2004 Poultry Science Association, Inc.

A Review of Literature Concerning

Odors, Ammonia, and Dust from
Broiler Production Facilities: 2. Flock
and House Management Factors
J. B. Carey,*,1 R. E. Lacey,† and S. Mukhtar†

*Department of Poultry Science Texas A&M University, College Station,

Texas 77843-2472; and †Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering,
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2117

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Primary Audience: Extension Specialists, Poultry Scientists, Poultry Farm Managers

SUMMARY
Confinement buildings are one of the most likely sources of odor in a broiler operation. The
buildings must be ventilated, either mechanically with fans or relying on natural airflow, to prevent
animal mortality and enhance animal health. Consequently, odors generated within the building
are carried to the surrounding environment by the ventilation system. This review addresses the
management of those factors that affect the production and removal of odorants in a broiler
production operation. Published literature does not specifically discuss odor generation within
broiler houses. Several studies deal with ammonia (an odorant gas) or particulate matter (a pollutant
thought to carry odorant gases) emissions in broiler houses. These studies are discussed and
inferences are made about the generation of odors under similar conditions.
Conditions that lead to higher moisture in the litter tend to increase ammonia release, and by
inference, more odorant release. Higher litter moisture is presumed to encourage greater microbial
degradation of uric acid excreted by the birds into the litter and release more ammonia. Evaporative
coolers may produce excess water droplets that fall to the litter rather than evaporate to cool the
incoming air. Broiler houses that use misting systems generally have higher moisture content in
the litter at the inlet end of the house. Either type of evaporative cooling system may also reduce
litter drying rates by increasing humidity levels within the house. At the other extreme, low litter
moisture could lead to the production of more particulate matter (i.e., dust), a pollutant that can
transport odors to the atmosphere. The optimum litter moisture content that can minimize odorant
and dust release is somewhere within the range of 25 to 35%, but exact values for optimum balance
depend on numerous house-specific conditions. Changes in dietary nutrient levels can alter the
production of ammonia by varying the amount of nitrogen available; however, most currently
researched methods show negative impacts on productivity. Management of watering devices is
critical to controlling litter moisture. Proper water equipment maintenance and operation are part
of daily house management strategies to control litter moisture and, therefore, dust and odor.
Key words: broiler production, odor, litter management
2004 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 13:509–513

DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM which the floor is covered in an absorbent mate-

rial (i.e., litter). Conditions within these confine-
Production of broiler chickens in the US is ment buildings are managed to optimize bird
primarily done within enclosed structures in health and productivity. Factors that affect the

1
To whom correspondence should be addressed: j-carey@tamu.edu.
510
interior conditions include seasonal climate and
weather conditions; building ventilation, heating
and cooling; and factors that affect the litter
(e.g., feed spillage, flock husbandry, litter man-
agement). These factors are interrelated in estab-
lishing the composition of the interior air in the
building. Because commercial broiler produc-
tion is totally confined, the air in the building
contains all of the materials emitted to the atmo-
sphere; some of which are potential pollutants
(e.g., ammonia, dust, and odorants).
HOUSE AND SITE FACTORS
The American Society of Agricultural Engi-
neers [1] has suggested separation distances for
site selection of animal production facilities
from residential developments (1 mi) and indi-
vidual rural residences (0.25 to 0.5 mi). Many
states have regulatory requirements that estab-
lish minimum set-back distances for broiler pro-
duction facilities. Regulatory constraints
notwithstanding, it is best to locate broiler pro-
duction facilities such that impact on sur-
rounding property is minimized. Local airflow
and human traffic patterns may necessitate dis-
tances in excess of those stated above to prevent
negative impact.
In a study of broiler and pig slurry in The
Netherlands, Misselbrook et al. [2] used a series
of mathematical models to demonstrate that
broiler house odors were more intense than the
pig slurry, but broiler house odors had a greater
slope of intensity on concentration (1.61 for
swine compared with 2.35 for broilers) and
would, therefore, be easier to abate. A greater
slope of intensity means that smaller reductions
in concentration yield greater reductions in
odors. The models thus developed for the rela-
tionships between odor concentration and odor
intensity could be useful in determining the re-
quired abatement strategy to render the odor
acceptable. The effectiveness of any control
measures, when used in conjunction with such
models, could establish minimum acceptable
distances between the source of an odor and
potential complainants.
Due to regulatory constraints, ammonia
emissions are of utmost importance in the UK.
Phillips et al. [3] used a ranking system to eluci-
date approaches to livestock management and
waste storage that had feasibility to reduce am-
JAPR: Review Article
monia emissions. Those factors related to poul-
try house and flock management include dietary
manipulation, adequate bedding, exhaust air
cleaning, and use of ventilation systems to dry
litter.
LITTER MANAGEMENT
Management of broiler litter to reduce am-
monia volatilization is largely a matter of con-
trolling litter moisture and pH. Control of litter
pH over the life of the flock has proven to be a
difficult task. Reece et al. [4] demonstrated that
litter ammonia release was negligible at litter
pH below 7. Ammonia release began when pH
was near 7 and reached a maximum at pH 8 and
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above. These researchers examined treating the
litter with monobasic calcium phosphate at 0.4
and 1.0 kg/m2 or phosphoric acid at 0.4 kg/m2
in an attempt to adjust litter pH during grow-
out, but no treatment was effective after 17 d.
Ellicott and Collins [5] modeled ammonia re-
lease from broiler houses and found litter pH,
temperature, and moisture content (in that order)
to impact ammonia release. Carr et al. [6] found
that ammonia concentration increased with in-
creases in litter pH, temperature, and moisture
level. They stated that increased ventilation
caused a decrease in ammonia concentration and
that litter moisture level should be below 35%
to reduce ammonia concentration in the build-
ing air.
Amon et al. [7] studied litter treatment with
a commercial yucca extract (De-Oderase) and a
zeolite (clinoptilolite) fed at 2% of the diet and
spread on the litter at 1.6 kg/m2 in concrete and
brick broiler houses in Slovenia. The treatments
had no positive impact on odor, and clinoptilolite
actually increased ammonia release.
FLOCK HUSBANDRY
Flock husbandry encompasses a variety of
factors that impact odor and dust. Litter depth
can be a factor as Al Homidan et al. [8] observed
that litter ammonia levels were higher in treat-
ments with less bedding material. Dietary factors
are discussed more fully in a subsequent section.
Ferguson et al. [9] examined the impacts of di-
etary CP levels on litter ammonia and found that
their dietary treatments had no significant impact
on litter ammonia. They did, however, confirm
the relationship between higher litter moisture
CAREY ET AL.: REVIEW: FLOCK AND HOUSE MANAGEMENT
and increased litter ammonia. Increases in litter
moisture from approximately 56 to 60% resulted
in an increase in litter ammonia release. The
positive impacts of litter management can also
improve broiler health. McGovern et al. [10]
demonstrated that oiling broiler litter with feed-
grade canola oil reduced dust levels by up to
32%. Willis et al. [11] used evaporative cooling
systems to control broiler house dust. Treated
pens had higher ammonia and moisture but
lower dust. Broiler BW of the treated pens
were higher.
Dietary Influences
Terada et al. [12] studied the impact of feed-
ing lactosucrose in broiler diets on cecal mi-
crobes and odor compounds in cecal contents.
These researchers reported significant reduc-
tions in cecal ammonia, phenol, and cresol
among birds fed lactosucrose. They also reported
increases in cecal acetic acid and butyric acid
among birds fed lactosucrose. Pen ammonia lev-
els were significantly lower in the lactosucrose-
fed birds, and the researchers observed that pen
odor was reduced in the lactosucrose-treated
groups.
Elwinger and Svensson [13] examined the
impact of protein level on ammonia emission
and litter nitrogen in broilers in Sweden. Based
on nitrogen balance estimates, they calculated
that the loss of nitrogen attributable to ammonia
losses increased as dietary protein level in-
creased but numerous measurements of litter
ammonia did not detect any differences in am-
monia volatilization from the litter.
An initial experiment by Ferguson et al. [9],
examining the impact of low CP on broiler
growth and litter composition, found no impact
on litter ammonia levels but did report signifi-
cant reductions in litter nitrogen levels. In other
work, Ferguson et al. [14] compared low, me-
dium, and high CP levels in broiler diets. The
low and medium treatments were supplemented
with synthetic amino acids. Litter ammonia lev-
els tended to be lower for the low and medium
CP treatments compared with the high treatment.
Litter pH of the low treatment was significantly
reduced compared with the high treatment
group. Litter moisture and total nitrogen was
significantly reduced between the high and me-
511
dium group and also between the medium and
low treatment group.
Si et al. [15, 16, 17] studied the impacts of
lowering CP levels accompanied by supplemen-
tal synthetic amino acids in an attempt to reduce
nitrogen excretion while maintaining growth and
feed efficiency in broilers. Reducing CP below
20%, while providing indispensable amino
acids, consistently resulted in reductions in BW
and feed conversion of the broilers. Extensive
work to elucidate specific amino acids that may
contribute to the poor performance has failed to
determine the necessary amino acids required
to restore growth and feed efficiency in lower
protein diets. Chavez et al. [18] reported signifi-
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cant differences among methionine sources on
the odor volatility of broiler excreta. This could
provide additional management strategies to re-
duce or alter odors from broiler production
facilities.
Litter dry matter content and nitrogen losses
were lower when using nipple drinkers vs. bell
drinkers [13]. Presumably conditions favoring
reduced nitrogen loss would also favor reduced
odor production. However, if the litter is too dry,
then increased dust concentrations may occur in
the building.
Water Systems
Guidelines for drinker management in rela-
tion to season of the year are provided by manu-
facturers [19]. Birds drink substantially less
water in cooler weather; thus, it is necessary to
reduce pressure in drinker systems during cooler
weather to prevent wet litter conditions that can
lead to increased ammonia release and related
problems. Each manufacturer has recommenda-
tions regarding drinker pressure for birds of all
ages and under all environmental conditions.
Additional difficulties occur when house floors
are not level. Some form of pressure equalizer
or additional regulator is needed in the system
to assure proper water pressure throughout the
length of the system. General recommendations
for finding the proper water pressure involve
careful observation of litter conditions sur-
rounding the drinker system. If the litter is wet,
the pressure needs to be reduced or the drinker
height needs to be raised. Litter age, season of
the year, bird age, and equipment condition all
512 JAPR: Review Article

play a role in determining the proper drinker
pressure.
COMPOSTING OF LITTER
AND MORTALITY
Wet litter and dead birds are among the po-
tential sources of odor at a broiler operation.
Processing of litter and mortalities by compost-
ing helps reduce odors and volumes of waste
generated. On the other hand, a poorly managed
composting operation will add one more source
of odor.
Managing a major die-off requires extra at-
tention to the factors that could result in the
development of odors. Carcass burial must be
problems are the single biggest threat to a com-
posting operation. They recommend that com-
posting facilities be placed a long distance from
neighbors and property lines. The 3 primary
sources of odor are raw materials, ammonia, and
anaerobic conditions within the compost stack
or row. Anaerobic conditions can be eliminated
through assurance of proper moisture and aera-
tion. Ammonia odors can be controlled by pro-
viding extra carbon sources (such as straw or
wood shavings) to the mixture. Strong-smelling
raw materials can be eliminated through timely
and effective collection and use. Reduction of
odors from strong smelling raw materials will
not occur until the composting process is well

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completed within the 72 h required by regula-
tions, but it is highly advisable that burial occurs
within 24 h. Due to the large number of carcasses
associated with a major die-off event, the poten-
tial for rapid development of strong odors is of
primary concern.
Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engi-
neering Service [20] states that odor control
underway. Odors can be reduced by increasing
the porosity of the mixture and by covering the
compost pile with a layer of peat moss or fully
composted material. Compost turning, loading,
and transportation tend to increase odors. Con-
trol of moisture in raw materials can also reduce
odor problems related to excessive moisture.

CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS

1. Proper location of poultry facilities is a key factor in the avoidance of odor-related problems.
Other site factors include the potential windbreak walls, tree lines, or fan elbows to improve
air mixing.
2. Litter moisture management is key to odor control. This includes ventilation and drinker man-
agement.
3. Research has demonstrated that litter ammonia release is negligible at litter pH below 7.
4. Consideration of nutritional factors that influence odor production may be warranted if such
changes do not negatively impact bird performance.
5. Management of on-farm mortalities is an important factor in odor management.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 2001. Control
of manure odors. Pages 638–639 in ASAE EP379.2. Agricultural
Engineers Yearbook of Standards. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
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Relationship between concentration and intensity of odours for pig
slurry and broiler houses. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 55:163–169.
3. Phillips, V. R., D. A. Cowell, R. W. Sneath, T. R. Cumby,
A. G. Williams, T. G. M. Demmers, and D. L. Sandars. 1999. An
assesment of ways to abate ammonia emissions from UK livestock
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4. Reece, F. N., B. D. Lott, and B. J. Bates. 1985. The perfor-
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Acknowledgment
This review was in part supported by contract #582-0-81252 with
the Texas Natural Resources Conservation Commission (Study of
Odors and Arsenic Emissions from Poultry Growing Operations).