Understanding the Self

Marco Antonio R. Rodas

1
Chapter 1 (Preliminaries)
The Self from Various Perspectives

Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain why it is essential to understand the self;
2. Describe and discuss the different notions of the self from the points of
views of philosophers, educators and psychologists; and
3. Examine one’s self using the different views of self that is discussed in
the class.

2
The Self
Who are you? —is perhaps one of the most pressing and important
question to an individual. The traditional philosophical answer and religious
thinkers presupposed that the self is an immortal soul that transcends the
physical. Some say that is just a perception that is embodied by the self itself.
Aside from being naturally problematic, young adults in the new
millennium are facing many challenges. Focusing on one’s identity has become
a struggle, because of so many factors.
In this module we are going to explore aspects of the self and its
dynamics according to established experts in their respective fields. This is all
for the most important entity of humanity as an individual.
The collection of readings that will eventually widen the horizon of
adolescent thoughts aim to make students realize their potential as a person.
Understanding self-identity, self-esteem, self-regulation, and self-improvement
in various perspectives is an intellectual journey, and, therefore, needs a lot of
critical thinking and analytical persistence.
The following are concepts that we can ponder upon as we go on with the
course:
1. Our true meaning lies in our understanding and fulfilling the
potential of the self.

2. It is not clever to say, “you are your genes” without considering that
“you can’t be a self all by yourself.”

3. The self is distinguishable from "others", including the distinction

between sameness and otherness.1

4. The perfection of the self is the understanding, awareness and

regulation of its imperfections.

5. The self is constantly evolving due to the complexities of cultures and

societies. Self-concept can be referred to as a product instead of a
process like the self is represented as. Self-concept is a concept or
belief that an individual has upon him/herself as an emotional,
spiritual, and social being (Aronson, 2002) 2

1
Centre for Studies in Otherness. Otherness: Essays and studies. 4.1. http://www.otherness.dk/journal/otherness-
essays-studies-41
2
Aronson, E. (2002). The Social Animal. Worth Publishers.

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A. The Self from a Western and Eastern Philosophical Standpoint

Is there something much worse than a person waking-up every morning

troubled with many uncertainties? A new study out in Nature Communications
today finds that indeed most people would rather know for certain that they’re
going to get an electric shock than to not be able to predict it.3
On the contrary, from an evolutionary perspective, stress responses in
return suggests that it may have offered some survival benefit—appropriate
stress responses might be useful for learning about uncertain, dangerous
things in the environment.
Rene Descartes presupposed Cogito Ergo Sum (I think therefore I am). In
this pretext, someone who is not certain of himself is the most stressed person.
Thus, to find meaning, therefore is to have an ultimate peace of mind.
Peace of mind therefore is not a state of feeling, but rather an inquiring
search that requires the intentionality of consciousness—the intellect. The
intentionality of consciousness may be defined as a relation which all, or at
least certain, acts bear to an existence. 4
Video to watch
Crash course on Existentialism https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=YaDvRdLMkHs

3
www.wired.co.uk/article/uncertainty-stress-worse-than-pain
4
Zahavi, Dan. Husserl’s Phenomenology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003.
A comprehensive discussion of Husserl’s Phenomenology, including issues of intentionality and intentional content.

4
Reading
EXISTENTIALISM AND MAN’S SEARCH FOR MEANING
by Manuel B. Dy Jr.

Just as there are many practical order wad identical

definition of philosophy, so with prudence, the habit of
there are as many maintaining a delicate balance
philosophical approaches to with nature. Thus, the
the study of man. ancient philosophical—
philosophical because now
The Western definition
they were concerned not with
of philosophy as the “love (or
a part of the cosmos but with
search) of wisdom” originated
the totality approach to the
from the Greeks. The pre-
study of man was
Socratics were primarily
cosmocentric.
concerned with the basic stuff
of the cosmos, with that With the coming and
constituted the universe. The predominance of Christianity
question on man could not be in Medieval Europe,
totally divorced from the philosophy became the
cosmological, since man was handmaid of theology.
conceived as part of nature. Reason was the companion of
The Socratic motto “Know faith, its task was to make
Thyself” was viewed not in the faith reasonable, if not
isolation from the quest for reconcilable with Aristotelian
some order in the cosmos, for philosophy. Man was viewed
immutable harmony and still as part of nature nut
stability. Man was seen as a nature now was God’s
microcosm, and the search for creation, and man, next to the
the truth about man was angels, was the noblest of
simultaneously the search for God’s creatures, created in his
the truth about the universe. image and likeness.
Truth was the immutable Philosophy became the search
object of theory, the episteme, for the ultimate causes of
and man’s ideal was its things, eventually leading to
contemplation. Ethics as a the truth about God. Man’s
practical philosophy, dealing ideal was to contemplate God
with man’s action, was and his creation, and his
synonymous with politics, the action was to conform to the
art of patterning one’s natural moral law implanted
behavior with the common in his reason. Thus the
good centered around the Christian Medieval
polis, the city. Wisdom was philosophical approach to the
the primary virtue, and in the study of man was theocentric.

5
 The change of focus
began with the philosophizing
of Rene Descartes (1956-
1650), the father of modern
philosophy. Descartes,
impressed by the progress of
the sciences and
mathematics of his time,
wanted to achieve the same
advance in philosophy by
starting on some one
certitude, and indubitable,
that which cannot be doubted
because if it can be doubted,
then all else are dubitable.
And so, the Cartesian
Meditations, as Descartes’
meditations are called,
consisted of a methodic
Cartesian doubt. Everything
was dubitable, for Descartes,
even his own body, all except
for one fact—the fact that he
was doubting. He could not
doubt that he was doubting,
being a mode of thinking,
brought him to the realization
“Cogito, ergo sum” (I think,
therefore I am”). I am sure I
exist as a thinking being. And
from this certitude Descartes
proceeded to establish the
certitude of their existents,
including God, by a criterion
borrowed from mathematics:
the clear and distinctness of
the idea.
With the mergence of
Descartes’s Cogito ergo sum,
philosophy became the
anthropocentric. The
question of man was now on
the foreground of other
questionings on nature or on
God. Reason was now
liberated from nature and
faith, sufficient to inquire on
its own truth. The modern
philosophers after Descartes
pursued this quest with
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
the finally introducing a
Copernican revolution in
philosophy: rather than
reason conforming to the
object or nature that must be
subjected to the a priori
conditions of the mind or the
subject. With Kant,
philosophy became a search
for the priori conditions of
knowing (and doing), rather
than for the object itself for
the object as such is
unknowable.
This rationalistic kind of
anthropocentricism reached
its climax in the philosophy of
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(1770-1831). Hegel built a
system of the Mind in the
process of evolving itself in a
kind of dialectic, of reason
putting another to itself
(antithesis) and coming to a
resolution (synthesis). And it
is against the philosophizing
of Hegel that contemporary
philosophies are said to have
started.
On such reaction is
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-
1855), the acknowledged
father of existentialism.
Reacting against the System
of Hegel, Kierkegard
emphasized the individual
man who cannot be placed as
a “cog in a machine” or part of

6
a system. Reacting against similar question but seek the
the rationalism of Hegel, he answer for ourselves.
stressed the infinite passion of
In spite of the
man.truth is what is held on
divergency of thought, the
with the passion of the
existentialist thinkers in
infinite. With Kieregaard,
general can be divided into
philosophy became the search
two camps, the theistic and
for the meaning of life. The
the atheistic. Belonging to the
search for truth was now the
theistic group are Soren
search for meaning.
Kiergaard. Karl Jaspers,
In talking about the Gabriel Marcel and Martin
existentialist’s search for Buber. In the atheistic group,
meaning, one is immediately the well known existentialist
faced with two difficulties. are Jen-Paul Sartre, Albert
First existentialism is not so Camus and Maurice Merleau-
much a philosophical system Ponty. Martin Heidegger
as a movement, an attitude, a refuses to be identified with
frame of mind. For one thing, any of the two camps for the
the existentialist philosophers simple reason that the
are very much against question of god, he claims, is
systems. As a reaction beyond his phenomenological
against Hegel, they labor approach.
philosophical system and
There have been denials
philosophize in an systematic
and counter denials by these
though not inconsistent
thinkers of the label
manner. In this regard, it is
“existentialist” assigned to
more appropriate to talk of
them, but what merits the
many existentialist
title of “existentialist”? if
philosophies rather than a
these thinkers have different
single existentialist
philosophies, what accounts
philosophy. Secondly, the
for the title of “existentialist
question of what the meaning
philosophy”?
of man’s existence is is for
them more important than the We can cite five
answer, for they do not agree common features of
on the answer. It is not that existentialist thinkers,
the existentialist thinkers do keeping in mind, however,
not have an ethics, a notion of that each one has his own
the highest good or value, but interpretation, his own unique
their ethics for the most part way of handling the matter.
is intertwined with their
ontologies and philosophies of 1. Existentialists thinkers
man. And so, the attempt to philosophize from
existentialist would rather the standpoint of an actor
invite us (not impose) to ask rather than from the

7
 spectator. This is since the In their ontology, the
problems considered by existentialists do not deny the
existentialist thinkers arise reality of the object but
out of their personal emphasize the subjective. The
experience. The life of an object is that which ob-jects
existentialist thinker can (gegestand) to the
hardly be divorced from consciousness of man, and yet
philosophy. It is not the object is meaningless,
surprising why many senseless without man. To be
existentialist writers make use subjective is not necessarily to
of the play, the short story be subjectivistic; rather, it
and the novel to dramatize could be only the only way to
these problems. They are be objective, to talk
means to universalize the meaningfully of a world.
personal and the human. In According to Heidegger the
their philosophical writings, worldiness of the world is due
the existentialist use to man’s concern. Among
phenomenological description, theistic existentialists, God is
each in his own way, to not an object but God-for-me,
explicitate rather than to the God of my prayer, the
explain the hidden structure Thou that I as a person can
of human experiences. address to.
2. Existentialist philosophies are 3. Existentialist philosophies
basically philosophies of man, stress on man’s existence, on
stressing the subjectivity of man as situated. This
man. The existentialist do not situatedness of man takes on
deny that man to a certain different shades of meaning
extent is an object, that he is for different existentialists.
a thing, given, For Soren Kierkegaard,
conceptualizable, existence is a religious
manipulable, controllable and category: the situation of the
determinable by others. But single, finite, unique
this does not constitute his individual who has to make a
humanity. In protest against decision before the One
the dehumanization and infinite God in fear and
depersonalization of man, the trembling like the situation of
existentialist thinkers hold on Abraham. For Martin
to the subjectivity of man: Heidegger, man is dasein,
man as the original center, there-being, thrown into the
the source of initiative, who world to realize himself,
has depth, who transcends doomed to potentialities, the
determinations, the openness extreme of which is death.
and giver of meaning to the For Karl Jaspers, to exist to
world. transcend oneself through
limit situations and eventually

8
 to find God. (Jaspers admits except freedom itself: man
of a vertical transcendence of cannot help but free. and
man). For Gabriel Marcel, freedom stems from the
esse est co-esse: to exist is to negating power of
co-exist, to participate in the consciousness being no-thing
fullness of being (God) of the world the being-in-
through love, fidelity and itself. Merleau-Ponty criticizes
faith. On the other hand, for this notion of freedom of
Jean-Paul Sartre, to exist is to Sartre and brings out his own
be condemned to freedom. notion of Sartrean freedom,
Maurice Merleau-Ponty retorts Marcel stresses the affirming
by saying the man is power of freedom: freedom is
condemned to meaning. And man’s ability to say “yes’ to
for Albert Camus, to exist is, Being, to pass from the realm
like Sisyphus pushing and of having to that of being, the
rolling the stone, to live the realm of participation. One
absurdity of life. becomes free only if he
transcends himself and goes
4. Existentialist thinkers
out to others in love,
emphasize the freedom of
participating in something
man. Again, each
greater than himself.
existentialist has his own
interpretation of freedom. In 5. Existentialist philosophers
the case of Kierkegaard, propagate authentic existence
freedom is that which enables versus inauthentic existence.
man to pass from aesthetic Inauthentic existence is living
states to the ethical, and under the impersonal “on”
ultimately, to make leap of (they) of Heidegger the crown
faith, the highest act of man’s mentality of Kierkegard, bad
liberty. Heidegger equates faith of Sartre. The
freedom with self- inauthentic man is the
transcendence in time, the “l’etranger” of Camus,
being-ahead-of-itself of dasein indifferent, tranquilized,
while having-been and unable to make a personal
making-present entities in his decision of his own. He is the
worlds. Early Sartrean functionalized man of Marcel
freedom, however, remains living in the mass society, the
the most popular notion of man living the life of
freedom among existentialists. monologue of Buber. On the
It proceeds from his dictum other hand, authentic
that existence precedes existence is personal and the
essence. Man first exists and authentic man is one who
then gradually creates his freely commits himself to the
own essence. Nothing realization of a project an
determines human freedom idea, a truth, a value. He is
from creating its own essence one who does not hide himself

9
in the anonymity of the crowd
but signs himself to what he
manifests.
From the above common
features of existentialist
philosophers, what then can
we infer with regards to their
notion of value?
The question of value for the
existentialist cannot be
divorced from the more
original question of what does
it mean to be? What is the
meaning of life? Camus in his
Myth of Sisyphus says that
the truly philosophical
question is the question of
suicide for in suicide one
poses the question of the
meaning of life. Value then is
intimately related to life (and
to death as the corollary of
life), and if human life for the
existentialist is to be lived
freely, authentically,
responsibly, personally then,
value is that for which a
person lives and dies for.
Value is that to which the
authentic man commits
himself. Marcel says in his
Mystery of Being that for
existence to be truly human it
must have a center outside
itself. For life to be human, it
must answer the question,
what am I living for? Value is
then that around which all my
human activities revolve.
Is value for the existentialist
subjective or objective? The
answer is that both subjective
and objective. Value is
subjective because value
10
always presupposes a subject
who values; value is always
value-for-me. Value is
objective because there is
truly something I can live and
die for. Value is intimately
connected with truth, for I
cannot live and die for what is
false or for what I think is
untrue. And yet between the
two poles of value, the
existentialist would prefer to
emphasize the subjective side,
holding on to it as Kieregaard
would put it, “with the
passion of the infinite”.
But where do values
come from? What is the
source of value? Here is
where atheistic and theistic
existentialists part ways. The
atheistic existentialist like
Sartre would assert that man
is the ultimate source of
values; he is responsible for
what he commits himself to.
Values spring from man’s
freedom to realize himself and
no outside source can be
attributed to them. Values
are not absolute. Man alone
is responsible for his own
being; he cannot depend on
any absolute. This assertion
may be tantamount to a
certain kind of individualism,
and indeed existentialism is
pictured many times as a man
on a solitary island
surrounded by the lonely span
of the waters of the ocean.
Nevertheless we find in the
philosophy of Sartre a stress
on the responsibility of the
person to mankind for his
decision (I chose not only for is the journey inwards.” The
myself but for the whole of search is a life-time task and
humanity), and in Camus, time is the essence of this
the spirit of rebellion. meaning, for as Merleau-Ponty
quoting the poet Claudel says,
The theistic
existentialist, on the other Time is the meaning of
hand, would admit of the life (meaning : as One say of
relativity of values as precisely the direction of course of
pointing to an Absolute Value Water, the meaning of a
who grounds them. The sentence, the Texture of
subjective source of values is material, the sense of smell).
human freedom, yes, but
Just as man cannot
human freedom is limited and
evade time, so he cannot
becomes fulfilled only when it
escape from this search for
participates in Someone
meaning, for upon this hinges
greater than itself. Man’s
the integrity and wholeness of
commitment to a value is
his humanity.
finite and needs to be
grounded in an absolute.
Above and below are linked
*Source: https://www.scribd.com/docs/ man’s search
with each other (Buber). The for meaning/manueldy
objective source of value is
none other than God, the
Absolute Thou who can give
final and complete fulfillment
to my life.
What then is
existentialist’s search for
meaning? Inspite of the
divergency of thought between
theistic and atheistic
existentialists, we can infer
that it is ultimately a search
within. Man the subject is the
giver or discover of meaning.
But the search within is a
search that “erupts,” extends
to the outside, to the other
than the self. How far this
will extend depends on how
deep man can reach into the
recesses of the subjectivity.
Dag Hammarskjold once wrote
a diary, “The longest journey

11
Film to watch
A Social Life | Award Winning Short Film | Social Media Depression
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXdVPLj_pIk
***Discuss the film in the context of Existentialism
FACULTY’S FOCUS OF DISCUSSION (MEANING OF LIFE)

Reading A2
WHAT IS ZEN?

According to James H. (2001) zen philosophy aims at a perfection of

personhood. To this end, sitting meditation called “za-zen” is employed as a
foundational method of prāxis across the different schools of this Buddha-Way,
through which the Zen practitioner attempts to embody non-discriminatory
wisdom vis-à-vis the meditational experience known as “satori”
(enlightenment). A process of discovering wisdom culminates in the experiential
dimension in which the equality of thing-events is apprehended in discerning
them5.
Or in Zen-way, Zen is:
a) "Lightning flashes, Sparks shower, In one blink of your eyes, You have
missed seeing."

b) A Hindu story tells of a fish who asked of another fish: "I have always
heard about the sea, but what is it? Where is it?" The other fish
replied: "You live, move and have your being the sea. The sea is
within you and without you, and you are made of sea, and you will
end in sea. The sea surrounds you as your own being."
So the only true answer to the question "What is Zen?" is the one that
you find for yourself.

Assignment

5
Heisig, James W., 2001. Philosophers of Nothingness, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i.

12
Below are selected Zen stories for reflection and meditation.
1. In a group of 8 persons, choose a story for the activity.
2. Read and discuss the story.
3. Relate it to one self.
4. Reflect and meditate.
5. Submit the group’s reflection.
ZEN STORIES
When Tired
A student once asked his teacher,
"Master, what is enlightenment?"
The master replied,
"When hungry, eat. When tired,
sleep."
Empty Your Cup
A university professor went to visit a
famous Zen master. While the
master quietly served tea, the
professor talked about Zen. The
master poured the visitor's cup to
the brim, and then kept pouring.
The professor watched the
overflowing cup until he could no
longer restrain himself.
"It's overfull! No more will go in!" the
professor blurted.
13
"You are like this cup," the master
replied, "How can I show you Zen
unless you first empty your cup."
Moving Mind
Two men were arguing about a flag
flapping in the wind.
"It's the wind that is really moving,"
stated the first one.
"No, it is the flag that is moving,"
contended the second.
A Zen master, who happened to be
walking by, overheard the debate
and interrupted them.
"Neither the flag nor the wind is
moving," he said, "It is MIND that
moves."
It Will Pass
A student went to his meditation
teacher and said, "My meditation is
horrible! I feel so distracted, or my
legs ache, or I'm constantly falling
asleep. It's just horrible!" "It will
pass," the teacher said matter-of-
factly.
A week later, the student came back
to his teacher. "My meditation is
wonderful! I feel so aware, so
peaceful, so alive! It's just
wonderful!'
"It will pass," the teacher replied
matter-of-factly.
Holy Man
Word spread across the countryside
about the wise Holy Man who lived
in a small house atop the mountain.
A man from the village decided to
make the long and difficult journey
to visit him.
When he arrived at the house, he
saw an old servant inside who
greeting him at the door.
"I would like to see the wise Holy
Man," he said to the servant.
The servant smiled and led him
inside. As they walked through the
house, the man from the village
looked eagerly around the house,
anticipating his encounter with the
Holy Man.
Before he knew it, he had been led
to the back door and escorted
outside. He stopped and turned to
the servant,
"But I want to see the Holy Man!"
"You already have," said the old
man. "Everyone you may meet in
life, even if they appear plain and
insignificant... see each of them as a
wise Holy Man. If you do this, then
whatever problem you brought here
today will be solved."
I Don't Know
14
The emperor, who was a devout
Buddhist, invited a great Zen master
to the Palace in order to ask him
questions about Buddhism.
"What is the highest truth of the
holy Buddhist doctrine?" the
emperor inquired.
"Vast emptiness... and not a trace of
holiness," the master replied.
"If there is no holiness," the emperor
said, "then who or what are you?"
"I do not know," the master replied.
Is That So?
A beautiful girl in the village was
pregnant. Her angry parents
demanded to know who was the
father. At first resistant to confess,
the anxious and embarrassed girl
finally pointed to Hakuin, the Zen
master whom everyone previously
revered for living such a pure life.
When the outraged parents
confronted Hakuin with their
daughter's accusation, he simply
replied "Is that so?"
When the child was born, the
parents brought it to the Hakuin,
who now was viewed as a pariah by
the whole village. They demanded
that he take care of the child since it
was his responsibility. "Is that so?"
Hakuin said calmly as he accepted
the child.
For many months he took very good
care of the child until the daughter
could no longer withstand the lie
she had told. She confessed that the
real father was a young man in the
village whom she had tried to
protect. The parents immediately
went to Hakuin to see if he would
return the baby. With profuse
apologies they explained what had
happened. "Is that so?" Hakuin said
as he handed them the child.
Nature's Beauty
A priest was in charge of the garden
within a famous Zen temple. He had
been given the job because he loved
the flowers, shrubs, and trees. Next
to the temple there was another,
smaller temple where there lived a
very old Zen master.
One day, when the priest was
expecting some special guests, he
took extra care in tending to the
garden. He pulled the weeds,
trimmed the shrubs, combed the
moss, and spent a long time
meticulously raking up and carefully
arranging all the dry autumn leaves.
As he worked, the old master
watched him with interest from
across the wall that separated the
temples.
When he had finished, the priest
stood back to admire his work. "Isn't
it beautiful," he called out to the old
master. "Yes," replied the old man,
"but there is something missing.
Help me over this wall and I'll put it
right for you."
After hesitating, the priest lifted the
old fellow over and set him down.
Slowly, the master walked to the
tree near the center of the garden,
grabbed it by the trunk, and shook
it. Leaves showered down all over
the garden. "There," said the old
man, "you can put me back now."
We'll See...
15
There is a Taoist story of an old
farmer who had worked his crops for
many years. One day his horse ran
away. Upon hearing the news, his
neighbors came to visit.
"Such bad luck," they said
sympathetically.
"We'll see," the farmer replied.
The next morning the horse
returned, bringing with it three
other wild horses.
"How wonderful," the neighbors
exclaimed.
"We'll see," replied the old man.
The following day, his son tried to
ride one of the untamed horses, was
thrown, and broke his leg. The
neighbors again came to offer their
sympathy on his misfortune.
"We'll see," answered the farmer.
The day after, military officials came
to the village to draft young men
into the army. Seeing that the son's
leg was broken, they passed him by.
The neighbors congratulated the
farmer on how well things had
turned out.
"We'll see" said the farmer.
The Nature of Things
Two monks were washing their
bowls in the river when they noticed
a scorpion that was drowning. One
monk immediately scooped it up
and set it upon the bank. In the
process he was stung. He went back
to washing his bowl and again the
scorpion fell in. The monk saved the
scorpion and was again stung.
The other monk asked him, "Friend,
why do you continue to save the
scorpion when you know it's nature
is to sting?"
"Because," the monk replied, "to
save it is my nature."
Working Very Hard
A martial arts student went to his
teacher and said earnestly, "I am
devoted to studying your martial
system. How long will it take me to
master it."
The teacher's reply was casual, "Ten
years."
Impatiently, the student answered,
"But I want to master it faster than
that. I will work very hard. I will
practice everyday, ten or more hours
a day if I have to. How long will it
take then?"
The teacher thought for a moment,
"20 years."
The Moon Cannot Be Stolen
A Zen Master lived the simplest kind
of life in a little hut at the foot of a
mountain. One evening, while he
was away, a thief sneaked into the
hut only to find there was nothing in
it to steal.
The Zen Master returned and found
him. "You have come a long way to
visit me," he told the prowler, "and
you should not return empty
handed. Please take my clothes as a
gift."
The thief was bewildered, but he
took the clothes and ran away.
The Master sat naked, watching the
moon. "Poor fellow," he mused, " I
16
wish I could give him this beautiful
moon."
Transient
A famous spiritual teacher came to
the front door of the King's palace.
None of the guards tried to stop him
as he entered and made his way to
where the King himself was sitting
on his throne.
"What do you want?" asked the
King, immediately recognizing the
visitor.
"I would like a place to sleep in this
inn," replied the teacher.
"But this is not an inn," said the
King, "It is my palace."
"May I ask who owned this palace
before you?"
"My father. He is dead."
"And who owned it before him?"
"My grandfather. He too is dead."
"And this place where people live for
a short time and then move on - did
I hear you say that it is NOT an
inn?"
Without Fear
During the civil wars in feudal
Japan, an invading army would
quickly sweep into a town and take
control. In one particular village,
everyone fled just before the army
arrived - everyone except the Zen
master.
Curious about this old fellow, the
general went to the temple to see for
himself what kind of man this
master was.
When he wasn't treated with the Knowing Fish
deference and submissiveness to
One day Chuang Tzu and a friend
which he was accustomed, the
were walking by a river.
general burst into anger.
"Look at the fish swimming about,"
"You fool," he shouted as he reached
said Chuang Tzu, "They are really
for his sword, "don't you realize you
enjoying themselves."
are standing before a man who
could run you through without "You are not a fish," replied the
blinking an eye!" friend, "So you can't truly know that
they are enjoying themselves."
But despite the threat, the master
seemed unmoved. "You are not me," said Chuang Tzu.
"So how do you know that I do not
"And do you realize," the master
know that the fish are enjoying
replied calmly, "that you are
themselves??
standing before a man who can be
run through without blinking an
eye?"
*source: Heine, Steve (ed.), 2014. Zen Kōans, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rvMo39XqYs

B. The Self from a Psychosocial Standpoint

17
 Human beings are crucially shaped by the associations each person has
with others. These associations range from small, intimate groups like the
family to vast, impersonal groupings like a city or metropolis.
The idea that humans created the society would no longer be applicable
due to its advancement. In a control freak civilization that we have created, the
society strongly creates an individual, hence, an identity of self. Hence, that
attitude of the society is the attitude of an individual, but up to what extent?

The Self in Enigma

Being constantly late, losing your phone, spending too much money,
dating the same inadvisable people—these are all errors that human beings
make over and over again. 6
Have you ever why you keep on repeating the same mistakes repeatedly?
We’re all capable of making the same mistakes over and over, because, under
stress, we tend to retreat to habits of emotion regulation formed over a period
of time. Habits rule under stress and when the regulatory processes of the
prefrontal cortex (the Adult brain) are overtaxed from physical or mental
exhaustion. According to Raff Jeremy (2016), Committing mistakes has more to
do with how the brain is wired than with a lack of discipline. In attempting to
understand where we went wrong, our brains create “mistake pathways,” ruts
that we get into when we try not to make another misstep.

6
https://www.theatlantic.com/index/482514/the-cognitive-science-behind-repeating-mistakes/

18
 In this part of the module, keywords such as neurosis caused by the
“tyranny of should” is vital to be understood clearly. According to Horney,
neurosis is a distorted way of looking at the world and at oneself, which is
determined by compulsive needs rather than by a genuine interest in the world
as it is. Horney proposed that neurosis is transmitted to a child from his or her
early environment and that there are many ways in which this can occur. 7
Some mistakes are intentional, and others are just product of
unintentional behavioral responses. If this is so, then there is a great deal that
upon awareness, we can regulate behaviors that affect our homeostasis as a
person.
Mild anxiety disorders and full-blown personality disorders all fall under
her basic scheme of neurosis as variations in the degree of severity and in the
individual dynamics. The opposite of neurosis is a condition Horney calls self-
realization, a state of being in which the person responds to the world with the
full depth of his or her spontaneous feelings, rather than with anxiety-driven
compulsion. Thus the person grows to actualize his or her inborn potentialities.
Horney compares this process to an acorn that grows and becomes a tree: the
acorn has had the potential for a tree inside it all along. 8

Reading
Psychoanalytic Social Theory
by Karen Horney

Psychoanalytic Social Theory  moving toward people

is built on the assumption that  moving against people
social and cultural conditions,  moving away from people
especially childhood experiences,
are largely responsible for shaping  Most normal people use
personality. any of these modes of
relating to people but
People who do not have their neurotics are compelled to
needs for love and affection satisfied rigidly rely on only one.
during childhood develop basic
hostility toward their parents and,  Neurotic’s compulsive
as a consequence, suffer from basic behavior generates a basic
anxiety. Horney theorized that intrapsychic conflict that
people combat basic anxiety by may take the form of either
adopting one of three fundamental and idealized self-image or
styles of relating to others. self-hatred.

7
McWilliams, Nancy (2011). Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process
(2nd ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60918-494-0.
8
Boeree, C. George (2002). "A Bio-Social Theory of Neurosis". Retrieved 2009-04-21.

19

 The idealized self-image is
expressed as:
o Neurotic search for
glory
o Neurotic claims
o Neurotic pride
 Self hatred is expressed as
either
o Self-contempt
o Alienation from self
Most of Horney’s writings are
concerned with the neurotic
personality but can be applied to the
normal personality.
Culture
 Emphasizes competition
among individuals
 The basic hostility that
emerges from competition
results in feelings of
isolation
 These feelings of being
alone in a potentially
hostile world lead to
intensified needs for
affection, which cause
people to overvalue love
 As a result, many people
see love and affection as
the solution for their
problems
 Genuine love can be a
healthy, growth producing
experience but the
desperate need for love
provides a fertile ground
20
for the development of
neuroses
Western culture contributes to this
vicious cycle by:
 cultural teachings of
kinship and humility that
are contrary to the
attitudes, namely
aggression and the drive to
win!
 Societies demand for
success and achievement
are nearly endless so that
normal people have new,
additional goals placed
before them all the time
 Furthermore, western
society tells people that
they are free and can
accomplish anything with
hard work and effort
without regard to genetics,
social position, and the
competitiveness of others
 These contradictions all
stem from cultural not
biological influences
 Childhood is where the
vast majority of life and
neurotic problems stem
from
 Even more debilitating
personal problems all have
their roots traced to the
lack of genuine warmth
and affection
  From childhood
experiences she
determined that people
who rigidly repeat patterns
of behavior do so because
they interpret new
experiences in a manner
consistent with those
previously established
patterns
In order for children to
develop normally they need to
experience both genuine love and
discipline. Such experiences
provide them with feelings of safety
and satisfaction that lets them grow
in accord with their real self.
 If these needs are not met
the child develops basic
hostility towards the
parents.
 Repressed hostility leads to
profound feelings of
insecurity and a vague
sense of apprehension
called basic anxiety
 Both basic hostility and
basic anxiety are intimately
interwoven
Horney identified four ways of
protecting themselves against
feelings of being alone and in a
potentially hostile world:
 1 – affection
 2 – submissiveness
21
 3 – power (a defense
against the real or
imagined hostility of others
o prestige (protection
against humiliation
expressed by the
tendency to
humiliate others)
o possession (the
buffering against
destitution and
poverty manifesting
itself as a tendency
to deprive others
 4 – withdrawal
These protective devices are
not normally a sign of neurosis but
when they become unhealthy and
people feel compelled to rely on
them and employ a variety of
interpersonal strategies they are
called compulsions.
Horney identified ten neurotic
needs that characterize neurotics in
their attempts to combat anxiety.
1. neurotic need for affection
and approval
2. neurotic need for a
powerful partner
3. neurotic need to restrict
one’s life within narrow
boundaries
4. neurotic need for power
5. neurotic need to exploit
others
 6. neurotic need for social
recognition or prestige
7. neurotic need for personal
admiration
8. neurotic need for ambition
and personal achievement
9. neurotic need for self-
sufficiency
10. neurotic need for
perfection and unassailability
These needs are boiled down to
three neurotic trends, including;
1. moving toward people
(needs 1 & 2)
2. moving against people
(needs 3, 4, 5, 6, & 7)
3. moving away from people
(needs 8, 9, & 10)
*source:https://www.scribd.com/document/6303271
/Psychoanalytic-Social-Theory-Horney

***FOCUS: WEAKNESS OF THE SELF

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bheIpB7xzz0

Reading
Understanding the Individual in Social Context
(Alfred Adler)

Alfred Adler (1870-1937), world renowned philosopher and psychiatrist,

stressed the need to understand individuals within their social context. During
the early 1900's, Adler began addressing such crucial and contemporary issues
as equality, parent education, the influence of birth order, life style, and the
holism of individuals. Adler believed that we all have one basic desire and goal:
to belong and to feel significant.

Adler developed the first holistic theory of personality, psychopathology,

and psychotherapy that was intimately connected to a humanistic philosophy
of living. His lectures and books for the general public are characterized by a
crystal clear common sense. His clinical books and journal articles reveal an
uncommon understanding of mental disorders, a deep insight into the art of
healing, and a great inspiration for encouraging optimal human development.
According to Adler, when we feel encouraged, we feel capable and
appreciated and will generally act in a connected and cooperative way. When
we are discouraged, we may act in unhealthy ways by competing, withdrawing,
or giving up. It is in finding ways of expressing and accepting encouragement,
respect, and social interest that help us feel fulfilled and optimistic.

22
 Adlerian theory and practice have proven especially productive as applied
to the growth and development of children. Adlerians believe that "a
misbehaving child is a discouraged child" and that helping children to feel
valued, significant, and competent is often the most effective strategy in coping
with difficult child behaviors.
Adlerian Psychology focuses on people's efforts to compensate for their
self-perceived inferiority to others. These feelings of inferiority may derive from
one's position in the family constellation, particularly if early experiences of
humiliation occurred; a specific physical condition or defect existed; or a
general lack of social feeling for others was present.
Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private
beliefs and strategies (one's life style) that each individual creates in childhood.
This cognitive schema and life style serve as the individual's reference for
attitudes, behaviors, and one's private view of self, others, and the world. It is
when we have looked at our early life experiences, examined the patterns of
behavior that repeat themselves in our lives, and the methods by which we go
about trying to gain significance and belonging that healing, growth, and
change occur.
As articulated by noted Adlerian psychotherapist Henry Stein, the theory
and application of Adlerian Psychology have as their lynchpins seven critical
ideas:

Unity of the Individual

Thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior can only be understood as
subordinated to the individual's style of life, or consistent pattern of dealing
with life. The individual is not internally divided or the battleground of
conflicting forces. Each aspect of the personality points in the same direction.
Goal Orientation
There is one central personality dynamic derived from the growth and
forward movement of life itself. It is a future-oriented striving toward a goal of
significance, superiority, or success. In mental health, it is a realistic goal of
socially useful significance or superiority over general difficulties. In mental
disorders, it is an unrealistic goal of exaggerated significance or superiority
over others. The early childhood feeling of inferiority, for which one aims to
compensate, leads to the creation of a fictional final goal which subjectively
seems to promise future security and success. The depth of the inferiority
feeling usually determines the height of the goal which then becomes the "final
cause" of behavior patterns.

Self-Determination and Uniqueness

23
 A person's fictional goal may be influenced by hereditary and cultural
factors, but it ultimately springs from the creative power of the individual, and
is consequently unique. Usually, individuals are not fully aware of their goal.
Through the analysis of birth order, repeated coping patterns, and earliest
memories, the psychotherapist infers the goal as a working hypothesis.

Social Context
As an indivisible whole, a system, the human being is also a part of
larger wholes or systems -- the family, the community, all of humanity, our
planet, and the cosmos. In these contexts, we meet the three important life
tasks: occupation, love and sex, and our relationship with other people -- all
social challenges. Our way of responding to our first social system, the family
constellation, may become the prototype of our world view and attitude toward
life.

The Feeling of Community

Each human being has the capacity for learning to live in harmony with
society. This is an innate potential for social connectedness which has to be
consciously developed. Social interest and feeling imply "social improvement,"
quite different from conformity, leaving room for social innovation even through
cultural resistance or rebellion. The feeling of genuine security is rooted in a
deep sense of belonging and embeddedness within the stream of social
evolution.

Mental Health
A feeling of human connectedness and a willingness to develop oneself
fully and contribute to the welfare of others are the main criteria of mental
health. When these qualities are underdeveloped, feelings of inferiority may
haunt an individual, or an attitude of superiority may antagonize others.
Consequently, the unconscious fictional goal will be self-centered and
emotionally or materially exploitive of other people. When the feeling of
connectedness and the willingness to contribute are stronger, a feeling of
equality emerges, and the individual's goal will be self-transcending and
beneficial to others.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3TbSjZ_fxc
FACULTY’S FOCUS: INTEGRATING THE SELF TO THE SOCIETY

24
Chapter Activity Synthesis

1. Discuss your reflection on the film “Into the Wild” using philosophy and
psychology in your discourse. Relate it to your “self”.

References

Adler. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://mind-development.eu/adler.html

Boeree, C. George (2002). "A Bio-Social Theory of Neurosis". Retrieved 2009-04-

21.

Centre for Studies in Otherness. (n.d.). Otherness Essays and studies.

Retrieved from http://www.otherness.dk/journal/otherness-essays-

studies-41 Educational Psychology Review. 24

Heine, Steve (ed.),(2014). Zen Kōans. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i.

Heisig, James W., (2001). Philosophers of Nothingness. Honolulu: University of

Hawai’i.

Man’s search for meaning. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.scribd.com/docs/ man’s search for meaning/manueldy

McWilliams, Nancy. (2nd Ed.). (2011). Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding

Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. Guilford Press. ISBN

978160918-494-0.

Scribd. (n.d.). Psychoanalytic-Social-Theory-Horney. Retrieved from URL

25
Thealantic. (n.d.). The-cognitive-science-behind-repeating-mistakes. Retrieved

from URL

Trans4mind.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://trans4mind.com/jamesharveystout/self.html
Wired.co.uk. (n.d.). Uncertainty-stress-worse-than-pain. Retrieved from URL

Zahavi, Dan. (2003). Husserl’s Phenomenology. Stanford: Stanford University

Press.

26