developing latent fingerprints on human skin have been devised,
but have been successful only in rare instances. They may be attempted in certain
cases. The procedures are simple to use, inexpensive, and can be accomplished by
evidence technicians. The procedures work on both living and deceased subjects.

The Kromekote card is used to lift the print from the skin surface by placing the
card over the skin in the suspected area and applying pressure for about 3 seconds.
The card is carefully removed and then dusted with black fingerprint powder to develop
the print transferred onto the card. The fingerprint obtained is the mirror image of a
normal print, which can be reversed through photography. After the Kromekote
technique is used, fingerprint powder can be applied directly to the skin to develop
prints. The literature reports that the Magna-Brush gives results superior to a fiberglass
filament brush. If a print is developed by this method, it must be photographed and then
may be lifted using cellophane lifting tape.

Fingerprints on skin surfaces appear to last about 1-1/2 hours on living victims.
Deceased victims should be examined for latent prints on the skin as soon as possible.
The technique is still somewhat experimental, but the simplicity and ease of use of the
methods will result in greater use through experience on the part of investigators.

FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

EVIDENCE PRESERVATION OF CHANCE FINGERPRINTS

1. Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, confirmation by a witness shall be

made prior to collection.
2. Whenever scene fingerprints have been found, they shall be developed and
photographed prior to collection in order to clarify the position of an object and
positions of fingerprint impressions. Picture taking shall be made by providing the
fingerprinted object with a label containing the name of incident, date and hour
taken, place, witnesses, signatures, collector’s affiliation and name, etc.
3. Whenever fingerprints are collected by lifting (printing0 then the grain of wood,
pattern, or other characteristics original to the object near the fingerprints shall be
lifted at the same time with lifting tape, etc. to clarify the place where the
fingerprints are impressed. In addition, the name of incident, date and hour
collected, object of collection, place of collection, signature of witness, and
collector’s affiliation and name shall also be entered on the back of the lifting paper.

a. A scene fingerprint collection report shall be prepared to clarify the

relationship between the incident and the place of collection.
b. On the scene fingerprints collection report, all scene fingerprints collected
should be numbered in serial order, and be entered so as to clarify which
fingerprint was collected at which place by attaching a scene sketch.
c. Meanwhile, for those fingerprints collected without taking photographs, it
necessary to clarify the impressed positions and directions by solidly
illustrating objects of collection portions thereof, etc.

PRESERVATION BY PHOTOGRAPHY - Prints found at the scene of a crime

preferably should be preserved by photography. This procedure has many advantages,
including its leaving the object intact so that further photographs can be taken if the first
are unsuccessful. It also makes it easier to produce the evidence before a court of law
if the print has been recorded since parts of the object that carry the print will be seen in
the picture.

PRESERVATION OF PLASTIC FINGERPINTS - When a fingerprint has been

left in material that has hardened or is able to withstand transport, and when it is on an
object that is small and easily transportable, it may be sent directly to the crime
laboratory. If removing the plastic print poses some special problem, it should be
photographed using oblique light to bring out as much detail as possible. The
fingerprint impression may then be preserved by an appropriate casting material.

PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTERS - Frequently, curved surfaces,

such as doorknobs, with latent fingerprints present are difficult to photograph or do not
lend themselves to the use of cellophane lifting tape. For such surfaces, elastic or
rubber lifter material works well. Rubber lifters are commercially available items made
of thin, rubbery material coated with an adhesive. The adhesive is protected by a
transparent celluloid material removed prior to use and replace onto with different
fingerprint powders.

PRESERVATION WITH FINGERPINT LIFTING TAPE - The most common

method of collecting latent fingerprint evidence today is by special transparent
cellophane tape. The material is supplied in rolls and is usually 1 or 2 inches wide.
After the surface is dusted with fingerprint powder, the tape is placed over the print.
Care must be taken to prevent any air pockets. The tape is smoothed down over the
print with the aid of a signer and then drawn off. Particles of fingerprint powder adhere
to the sticky surface of the tape and thereby transfer the fingerprint pattern. The tape is
finally placed onto a card of suitable color, contrasting with the powder used.
How long does a Fingerprint remain on an object?

Plastic prints remain for any length of time provided that the object on which they
are left or the substance in which they are formed is itself stable. In investigations, it
sometimes happens that police officers find fingerprints that give the impression of
having been made in dust, but on closer examination are found to be dust-filled plastic
prints in oil paint made years earlier.

Prints that have resulted from contaminated with blood, pigments, ink, and oil are
more resistant and can be kept for a long time under favorable conditions. Latent prints
on glass china, and other smooth objects can remain for years if they are in a well-
protected location. On objects in the open air, a print can be developed several months
after it is made. Fingerprints on paper are very stable and will last for years provided
the paper does not become wet and deteriorate.

What is the effect of temperature on the possibility of developing fingerprints?

When objects on which there may be fingerprints are found outdoors in ice or
snow, they must be thawed slowly and placed so that the thawed water does not run
over and destroy the prints. A suitable method of treating is to scrape away as much
snow and ice as possible, with the greatest care, before the object is brought to a warm
place. Only when the object is dry should the print be developed.
 When plastic fingerprints are present in oil or grease, the thawing must be
allowed to proceed slowly and under close scrutiny since the print may easily be
destroyed by heat. Such prints should be photographed when they appear.

Damp objects should be dried in a room at ordinary room temperature. As a

general rule, never examine cold objects, especially metal, until they have been kept for
at least some hours at room temperature. In indoor investigations in a cold house, the
rooms should first be heated. The heating should be done slowly so that water from
thawing does not run off frosted objects of places.

What is the concept of fingerprint identification?

The identification of a fingerprint is to compare two fingerprints with each other,

to indicate their characteristics, and to determine whether they match or do not.

Since latent fingerprints are often partial and unclear, their identification often
encounters difficulties. Therefore, those who are engaged in identification should make
a correct identification. This also applies to the identification of palm prints, middle
phalange prints, basic phalange prints and footprints.

What is the method of identification?

Method of identification include those for comparing characteristics (type and

position) of friction ridges, of sweat pores (sweat gland outlets appearing on friction
ridges like eyes of needles) and of friction ridge edges (straight, projecting, arch, pocket,
table, etc.). In general, however, a method by characteristics of friction ridge which are
understandable easily and objectively is used.

In identification, the following matters should b examined with the identification

material:

1. Conditions of collection (method of collection, situation of both the object

impressed and the fingerprint left on the scene, time elapsed, etc.).
2. Kind of pattern, position impressed.
3. Kind of finger.
4. Situation of impression (whether slipped, twisted, duplicated or not; either surface
or true skin; and reversal fingerprint).

In comparison and pointing out of characteristics, the characteristics of a latent

fingerprint and of the formally impressed fingerprint shall be compared, and matching
points of characteristics shall both be noted by indication lines with numbers for
referencing. The indication lines and numbers shall be entered in red.

A letter of identification shall be prepared bye entering therein such necessary

matters as the kind (latent fingerprints, finger seal, formally impressed fingerprints, or
so) and number of pieces of identification material, identification item, identification
process, identification result, identification date and identifier.

Meanwhile, in general, a photograph showing the identification material enlarged

three times is attached indicating on the photograph matching characteristics by
indication lines and numbers for easy comprehension.

Is there any electronic identification of fingerprints?

The computer has greatly affected how fingerprints can be taken. An

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) can digitize fingerprint
information to produce inkless fingerprints. Latent fingerprints are scanned and
converted into an electronic image that is stored in a data base for rapid retrieval.

The live-scan method of fingerprinting stores and transmits fingerprints digitally.

The new method allows police to place a suspect’s finger on a glass plate, which is then
read by a special device to produce a digital image of the prints. The image can then
be transmitted over telephone lines to computerized criminal records centers.

Laser fingerprinting eliminates the mess of inked fingerprints and also many of
the problems associated with them.

Take Note: Fingerprint evidence is maintained by:

1. For laboratory examination - Recording made upon receipt of

a. Name of agency requesting for scientific assistance or submitting
latent print.
b. Date or receipt.
c. Inventory of latent fingerprint evidence.
2. For field laboratory work - It is maintained by following the procedures
below:
a. Crime scene search for latent.
b. Develop the print by developing materials.
c. Photograph developed prints by powder on original.
d. Lifting latent prints.

Further maintenance is done by lifting the number of fingerprint evidence, their

descriptions, quantity and quality.

COURT PRESENTATION OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares charts to

visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his testimony. Many times
it is undoubtedly difficult for the laymen to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the
full import of an expert’s testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some
graphic representation of the facts presented is amply justified and rewarded.
 The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of the expert
using them. As matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint
work, a brief explanation of such charts follows, along with suggestions and remarks
based on long experience in these mattes.

Aside from the photographic equipment, what are other the needed materials?

A roll of scotch photographic tape -1 inch wide to outline the areas of the
fingerprints on the negative to be used: some stiff cardboard approximately 1/32 inch
thick on which to mount the prepared charts, a tube of rubber cement and a bottle of
translucent ink, other than black or white.

A light-box on which to view the negatives while blocking, and a lettering set to
draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts, while not absolutely essential, are
helpful conveniences. A light-box is basically a frosted pane of glass with a light
beneath it to produce soft, even, none glaring illumination. If no light-box is available, a
clear window may be utilized in “blocking” the negatives.

If the expert finds it necessary to have an outside source prepare his

photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the operation.
The original latent print and inked print with which it is identical can be photographed 25
times the actual size. This procedure eliminates guesswork in enlarging both the same
degree. Whatever areas of the two prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method
of identification are then outlined (blocked) on subsequent enlargements.

Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small, it is well to show the
complete print. If the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an area which will not
make the chart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected.

In blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or light-box by means of

strips of photographic tape across the corners, with the side to be blocked up. This
prevents constant shifting of the negative while it is prepared. The latent print should be
blocked first. Corners of the blocked areas should be square.

If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print on a dark

background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared and blocked in order that both
print may appear as black ridges on light. This is done by placing the original negative
adjacent to a new sheet of film and exposing it. The resultant negative contains the
same image as the original except that the color of the image has been reversed.

If the negative is a photograph of an opaque lift the print appears in reverse

position; that is, as a mirror image, and the negative will accordingly have to be blocked
from the dull or emulsion side in order for it to appear in a position comparable to that of
the inked prints. Failure to present the prints in question in the same color and position
may confuse the observer and nullify the purpose for which the chart is made.
 The degree of enlargement is not important in itself so long as the ridge of the
latent print is readily distinguishable by the eye. Ten diameters have been found
adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 will serve. It should be remembered
however that small enlargements are difficult to see a few feet away and that large ones
lose some of the contrast between ridges and background. A white border of at least 1
½ inches or a width equal to one-third the enlarged area should be left for charting
purposes.

All of the ridge characteristics are ample to illustrate for, identification, but it is
neither claimed nor implied that this number is required. All fingerprint identifications
are made by observing that two impressions have the ridge characteristics of similar
shapes which occupy the same relative positions in the patterns.

Method involving super imposition of the prints are not recommended because
such a procedure is possible only in a very few instanced, due to the distortion of ridges
in most prints through pressure and twisting. Such a procedure is not necessarily a test
of identity. Likewise, presenting charts with the shapes of the characteristic drawn in
the margin is not recommended. Individual ridge characteristics may vary slightly in
actual shape or physical position due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking condition
of latent print when developed, powder adhering to background etc.

Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a unit

relationship and not on the microscopic appearances of single characteristic. The chart
will present a clearer, nearer and more pleasing appearance if it is numbered clockwise
and the numbers are evenly spaced. It is necessary however, to place the numbers
evenly around the photograph. Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and
the type of print (latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of
numbering should be subservient to an explanation of the characteristics in an orderly
sequence; and, if the situation warrants all of the points may be illustrated on a single
side of the photograph.

A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a numbered point on

the march. Care should be taken to draw the beyond it or obscuring it. Erasures should
be avoided. If the ink runs or blots, it is sometimes possible to remove it with a cloth in
denatured alcohol, without damaging the photograph.

If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, it might be well to draw a

small circle around each characteristic and then draw the line from a circle to the
number, since the ridge will be much thicker than the illustrating line. All lines and
numbers should be checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the
enlargements for apparent discrepancies in the prints, which he might be called upon to
explain.

The chartered enlargements are readily mounted on stiff cardboard with rubber
cement, which may be purchased in small tubes. After cementing the photograph to the
cardboard, it should be placed under a heavy glut object which will cover the entire
surface to prevent wearing and wrinkling.

CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS

CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL, in this context, refers to the sorting things into

division or group so that they can at later time be quickly located.

What are the steps in fingerprint classification?

1. Recording – Simply means the taking of fingerprint impressions, either rolled or

plain impression.
2. Interpretation – Simply means the naming or interpreting of a fingerprint pattern.
Loop (either radial or ulnar), Arch (plain or tented) or whorl (plain, central pocket
loop) whorl, double loop whorl or accidental whorl).
3. Blocking – This applies only to loop pattern either as ulnar or radial loop. It
means designating by symbol the type of patterns which each finger and thumb
bears and recording for each respective finger and thumb.
4. Classification – This refers to the classification proper this time you need a
complete set of ten (10) fingerprint patterns to obtain the necessary classification.

What are the patterns that require special attention?

1. Doubtful – interpretation is very difficult.

2. Questionable – a doubtful pattern
3. Borderline – whereby in either case, it can be the combination of different kinds
of fingerprint pattern. And the classification of such is confused as to its proper
interpretation.
4. Approximating – sometimes the same as to that of doubtful.

Important points to remember in classifying fingerprints

1. Division – for purposes of classification and filing, all the type patterns are
divided into two groups; the numeral and the non-numeral.
2. Numerical – the numerical group is composed of set of prints containing whorl
pattern.
3. Non-numerical – the non-numerical group is composed of sets of prints in which
no whorls are present.
4. Fingerprint analysis – the analysis of fingerprint is the identifying and
distinguishing of fingerprint pattern according to their design and formation.
5. Classification formula – is the result of combining all the patterns of the
fingerprints and recording them in a specific order or manner at the top right of
the fingerprint card. It represents the patterns of all ten fingers of both hands
combined.
6. Filing – is an orderly manner of starting the card and grouping each card and
filing in a specific sequence according to the final classification formula.
 7. Pockets – the fingerprint cards are grouped according to the classification
formula and the classification of the extension used in the bureau.
8. Searching – means an attempt to locate in the file a print identical to the current
print and thus established identification.
9. Denominator’s meaning in primary classification – the denominator written
below the line constitute the total numerical value of the finger in which the
whorls appear, is the natural sequence of numbers from one to thirty two (1 to
32).

What are the basic rules for tracing whorls?

1. Tracing always begins at the left delta and goes toward the right delta.
2. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right delta.
3. When the tracing ridge suddenly ends, the tracing is continued on the ridge
below it. A ridge must definitely end before the tracing may be continued on the
ridge below.
4. When a ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch or the
bifurcation.
5. When the delta is dot, the tracing begins on the type line, which is the ridge
immediately below the delta.

What are the rules for beginning and ending ridge count?
1. Ridge tracing begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point directly in
front of the right delta.
2. In a double loop whorl, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta. When the
tracing passes inside the right delta, one stops at the nearest point to the right
delta on an up thrust.
3. In an accidental whorl having three deltas, the tracing begins at the extreme left
delta and goes towards the extreme delta. Any other delta encountered is
ignored.
4. If no up thrust is represented, one continues the tracing until a point opposite the
right delta, or the left delta itself, is reached.

What are the symbols in Blocking?

FINGERPRINT PATTERN INDEX FINGER OTHER

FINGERS
Arches (Plain) A a
Arches (tented) T t
Radial loops R or / r or /
Ulnar loops U or \ u or \
Plain Whorls W w
Central Pocket Loop Whorl C c
Double Loop Whorl D d
Accidental Whorl X x

Take Note:
 1. If a finger appears to be amputated (cut off) just place the symbol or simple
abbreviation as AMP and the date of amputation on the box of the finger actually
amputated.
2. In case of partial amputation, place the abbreviation symbol “TIP AMP”.

THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION

What is the Pure Henry System of Classification?

1. Primary
2. Secondary and small letter groups
3. Sub-secondary
4. Final
5. Major
6. Key

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION

Procedure to be followed in obtaining primary classification

Numbering in natural sequence. The first step in classifying fingerprints is the

numbering of the finger and thumbs. The natural sequence, starting with the right
thumb as one and ending at the left little finger as ten is followed:

Right hand 1 2 3 4 5
Left hand 6 7 8 9 10

ODD FINGERS: The odd fingers are 1 (right thumb) 3 (right middle finger) 5
(right little finger) 7 (left index finger) 9 (left ring finger).

EVEN FINGERS: The even fingers are 2 (right index finger) 4 (right ring finger) 6
(left thumb) 8 (left middle finger) 10 (left little finger).

Numerical Value of Whorls - Designated Value of Each Finger with Whorls

The Henry system designated the value of whorl according to the finger or thumb
on which they appear, and in the following sequences.
Right hand 16 16 8 8 4
Left hand 4 2 2 1 1

Total Whorl for Primary - In a set of prints, the numerical value is represented by two
(2) distinct totals. First: all whorls appearing on the odd fingers; and second, all whorls
appearing on the even fingers. The two totals obtained constitute the primary
classification. ODD and EVEN finger must never total together. The ODD numbered
fingers shall constitute as the denominator and the EVEN numbered fingers as the
numerator.

Arbitrary count of one (1) ADDED - To each total, an arbitrary count of one is added.
The purpose of the arbitrary count of one is to avoid a classification of zero over zero in
a set of print in which no whorls appear; this might be mistaken for the letter “O” which
has another specific meaning in the classification.

Number of Possible Combinations in the Primary - There are one thousand and
twenty four (1,024) possible combinations of primaries, beginning with “one over one”
and ending with “thirty-two over thirty-two”

Take Note: After getting the Primary Classification, you must file the fingerprint in
the following manner:
1/1 - Lowest Classification
32/32 - Highest Classification

Illustration:

1. 1/1, ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, 1/6……………………….. 1/32

2. 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/4, 2/5, 2/6 ……………………. 2/32
3. 3/1, 3/2, 3/3, ¾, 3/5, 3/6 ……………………… 3/32 TILL
4. 32/1, 32/2, 32/2, 32/4, 32/5, 32/6 ……..…….. 32/32

Rules on Amputation and Fingerprint Missing at Birth

1. If one finger is amputated (AMP) or missing at birth (FMB) the classification is

based on the opposite finger with the numerical value.

Take Note: The numerical value of the (AMP) FMB) must not be changed.

2. If both fingers are amputated or missing at birth they are treated as whorl with the
respective numerical value and with meeting (M) tracing.

SECONDARY CLASSIFICTION

Rank – The secondary classification follows the primary classification.

Position of Secondary – The secondary classification appears just to the right

of the fraction which represents the primary.

Meaning of Secondary – The numerator (WRITTEN ABOVE) indicates the type

of pattern appearing on the index finger of the right hand.

Denominator Meaning – The denominator (WSRITTEN BELOW) Indicate the

type pattern appearing on the index finger of the left hand.
 Basic Types of Pattern that can Appear

1. Arch (A)
2. Tented Arch (T)
3. Radial loop (R)
4. Ulnar loop (U)
5. Whorl (W)
6. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)
7. Double Loop Whorl (D)
8. Accidental Whorl (X)

Sequence - Just as in the sequence of the primary classification, in filing, the

denominator does not change until the numerator has exhausted all the changes of
pattern in their orderly sequence.

Small Letter Groups - The small letter group of the primary classification
includes prints having plain arches, tented arches and radial loops on fingers other than
the indexes.

What constitute a small letter? For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints,

the patterns of the index fingers are designated by a capital letter and the patterns on
other fingers and thumbs are designated by small letter.

Blocking - For purposes of blocking a set of fingerprints, the patterns of the

index fingers are designated by a capital letter and the patterns on other fingers and
thumbs are designated by small letter. These are placed in their respective blocks.

Writing the Formula - For the purpose of writing the classification formula, the
same rule held true the capital letters designated on index fingers and the small letters
designated other fingers. The classification formula is written at the top of the
fingerprint card.

Sequence in writing letter into Formula - The small letters are written into the
classification formula in their natural sequences as they appear on the hands.

A small letter in the thumb will produce the writing of the classification of the
index fingers. Small letters in the middle, ring, and little fingers will follow the writing of
the classification of the index fingers.

This aRa would mean a thumb arch, and index radial, and a middle finger arch
on the TUr right hand, and thumb tented arch, and index ulnar, and a middle finger
radial on the left hand.

Importance of small letters - The absence of small letter groups are of vital
importance to the classification system as the small letter occurs relatively infrequently.
 Frequency - The small letter groups, after the index fingers have been grouped
(small) in the following sequence:
1st: The denominator by count (the lesser number of small letters proceeding
the greater).
2nd: By position (small letter to the left of the index finger proceeding these at
the right).
3rd: By type (a,t, r).

SUB-SECONDARY AND FINAL CLASSIFICATION

Sub-Secondary – The sub-secondary classification is the grouping of prints

according to the ridge count of loops and ridge tracing on whorls.

Reason fort Subdivision – The sub-secondary classification is the group of print

within the secondary classification, thus facilitating searches since it limits the search to
smaller groups of the fingerprint cards.

Position of Formula – The sub-secondary classification is placed on the

classification line immediately to the right of the secondary classification

Recording Ridge Count – The ridge count of the loops are recorded as “I”
(inner) and “O” (outer).

Recording Whorl Tracing – The whorl tracing are recorded as follows:

INNER (I)
MEETING (M)
OUTER (O)

Fingers Considered - In the sub-secondary classification, six fingers are

considered they are:

1. Right index finger

2. Right middle finger
3. Right ring finger
4. Left index finger
5. Left middle finger
6. Left ring finger

Established Number of Ridge Counts

INDEX FINGERS:

One (1) to Nine (9) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)

 Ten (10) or more ridges ………………………… 0 (Outer)

MIDDLE FINGERS:
One (1) to Ten (10) ridges ……………………… I (Inner)
Eleven (11) or more ridges ……………………... O (Outer)

RING FINGERS:
One (1) to thirteen (13) ridges ………………….. I (Inner)
Fourteen (14) or more ridges……………………. O (Outer)

Loops and Whorls in Sub-Secondary - In a set of prints having loops and

whorl only the sub-secondary classification may include two (2), but not more than three
(3) fingers of each hand.

“M SYMBOL” - The symbol (M) meeting appearing in a sub-secondary

classification, indicates a whorl in the figures being considered, since only a whorl can
have a meeting tracing.

“I” and “O” SYMBOL - The symbols “I” and “O” in a sub-secondary
classification may relate to a set of prints having loops and whorls or all loops or whorls.
Whether the prints are loops, whorls or loops and whorls may be ascertained from the
primary classification since “one” over “one” indicates no whorls, thirty-two indicates all
whorls and other primaries indicates both loops and whorls.

Filing: The filing of prints within the sub-secondary classification is done

according to the following sequences:

First – I (inner) in loops

Second – O (outer) in loops
First: I (Inner) in whorls
Second: M (meeting) in whorls
Third: O (outer) in whorls

As in all other components set of the classification formula, the denominator does
not change until the numerator has exhausted the entire sequence
Summary of the Rules:

1. For AMP and FMB-Apply the rule on primary classification.

2. Whorl-Apply Ridge Tracing.

For loops (Ridge Counting)

Index Finger
1-9 ridge count………………………………………………… I (Inner)
10 or more…………………………………………………….. 0 (outer)
 Middle Finger
1-10 ridge count……………………………………………… I (Inner)
11 or more……………………………………………………. 0 (outer)

Ring Finger
1-13 ridge count………………………………………………. 1(Inner)
14 or more ridge count………………………………………… 0 (outer)

For Arches

Use small letter (t) for tented arch.

Use small letter (a) for plain arch

If the index finger, middle finger, and ring finger are all plain arches just put three
dashes in the sub secondary classification and A2a in the Secondary
Classification. (Same is true when both index and middle fingers are the same).

If the index finger, middle finger and ring finger are all tented arches just put
three dashes in the sub secondary classification and T2t in the Secondary
Classification. (same is true when index and middle finger are the same).

For Whorl Tracing

Meeting (M) = 0, 1, 2, ridges either from the left delta or the right delta.
Outer (O) = 3 or more ridges below the right delta.
Inner (I) = 3 or more ridges above the right delta.

Take Note:

1. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is ulnar it is OUTER.

2. If the ridges in the whorl pattern is radial it is INNER.

a. Take only the loop excluding the whorl inside it.

b. Left Delta will always be the one to drop. And in counting its ridges include
ending ridges and bifurcation.

FINAL CLASSIFICATION

The final classification is the ridge count on the loop (ulnar and radial) appearing
in the right little finger.

Position - The final classification is indicated at the extreme right of the

numerator.
 No Loop in the Right Little Finger - If a loop does not appear in the right little
finger, a loop in the left little finger may be used. The little finger position in the formula
remains unchanged, except that the ridge count is noted as a denominator rather than
as a numerator.

Arch or Tented Arch - If an arch or tented arch appears in the little finger, it is
indicated in the classification formula by a small dash (-). If such a formation appears in
both little fingers, final classification is not obtainable. The Arch or Tented Arch
appearing in either or both little fingers is not ignored in the classification formula since it
is incorporated and designated as a small letter in the secondary classification.

Both Little Fingers are used - Both little fingers are considered by some
bureaus and the ridge counts of both are recorded. However, the count of the right little
finger governs the sequence for filing within the final classification.

Whorl - If no loops appear in the little fingers but a whorl appears instead. A final
classification may be obtained by a ridge count of the whorl. Making a ridge count of
whorls (in either or both little fingers) is required in connection with a large collection or
group of prints, such as prints having a primary classification of thirty two over thirty
two.

Search - When a search is made within a group of cards, and when the final is
designated, only prints having the same final count or count are examined. Some
bureaus allow a count of three on either side of the final classification.

Little Fingers used only for Final Classification - The ridge of the little finger is
used exclusively for the final classification.

Little Fingers not used for Key Classification - At no time can the ridge count
of either of the little fingers be used for the key classification.

Importance of Final Classification - The final and the key classifications may
be considered the CONTROL FINGERS for filing and searching. They limit the number
of the prints to be examined each group.

Final not Possible - If the type pattern of either little finger is an arch, as a
tented arch, no final classification is obtained. This is indicated by a small dash (-).

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION

The major classification represents only the thumb of each hand. It is the ridge
count of the loop and/or the tracing of the whorl appearing in the thumb of each hand (if
such whorls appear).
 Position - The major classification is placed immediately to the left of the primary
in the classification formula.

Right and Left Thumbs: Numerator and Denominator - The thumb of the right
hand appears in the classification formula as the numerator, and the thumb of the left
hand as the denominator.

Symbol for Major Classification - The major classification is written with

specific symbols, which indicates the respective patterns of the thumb as being either
whorls or loops.

Ridge Tracing or Ridge Counting - These symbols are governed by the ridge
tracing for whorls or the ridge counts for the loops.

Symbols for Loops: S (small) in loops (ridge count); M (medium) in loops

(ridge count); L (large) in loops (ridge count).

Loops Pattern in Both Thumbs - In a set of prints having loop patterns in both
hands, the ridge count of the left thumb governs the symbol for the right thumb.

Left thumb ridge count Right thumb ridge count

1 to 11 SMALL (S) 1 to 11 SMALL (S)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M) 1 to 11 SMALL (S)

12 TO 16 MEDIUM (M)
17 or more LARGE (L)

17 or more LARGE (L) 1 to 17 SMALL (S)

18 TO 22 MEDIUM (M)
23 or more LARGE (L)

Either Thumb Missing - When the thumb is missing, the missing one acquires
the same pattern, ridge count, or ridge tracing as the thumb of the opposite hand. On
this assumption, the classification proceeds as usual. Since the left thumb, real or
assumed, is the denominator, it governs the classification, filing and searching.

Grouping the Prints - Because specific symbols have been given for loops and
others for whorls appearing on the thumb, the prints are grouped according to their
respective patterns.

Sequence - The filing for prints follows definite within each group.
 Denominator governs the sequence - As in all other groups, the denominator
governs the sequence and remains unchanged until the numerator has exhausted the
entire sequence.

Sequence for Loops - Since the loops in the thumbs are indicated as small (S),
medium (M), and large (L), the sequence is as follows:

NUMERATOR SML SML SML

DENOMINATOR SSS SSS SSS

Sequence for Whorls - For the whorls in the thumbs indicated as Inner (I),
meeting (M), and outer (O), the sequence is as follows:

NUMERATOR IMO IMO IMO

DENOMINATOR III III III

Loop and Whorl in Major - When the whorl appears in one thumb and a loop in
the other, a specific sequence is used.

Reference: One Thumb Missing - Although a classification was obtained for

one missing thumb, (as described above), it is necessary to continue the search in all
possible references. The original pattern of the missing thumb might be different from
the thumb of the opposite hand.

Both Thumbs Missing - If both thumbs are missing, they arbitrarily acquire the
classification of meeting whorls, and no other reference searches are necessary. No
major classification is obtainable if one thumb pattern is plain arch or tented arch. Such
print will pertain to the small letter group (referring to the secondary classification).

Radial Loop on Either or Both Thumbs - The major classification is obtained if

a radial loop is present on either or both thumbs because a ridge count is possible.
However, the print will be filed with the small letter group.

KEY CLASSIFICATION

The key classification represents the ridge count of the right first loop appearing
in a set of prints, beginning with the thumb of the right hand but excluding the little
finger.

Little Fingers Disregarded - The little fingers are totally disregarded in obtaining
a key classification, for they are exclusively used in the final classification.

Position - The key, no matter where it is found is always written at the extreme
left of the numerator.
 Importance of the Key and Final Classification - The key and final maybe
considered the control figures for filing and searching. To limit the number of prints, it is
necessary to examine within a group.

Take Note: All answers obtained must be put/placed on the numerator of the key
classification. Write the Key at the Left of the entire formula, proceeding all other
components of the Classification Formula.

Little Fingers not used - If not used, the little fingers (regardless of their type
patterns or ridge count) as shown by the key for which they represent, are reserved for
the final.

Key no loops - Make ridge count of whorl appearing in the thumb of the right at
the extreme left delta. This may be used as a key.

Key not possible - If the entire set of prints is composed of plain arches and
tented arches, the key cannot be obtained.

CLASSIFICATION OF SCARRED PATTERNS

Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scarred
patterns. In connection with their proper classification, the following rules should be
observed:

When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the
ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression
should be given both the general type value and the sub classification value of the
corresponding finger of the other hand.

When an impression is partially scarred, i.e. large scars about the core so that
the general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow
reasonably accurate sub classification by ridge tracings or counting, the impression
should be given the primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub
classification value as indicated by ridges of partially scarred impressions.

When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as
to fall within the proper sub secondary classification, the impression should be given the
ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the
corresponding finger is of the same general type. The scarred impression should be
given the probable value and reference to all other possibilities.

When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the
ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens
that the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, corresponding finger
of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary value of
whorls with meeting tracings.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH

When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed
separately from those having no amputations in order to facilitate searching. It is to be
noted that before it may be filed in the amputating group, the card must contain a
definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a
certain finger or fingers have been amputated but which in reality were merely injured
and bandaged when previous prints were submitted.
1. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and referenced
to every other possible classification.
2. If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical
with the fingers opposite, with no additional references.
3. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the
classification of whorls with meeting tracings.

When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified,

the missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical
classifications in that they are given the identical classifications of the opposite fingers
and are filed in the amputation group. As these fingers are missing from a prenatal
cause, they would bane always receive the identical classification of the opposite finger
on any previous occasion.

If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be:
M 32 W MMM.
M 32 W MMM

If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should be taken as
they, too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A footprints file is maintained by the
FBI for identification purposes in instances where the subject has all fingers amputated
or missing at birth.

Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and careful
consideration should be given to them. The question often arises as to the appropriate
groups in which they should be filed, i.e., amputations or non amputations. As no
definite rule may be applied, it is a matter of experience and judgment as to their
preferred classification.

In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or more than half
of the pattern area missing, it is given the classification of the opposite finger. It will be
filed in the amputation group under those conducted in all possible classifications of the
opposite fingers only and are governed by the rules concerning amputations.

Generally, a “tip amputation,” or one which has less than half of the first joint
amputated, will always be printed in the future. Therefore, a partially amputated finger,
with less than half of the pattern area missing is classified as it appears and is
referenced to the opposite finger. It will be field in the non amputation group and
reference searches should be conducted under the classification of the opposite finger,
and in the amputation group. It must be referenced this way even though it never could
have originally had the classification of the opposite finger.

CLASSIFICATION OF BANDAGED OR UNPRINTED FINGERS

If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure inked

impressions by special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given classification
identical with the classifications of the finger opposite. If only one finger is lacking,
reference searches should be conducted in every possible classification. If more than
one finger is lacking, they should be given the classification of the opposite fingers, but
no be given the classification of the opposite fingers, but no reference searches should
be conducted. If there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be classified
as whorls with meeting racings.

If, however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of the ridges of
the finger itself and indicated on the print, this classification should be, insofar as it is
possible, utilized. For example, a missing impression labeled “ulnar loop of about 8
counts” by the individual taking the prints, should be searched in the sub-secondary as
both I and 0 but should not be referenced as a pattern other than a loop. If the finger is
used as the final, or key, it should be searched enough counts on each side of 8 to
allow for possible error in the counting by the contributor using his naked eye.

OTHER IMPORTANT NOTES IN DACTYLOSCOPY

On Fingerprint Identification

Nova Scotia

a. Pre-historic picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered in Nova
Scotia.
 b. In ancient Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business
transactions.
c. In ancient China, thumb prints were found on clay seals.
d. In Peru, aerial photographs have exposed a huge ancient drawing which can
only be accurately viewed from the air. I have exhibited one of these photos to
the International Association for Identification and suggested it as a "possible"
fingerprint pattern. Aerial Photo in Peru & My Tracing (turned over)

e. In 14th century Persia, various official government papers had fingerprints

(impressions), and one government official, a doctor, observed that no two
fingerprints were exactly alike.

Why Fingerprint Identification?

Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. That is the

essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of establishing the
identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests. Other personal characteristics
change - fingerprints do not.

In earlier civilizations, branding and even maiming were used to mark the
criminal for what he was. The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the
thievery. The Romans employed the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of
mercenary soldiers.

More recently, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual memories, so-
called "camera eyes," identified old offenders by sight. Photography lessened the
burden on memory but was not the answer to the criminal identification problem.
Personal appearances change.

Around 1870 a French anthropologist devised a system to measure and record

the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These measurements were reduced to
a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not change
during his/her adult life.

This Bertillon System, named after its inventor, Alphonse Bertillon, was generally
accepted for thirty years. But it never recovered from the events of 1903, when a man
named Will West was sentenced to the U.S. Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas. You
see, there was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time, whose Bertillon
measurements were nearly exact, and his name was William West.

Upon an investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked exactly alike, but
were allegedly not related. Their names were Will and William West respectively. Their
Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as the same person.
However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as two different
people.

Will and William WEST

On Fingerprint Pattern Classification

The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on general similarities

allows the fingerprint examiner to search for an unidentified fingerprint within a specific
section of the fingerprint file rather than having to search the whole file.

There are numerous fingerprint classification systems in use throughout the

world today. These systems are all based on three fundamental ridge formations
described by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and Henry. They are the arch, the loop - radial
and ulnar, and the whorl.

CLASSIFICATION PATTERNS
ARCH LOOP WHORL
IDENTIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS

RIDGE ENDING BIFURCATION DOT (or ISLAND)

Individuals generally have a mixture of pattern types on their fingertips, with some
correlation between the left and right hands. There is also evidence that the general
fingerprint pattern may be genetically determined. While the loop pattern is the most
common pattern, classification of individuals by assigning a pattern type to each of the
ten fingers in an ordered fashion, serves as a first line of differentiation, however, no
such classification is likely to be unique.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

PLAIN ARCH TENTED ARCH PLAIN LOOP

PLAIN LOOP WHORL CENTRAL POCKET LOOP

LATERAL POCKET LOOP TWINNED LOOP ACCIDENTAL

On Fingerprint Identification

Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection

of certain ridge characteristics, also so known as Galton details, points of identity, or
minutiae, and the comparison of the relative positions of these minutiae points with a
reference print, usually an inked impression of a suspect's print. There are three basic
ridge characteristics, the ridge ending, the bifurcation and the dot (or island).

Island Dot Bifurcation Ending Ridge

Identification points consist of bifurcations, ending ridges, dots, ridges and

islands. A single rolled fingerprint may have as many as 100 or more identification
points that can be used for identification purposes. There is no exact size requirement
as the number of points found on a fingerprint impression depend on the location of the
print. As an example the area immediately surrounding a delta will probably contain
more points per square millimeter than the area near the tip of the finger which tends to
not have that many points. 

In image 1 we see part of a fully rolled fingerprint. Notice that the edges are cut-
off so you can safely assume that this is not a fully rolled impression. If you take a look
at image 2 you can see that I have sectioned out the centre portion of this impression
and labeled 10 points of identification. That was not all the points found but simply the
ones that could be mapped easily without cluttering up the image.

1 2

Image 2 when measured 1:1 is just over 1/4" square. If you look closely you
should be able to identify 10 additional points that were not mapped with the lines. In all
I counted 22 points of identification on this 1/4" square section of the impression. One
thing to note here, you might be under the impression that making a fingerprint
comparison is relatively easy but you should keep in mind a couple things.

First, image 1 and image 2 are both taken from the same image. In real life you
would have impressions made at separate times and subject to different pressure
distortions. Secondly, these images are relatively clean and clear where many of the
actually crime scene prints are anything but clear. Last you have to consider that this is
an easy comparison because you are blessed with having a core pattern and a delta
when in some cases you may have a latent that could be a fingertip, palm or even foot
impression.

Basic and composite ridge characteristics  (minutiae)

Minutiae Example Minutiae Example

ridge ending bridge

bifurcation double bifurcation

dot trifurcation

island (short opposed

ridge) bifurcations

lake (enclosure) ridge crossing

opposed
hook (spur) bifurcation/ridge
ending

…oΩo…