The History of Building Materials Summarized:

Stone Age
During this time, primitive people live thru the principle of hunter-gatherers, they moved
from a place to another in search for food. The earliest documented materials used for a
“house” was excavated in Europe which dated around 12,000 BCE used wooden poles
that are assumed to be frames for animal skins used as walls for a tent.
Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures
This can be recalled as the time when Middle eastern civilizations existed along great
river valleys like the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus, and the Huang Ho. Given
this geographical advantage, people during this time (around 3000 BCE) people were
able to develop a building material made from mud and formed using straw with four
sides, this materials is what we call “bricks”, these bricks were made from sun-drying
the mud found along the aforementioned bodies of water. “ceramic” where also
developed during this time wherein more intricate decors were added, thus giving
Architecture more vibrance.
Egyptian Civilization-
Everybody knows the building material used during this era-stones. Massive blocks of
stones such as limestone, sandstone, and granite that are strong and durable were
mined and cut by early Egyptians to construct monumental structures like Pyramids,
mortuaries, and mastabas.
Greek and Hellenestic cultures
Similar to Egyptian Civilization, Greek and Hellenestic people also used stones for their
buildings, they used more from local marble and limestones, since stones available in
their place are not as massive as those in Egypt, they pursued new stone technology
like corbelling and construction of arches staggering pieces of stones precisely to form
radial segments.
Roman Civilization
Romans contributed the use of concrete as building material which was derived from
the basic mortar mixture made by sand, lime and water until 2 nd century B.C.E. when
pozzolana was discovered and the new material called “pulvis puteoli”, natural cement
was then formed with this material.
Romanesque and Gothic Era
 During around the 5th century, the Iron Age started wherein new building technology
was applied in construction, this is thru using log construction, packed clay walls, mud
brick and wattle and daub- which is the method of constructing walls in which vertical
wooden stakes, or wattles, are woven with horizontal twigs and branches, and then
daubed with clay or mud.
Renaissance Period
Construction of domes is a significant contribution of builders in this era, moreover, the
use of timber trusses with king posts is a major Roman building technique revived in this
period. The use of clear glass was also manifested in many Romanesque buildings
which is also called as the “crown glass method” which is a process handmaking glass
out of soda-lime composition.
The First Industrial Age
at around 18th century, the Industrial Revolution emerged wherein mass production of
Iron was done to contribute to the development of machinery which then lead to the
“puddling process” or the process of production wrought iron in 1769. Because of this
advancement, machines were created, and the simple sun-dried bricks were upgraded
into “pressed” bricks which were mass produced by a mechanical extrusion process.
The Second Industrial Age
This was the time when steel and electricity were first used for advancement. Steel
were mass produced to build railroads and soon building frames which lead to
construction of early skyscrapers. Concrete was then also reformulated adding
powdered brick and pebbles (which soon evolved into the aggregates we use today) to
the original mixture of lime, sand and water. After that, the use of reinforced concrete
was evident all over the houses in Paris which started when a French gardener named
Joseph Monier uses the concrete mixture for his pots with cage iron wires as
reinforcement.  More technologies emerged during this time such as lighting, heating
and cooling systems, more use of glass, and use of other metals as building material.
Modern Era
The modern era implies more change in building technology, most of them aims to
reduce the building construction’s cost. More research nowadays are being done to
upgrade the building technology with the common aim which is to make construction
faster and economical.
1.2 Building Materials' Properties
and Application

Material properties can be defined in many ways as long as science is concerned.

Oftentimes, building materials are characterized according to its use or application,
initially, it is classified according to its properties-in most cases, these classifications will
tell the materials' strength, durability, toughness, efficiency and ductility. Generally,
building materials are classified into two -that may be natural or synthetic. Different
classifications of building materials are further discussed in the following illustration:

Building Materials Classifications

Illustration Material Classification

Natural
Natural
Materials
 Fabric Natural

Mud and
Natural
Clay
Rock Natural

Thatch Natural
Brush Natural

Ice Natural
Wood Natural

Bricks Natural
Concrete Natural
Metal Natural

Glass Natural
Ceramics Natural
Plastics Synthetic
 Foam Synthetic

Cement
Synthetic
Composite
1.3 Different Types of Specification

Purpose and Importance of Specifications

1. Specification is defined as a written document describing in detail the scope of work,

materials to be used, methods of installation, and quality of workmanship for a parcel
of work to be placed under contract.
2. It provides information for proper construction or material and equipment which
cannot be placed in drawings.
3. It segregates the information shown on the drawings into various sections.
4. It instructs the different material suppliers of the extent of their work
5. It constitutes one of the contract documents together with the drawings and the
agreement of contract between the owner and the contractor. In court it is more
important than the drawings.
6. The contractor can then get his subcontracts on the basis of the specification
breakdown of sections.

 
QUALIFICATION OF SPECIFICATION WRITER

1. A professional specification writer maintains a good library of technical documents,

an extensive collection of manufacturer literature and catalogs and is knowledgeable
in various codes used in his area.
2. The following qualifications are necessary for an effective specification writer:
1. A degree in the required discipline and eventual professional registration
2. A good basic skill in drafting and detailing
3. A thorough knowledge of construction gained by extensive field
inspection
4. The ability to write in a proper and concise manner
5. An orderly mind
6. The ability to get along with fellow workers

TYPES OF SPECIFICATIONS

1. Performance Specifications

 the result of the product, rather than the product itself are specified

2. Descriptive Specifications

 gives a description of the product

 3. Brand Name Specification

 the desired product is specified by the name given and model number “or an equal
approved by the architect”

4. Closed Specification

-there are two types of closed specifications, the single product and the multi product.
Closed specifications are usually brand name specifications. The multi product is the
same as a single product except that more than one product is used. “no other brand
will be accepted”

5. Open Specifications

 open because all manufacturers whose product meet performance or description

specified may bid. All performance and descriptive specifications are open. Brand
name specifications are open if the phrase “or equal”

6. Reference Specification

 the item desired is referred to by a number corresponding to a number published in a

specification.

7. Combination Specification

-it is possible to have combinations of performance, description and reference

specification.

Materials Specification Writing

Specification Writing Generalized
Specifications, as one of the Contract Documents, deserves as much care and attention
as working drawings. They should be clear, concise, and accurate in their wording.
Specifications should not duplicate the information given on the drawings, (information
that can be most clearly shown by drawings) but should deal with all other needed
information with a few well-chosen words as necessary for complete understanding.
The words “or equal” should never be used, since doing so postpones the time of
decision and encourages the expression of differing opinions of comparative qualities.
The resulting uncertainty causes bidders to protect themselves by bidding high enough
to pay for the most expensive item they might be required to furnish, and then seek
approval of a cheaper one.

Procedure
The specifications should be started in the form of a construction outline and equipment
outline (or outline specifications) to accompany the schematic drawings and be further
developed as preliminary specifications to accompany later design drawings. Thus,
decisions, made tentatively at first, become firm if not changed; the client is given time
to consider before approving important decisions; and data for preliminary estimates are
made available.
Since the preliminary specifications may not have been prepared by the specification
write, and he may not have followed later developments, a review of the working
drawings and notations is in order. This may uncover the need for additional decisions
regarding selection of materials or methods of construction or the choice of equipment.
The following are pointers of how to prepare a specification:

1.
1. Prepare a list of all section.
2. Write scope of the work for each section.
3. Coordinate “Scopes” to make sure that everything is included.
4. Prepare specification brief (dummy).

The following shall be covered in the scope of the work when applicable:

1.
1. The material and labor included under this section.
2. Material required to be furnished under this section to be installed by
others. (Indicate who will furnish the work)
3. Material furnished by others (Indicate who) to be installed under a
particular section.
4. Work shown on the drawings not included under this section.
5. Work shown on the drawings not included under the contract.

Conflicts between specifications and drawings

The General Provision of the contract states that “Anything mentioned in the
specifications, and not shown in the drawings, or shown on the drawings and not
mentioned in the specifications, shall be of like effect as if shown or mentioned in both.
In case difference between drawings and specifications or in the specifications, the
matter shall be promptly submitted to the contracting officer, who shall promptly decide
in writing.

Form, Sentence, Grammar

If, in the wording of specifications, complete sentences are used, many repetitions of
the word “Architect”,” Contractor”, “Owner”, “shall be” and “will be” are necessary. The
accepted rule is to use “shall” and “will” with proper discrimination, as an example:
“Certain things shall be done by the contractors, other things will be done by the owner.”
The use of the words “to be” or “are be” lack definiteness and clarity. Use “shall be” or
“must be” to secure the mandatory form essential to specifications.
 
 1.
1. Styles to Avoid

Since the specifications are one part of the contract documents, that the contract is
between the owner and a prime contractor and that the prime contractor is the only
party responsible for completing the work the accord with the specifications, therefore, it
is never proper to refer to a sub-contractor in the specifications, example:
      Incorrect: “The Tile Contractor shall examine surfaces for defects.”
This style is incorrect because it violates the intent of the contract, undermines the
proper chain of command, and invites disputes over authority and responsibility for
compliance with the specifications.
 
      Acceptable: “The Contractor shall install all accessories”.
      Better: “All accessories shall be installed”.
      Best: “Install all accessories.”
Another Structure to avoid is the verb phrase “is to be”, for example:
     
      Avoid: “Adhesive is to be spread with a notched trowel”
      Better: “Spread adhesive with a notched trowel.”
      Better: “Use a notched Trowel.”

2. Correct Grammar

The tense of the subject and that of the verb must always agree plural verbs and should
not be used with singular subjects nor vice versa.
 
Correct: One of the elongated Central Fasteners is to be placed around the eye of the
panel and bolted.
Incorrect: One of the elongated fasteners are to be places around the eye of the panel
and bolted.
Better: Bolt one of the elongated fasteners to the eye of the panel.
 
The rules of a good grammar require parallel construction. The use of identical style in
both parts of a compound subject or predicate, or the use of identical style in a string of
prepositional phrases modifying the same noun.
Incorrect: Heating, ventilation, and Air-Conditioning
Correct: Heating, ventilation, and Air Conditioning
Incorrect: Tests shall be performed to determine strength and to established quality.
Correct:  Tests shall be performed to determine strength and to establish quality.
Better: Perform tests to determine strength and to establish quality.

3. Avoid words having varied or indefinite meanings.

Do not say: “The equipment shall be removed and replaced as indicated.”

Say: “Remove equipment during the alteration thereof and reinstall after completion.”
Do not say: “The existing culverts shall be replaced as indicated on the drawings.”
Say: “Remove existing culverts and reinstall in the new location.”
 

4. “Provide” is defined in the general provisions as “Furnish and install”, When

materials and/or equipment are only to be furnished by the contractor, the term
“furnish” should be used, and when material and /or equipment are only to be
installed by the contractor may be required to use the term “provide”. If the word
“install” is used alone, the bidder or contractor has a right to assume, on the basis of
the definition cited, that the government (if public) or the owner (if private) will
“furnish” the material will be questioned. Therefore, define what is to be provided by
the contractor to complete such an installation.

5. Internal Numbering

The basic scheme of alternating numbers and letters is recommended in lieu of an all
number scheme (2.2.1.2.11…). the contrast between number and letter contributes to
visual acuity and comprehension. The contrast further contributes to the mental
establishments and retention of levels of emphasis or rank of the paragraph.
 
The recommended method of numbering the internal elements of the section paragraph
is:
1.1 Paragraph Title
(a) Subparagraph
(1)Subparagraph
(a))Subparagraph
Numbering systems within the section alternate numbers and letters and various
paragraphs and subparagraph should be indented accordingly.

1.4 Material Specification Writing

The 3 Part Section Format
            Each of the 16 divisions of the Uniform Construction Index is further divided into
sections in the specifications, 3 Part Section Format.
            The specifier must discipline himself to ask three fundamental questions about
the product:

1.
1.
1. What is the product?
2. How it is incorporated into the work
3. What interrelationships have existed, do exist, or will exist for
thr product with the remainder of the product or with any
portion of the project.

            The 3 basic parts of the section format are:

            Part 1- General
            This part covers general areas concerned which precede and follow the work,
and which define the scope of work.
            Part 2- Products
            This part defines in detail the materials, equipment, systems, fixtures, etc which
will be incorporated into the work.
            Part 3- Execution
            It describes in detail the way items covered by part 2 are to be incorporated into
the work.

Elements of Specifications Composition

Drawing in general shall show:

1.
1. Architectural and engineering design
2. Plans, elevations, details and all essential dimensions
3. Designation of each portion by the title or symbol, to allow reference to it
4. The extent of the various material by symbols and otherwise
 5. Notes giving the basic design data, assumed loads, allowable stresses,
design references and requirements
6. Limit of work

Specification shall give all necessary information governing:

1.
1. Materials and workmanship
2. Inspection and tests
3. Supplementary contractual requirements

Necessary information which is not supplied by the drawings