Chapter 2

Fluid Statics

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between fluid particles, so there are no shear stresses present (a
shear results from a velocity gradient). This does not mean that the fluid particles are not moving, but only
that they are not moving relative to one another; if they are moving, as in a can of water rotating about its
axis, they move as a solid body. The only stress involved in fluid statics is the normal stress, the pressure. It
is the pressure acting over an area that gives rise to the forces in problems involving fluid statics. The three
types of problems that are presented in this chapter are: (1) fluids at rest, as in the design of a dam;
-
(2) fluids undergoing linear acceleration, as in a rocket; and (3) fluids that are rotating about an axis.

2.2 PRESSURE VARIATION

Pressure is a quantity that acts at a point. But, does it have the same magnitude in all directions at the
point? To answer this question, consider Fig. 2.1. A pressure p is assumed to act on the hypotenuse and
different pressures px and py on the other two sides of the infinitesimal element that has a uniform depth
dz into the paper. The fluid particle occupying the fluid element could be accelerating, so we use
Newton’s second law in both the x- and y-directions:
P dx dy dz
Fx ¼ max : px dy dz 2 p ds dz sin b ¼ r ax
2
ð2:1Þ
P dx dy dz dx dy dz
Fy ¼ may : py dx dz 2 p ds dz cos b 2 rg ¼r ay
2 2
y

p dsdx
ds
px dy d dy

g dV

dx
x

py dxd

Figure 2.1 Pressure acting on an infinitesimal element.

20
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CHAP. 2] FLUID STATICS 21

dx dy dz
recognizing that dV ¼ . From Fig. 2.1, we have
2
dy ¼ ds sin b dx ¼ ds cos b ð2:2Þ
Substituting these into Eq. (2.1), we obtain
dx
px 2 p ¼ r a
2 x
ð2:3Þ
dy
py 2 p ¼ r ðay þ gÞ
2
Here we see that the quantities on the right-hand sides are infinitesimal, i.e., extremely small, and can be
neglected* so that
px ¼ py ¼ p ð2:4Þ
Since the angle b is arbitrary, this holds for all angles. We could have selected dimensions dx and dz and
arrived at px ¼ pz ¼ p. So, the pressure is a scalar function that acts equally in all directions at a point in
our applications to fluid statics.
In the preceding discussion, pressure only at a point was considered. The pressure variation from
point to point will now be investigated. The fluid element of depth dy in Fig. 2.2 can be accelerating as in
a rotating container. Newton’s second law provides
@p
p dy dz 2 p þ dx dy dz ¼ rg dx dy dz ax
@x
ð2:5Þ
@p
p dx dy 2 p þ dz dx dy ¼ 2rg dx dy dz þ rg dx dy dz az
@z
If the element was shown in the y-direction also, the y-component equation would be
@p
p dx dz 2 p þ dy dx dz ¼ rg dx dy dz ay ð2:6Þ
@y
Equations (2.5) and (2.6) reduce to
@p @p @p
¼ 2rax ¼ 2ray ¼ 2rðaz þ gÞ ð2:7Þ
@x @y @z

p+ d dxdy

(vertical)

a
d
p dy d p+ dx dyd
x

g dxdyd

dx

p dxdy

Figure 2.2 Forces acting on an element of fluid.

*
Mathematically, we could use an element with sides Dx and Dy and let Dx ! 0 and Dy ! 0:
22 FLUID STATICS [CHAP. 2

Finally, the pressure differential can be written as

@p @p @p
dp ¼ dx þ dy þ dz
@x @y @z
¼ 2rax dx 2 ray dy 2 rðaz þ gÞdz ð2:8Þ
This can be integrated to give the desired difference in pressure between specified points in a fluid.
In a fluid at rest, there is no acceleration so that the pressure variation from Eq. (2.8) is
dp ¼ 2rg dz or dp ¼ 2g dz ð2:9Þ
This implies that as the elevation z increases, the pressure decreases, a fact that we are aware of in nature;
the pressure increases with depth in the ocean and decreases with height in the atmosphere.
Consider the pressure variation in a liquid in which g is constant. Equation (2.9) allows us to write
Dp ¼ 2g Dz ð2:10Þ
where Dp is the pressure change over the elevation change Dz. If we desire an expression for the pressure
at a distance h below a free surface where the pressure is zero, it would be
p ¼ gh ð2:11Þ
where h ¼ 2Dz. Equation (2.11) is used to convert pressure to an equivalent height of a liquid;
atmospheric pressure is often expressed as millimeters of mercury (the pressure at the bottom of a 30-in
column of mercury is the same as the pressure at the earth’s surface due to the entire atmosphere).
If the pressure variation in the atmosphere is desired, then Eq. (2.9) would be used with the ideal gas
law p ¼ rRT to give
p Zp dp g Zz dz
dp ¼ 2 g dz or ¼2 ð2:12Þ
RT p0 p R 0 T
where p0 is the pressure at z ¼ 0. If the temperature could be assumed constant over the elevation
change, then the above equation could be integrated to obtain
p ¼ p0 e2gz RT
=
ð2:13Þ
In the troposphere (between the earth’s surface and to a height of about 10 km) where the temperature
(in kelvins) is T ¼ 288 2 0:0065z, Eq. (2.12) can be integrated to give the pressure variation.

EXAMPLE 2.1 Convert 230 kPa to millimeters of mercury, inches of mercury, and feet of water.
Solution: Equation (2.11) is applied using the specific weight of mercury, which is 13:6gwater ,
p ¼ gh 230 000 ¼ ð13:6 · 9800Þh
\ h ¼ 1:726 m or 1726 mm of mercury
ft in
This is equivalent to 1:726 m · 3:281 · 12 ¼ 68:0 in of mercury. Returning to Eq. (2.11) first convert kPa to
2 m ft
lb=ft :
lb=ft2
230 kPa · 20:89 ¼ 4805 psf 4805 ¼ 62:4h
kPa
\ h ¼ 77:0 ft of water
We could have converted meters of mercury to feet of mercury and then multiplied by 13.6 to obtain feet of water.

2.3 MANOMETERS
A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure, rather than using a
pressure gage. Let us analyze a typical U-tube manometer attached to a pipe, as shown in Fig. 2.3, to
illustrate how to interpret a manometer; this one uses water and mercury. There are several ways to
analyze a manometer; this is one way. Identify two points that have the same pressure, i.e., that are at the
same elevation in the same liquid, such as points 2 and 3. Then we can write
CHAP. 2] FLUID STATICS 23

p2 ¼ p3
ð2:14Þ
p1 þ gwater h ¼ p4 þ gHg H
Since point 4 is shown to be open to the atmosphere, the pressure there is zero gage pressure: p4 ¼ 0.
Thus, the manometer would measure the pressure p1 in the pipe to be
p1 ¼ gHg H 2 gwater h ð2:15Þ

Note that a point is positioned at all interfaces. Some manometers will have several fluids with several
interfaces. Each interface should be located with a point when analyzing the manometer.

water 4

H
mercury
1
h
Pipe 2 3

Figure 2.3 A U-tube manometer using water and mercury.

EXAMPLE 2.2 A manometer connects an oil pipeline and a water pipeline as shown in Fig. 2.4. Determine
the difference in pressure between the two pipelines using the readings on the manometer. Use Soil ¼ 0:86 and
SHg ¼ 13:6:
Air

Water 4
5
8 cm
1 6 cm
4 cm 6
2 3

Mercury Oil

Figure 2.4

Solution: The points of interest have been positioned on the manometer in Fig. 2.4. The pressure at point 2
is equal to the pressure at point 3:

p2 ¼ p3
pwater þ gwater · 0:04 ¼ p4 þ gHg · 0:08

Note that the heights must be in meters. The pressure at point 4 is essentially the same as that at point 5, since
the specific weight of air is negligible compared with that of the oil. So,
p4 ¼ p5
¼ poil 2 goil · 0:06
Finally,
pwater 2 poil ¼ 2gwater · 0:04 þ gHg · 0:08 2 goil · 0:06
¼ 29800 · 0:04 þ ð13:6 · 9800Þ0:08 2 ð0:86 · 9800Þ0:06 ¼ 10 780 Pa
24 FLUID STATICS [CHAP. 2

2.4 FORCES ON PLANE AND CURVED SURFACES

In engineering designs where a liquid is contained by surfaces, such as a dam, the side of a ship, a water
tank, or a levee, it is necessary to calculate the forces and their locations due to the liquid on the various
surfaces. The liquid is most often water, but it could also be oil or some other liquid. We will develop
equations for forces on plane surfaces, but forces on curved surfaces can be determined using the same
equations. Examples will illustrate.
Consider the general surface shown in Fig. 2.5. The liquid acts on the plane area shown as a section
of the wall; a top view gives additional detail of the geometry. The force on the plane surface is due to the
pressure p ¼ gh acting over the area, i.e.,
Z Z
F ¼ p dA ¼ g h dA
A A
Z
¼ g sin a y dA ¼ g yA sin a ð2:16Þ
A

where y is the distance* to the centroid of the plane area; the centroid is identified as the point C.
Equation (2.16) can also be expressed as
F ¼ ghA ð2:17Þ
where h is the vertical distance to the centroid. Since gh is the pressure at the centroid, we see that the
magnitude of the force is the area multiplied by the pressure that acts at the centroid of the area. It does
not depend on the angle a of inclination. But, the force does not, in general, act at the centroid.

Free surface p = 0 O

x
F
h
h dA

O
Inclined
plane area dy
y
dA
C y
c.p.

yp
Inclined
plane area
(top view)

Figure 2.5 The force on an inclined plane area.

Let us assume that the force acts at some point called the center of pressure, located by the point
ðxp , yp Þ. To determine where the force acts, we must recognize that the sum of the moments of all the
infinitesimal forces must equal the moment of the resultant force, i.e.,
Z
yp F ¼ g yh dA
A
Z
¼ g sin a y2 dA ¼ gIx sin a ð2:18Þ
A

*
R
Recall that yA ¼ A y dA.
CHAP. 2] FLUID STATICS 25

where Ix is the second moment* of the area about the x-axis. The parallel-axis transfer theorem states that
Ix ¼ I þ Ay2 ð2:19Þ
where I is the moment of the area about its centroidal axis. So, substitution of Eq. (2.19) into Eq. (2.18)
and using the expression for F from Eq. (2.16) results in
I
yp ¼ y þ ð2:20Þ
Ay
This helps us to locate where the force acts. For a horizontal surface, the pressure is uniform over the
area so that the pressure force acts at the centroid of the area. In general, yp is greater than y. The
centroids and second moments of various areas are presented in books on Statics or Strength of
Materials. They will be given in the problems in this book.
If the top of the inclined area in Fig. 2.5 was at the free surface, the pressure distribution on that area
would be triangular and the force F due to that pressure would act through the centroid of that
triangular distribution, i.e., two-thirds the distance from the top of the inclined area.
To locate the x-coordinate xp of the center of pressure, we use
Z
xp F ¼ g sin a xy dA
A
¼ gIxy sin a ð2:21Þ
where Ixy is the product of inertia of the area. Using the transfer theorem for the product of inertia, the
x-location of the center of pressure is
I xy
xp ¼ x þ ð2:22Þ
Ay
The above equations also allow us to calculate the forces acting on curved surfaces. Consider the
curved gate shown in Fig. 2.6(a). The objective of this problem would be to find the force P of the gate on
the vertical wall and the forces on the hinge. From the free-body diagrams in Fig. 2.6(b) and 2.6(c), the
desired forces can be calculated provided the force FW , which acts through the center of gravity of
the area, can be found. The forces F1 and F2 can be found using Eq. (2.17). The forces FH and FV are the
horizontal and vertical components of the force of the water acting on the gate. If a free-body diagram of
only the water above the gate was identified, then we would see that

Water
F2

P
P

F1 FW FV
Hinge FH

Curved Fx Fx
surface Fy Fy

(a) (b) (c )

Figure 2.6 Forces on a curved surface: (a) the gate, (b) the water and the gate, and (c) the gate only.

*
Recall the second moment of a rectangle about its centroidal axis is bh3 =12.
26 FLUID STATICS [CHAP. 2

FH ¼ F1 and FV ¼ F2 þ FW ð2:23Þ
Often, the gate is composed of a quarter circle. In that case, the problem can be greatly simplified
by recognizing that the forces FH and FV , when added together as a vector, must act through the
center of the quarter circle, since all the infinitesimal forces due to the water pressure on the gate that
makes up FH and FV act through the center. So, for a gate that has the form of a part of a circle, the
force components FH and FV can be located at the center of the circular arc. An example will
illustrate.
A final application of forces on surfaces involves buoyancy, i.e., forces on floating bodies.
Archimedes’ principle states that there is a buoyancy force on a floating object equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid, written as
FB ¼ gVdisplaced liquid ð2:24Þ

Since there are only two forces acting on a floating body, they must be equal and opposite and act
through the center of gravity of the body (the body could have density variations) and the centroid of the
liquid volume. The body would position itself so that the center of gravity and centroid would be on a
vertical line. Questions of stability arise (does the body tend to tip?), but are not considered here.

EXAMPLE 2.3 A 60-cm square gate has its top edge 12 m below the water surface. It is on a 45– angle and its
bottom edge is hinged as shown in Fig. 2.7(a). What force P is needed to just open the gate?

P
Water
P
y
F
yp

Hinge Fx
d
45° Fy

(a) (b)

Figure 2.7
Solution: The first step is to sketch a free-body diagram of the gate so the forces and distances are clearly
identified. It is done in Fig. 2.7(b). The force F is calculated to be

F ¼ ghA
¼ 9810 · ð12 þ 0:3 sin 45– Þð0:6 · 0:6Þ ¼ 43 130 N

We will take moments about the hinge so that it will not be necessary to calculate the forces Fx and Fy . Let us
find the distance d where the force F acts from the hinge:

h 12 þ 0:3 sin 45–

y¼ ¼ ¼ 17:27 m
sin 45– sin 45–

I 0:6 · 0:63 =12

yp ¼ y þ ¼ 17:27 þ ¼ 17:272 m
Ay ð0:6 · 0:6Þ17:27

\ d ¼ y þ 0:3 2 yp > 0:3 m

CHAP. 2] FLUID STATICS 27

Note: The distance yp 2 y is very small and can be neglected because of the relatively large 12 m height compared
with the 0.6 m dimension. So, the force P can be calculated:
0:3F
P¼ ¼ 21 940 N
0:6
Note again that all dimensions are converted to meters.

EXAMPLE 2.4 Consider the gate in Fig. 2.8 to be a quarter circle of radius 80 cm with the hinge 8 m below the
water surface. If the gate is 1 m wide, what force P is needed to hold the gate in the position shown?
Solution: Let us move the forces FH and FV of Fig. 2.6(c) to the center of the circular arc, as shown in
Fig. 2.8. This is allowed since all the force components that make up the resultant vector force FH þ FV pass
through the center of the arc. The free-body diagram of the gate would appear as in Fig. 2.8. If moments are
taken about the hinge, Fx , Fy , and FV produce no moments. So,
P ¼ FH FV
a rather simple result compared with the situation if we used FH P
Fig. 2.6(c). The force P is

P ¼ ghA ¼ 9810 · ð8 2 0:4Þð0:8 · 1Þ

Water
¼ 93 200 N
Hinge
where FH ¼ F1 and F1 is the force on the vertical area shown in
Fig. 2.6(b). Fx
Fy

Figure 2.8

2.5 ACCELERATING CONTAINERS

The pressure in a container accelerating with components ax and az is found by integrating Eq. (2.8)
between selected points 1 and 2 to obtain
p2 2 p1 ¼ 2rax ðx2 2 x1 Þ 2 rðaz þ gÞðz2 2 z1 Þ ð2:25Þ
If points 1 and 2 lie on a constant-pressure line (e.g., a free surface) such that p2 ¼ p1 , as in Fig. 2.9, and
az ¼ 0, Eq. (2.25) allows an expression for the angle a:

0 ¼ 2rax ðx2 2 x1 Þ 2 rgðz2 2 z1 Þ

z 2 z2 a ð2:26Þ
tan a ¼ 1 ¼ x
x2 2 x1 g
If az is not zero, then it is simply included. The above equations allow us to make calculations involving
linearly accelerating containers. The liquid is assumed to be not sloshing; it is moving as a rigid body. An
example will illustrate.

2
ax

Figure 2.9 A linearly accelerating container.