www.learningall.

com

SECTION 1
Cell Biology
 www.learningall.com

CHAPTER 1
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Major Concepts: Number of allotted

teaching periods: 16
1.1 Techniques used in Cell Biology (2 Periods)
1.2 Cell wall and Plasma Membrane (2 Periods)
1.3 Cytoplasm and Organelles (10 Periods)
1.4 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells (2 Periods)

You are quite familiar with the word “cell”. A cell is the smallest unit
of living matter. According to German biologist Rudolf Virchow
(pronunciation: Firkoh) “every cell comes from a pre-existing cell”. By the
middle of the nineteenth century, biologists clearly recognized that all living
things are composed of cells. This is known as cell theory. The cell theory is
one of the unifying concepts of biology. A cell is also the functional unit of
the organism. Cells can take in nutrients, break them down to release energy,
and get rid of wastes. They can reproduce, react to stimuli, and maintain
internal environment different from their surroundings. This chapter will help
you to become familiar with the structure of cells and how they work.

1.1 TECHNIQUES USED IN CELL BIOLOGY

How can you study the structure and functions of cell and its
organelles? To know the structure and functions etc. of cell and cell
organelles now different techniques are used. The techniques that will be
discussed here in brief are: cell fractionation, centrifugation, differential
staining, microdissection, tissue culture, chromatography, electrophoresis,
and spectrophotometry.

www.learningall.com
 www.learningall.com

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 3

Cell Fractionation
A common approach for studying functions of a cell is to isolate a
particular cell organelle from other cell components and try to make it
perform its normal functions in a test tube. Generally cells are broken apart as
gently as possible. A common procedure is to grind up i.e. to homogenize
cells in a suitable medium (with correct pH, ionic composition and
temperature). This is done with a homogenizer (food mixer). The mixture is
then centrifuged.
Centrifugation
Centrifugation is the process
to separate substances on the basis
of their densities. It is done by the
machine called centrifuge (fig. 1.1)
This machine can spin the tubes.
Contents are kept in tubes that are
much like the test tubes. Spinning
the tubes exerts a centrifugal force
on the contents. As the number of
revolutions per minute increase so
does the centrifugal force Fig: 1.1 A Centrifuge
(measured as G, which is equal to
the force of gravity) increase.
Differential Staining

Most biological structures are transparent. To differentiate between

different structures some methods must be used. The most common method is
staining. Certain stains when used in low concentrations are non-toxic to
living tissues and can therefore be used on living material. These are called
vital stains e.g. methylene blue. When only one stain, such as borax carmine
is used it is called single staining. When two stains, one that will stain nucleus
e.g. haematoxylin and other that will stain cytoplasm e.g. eosin are used, the
process is called double staining or differential staining.
Microdissections

When dissection is made under microscope it is called

microdissection. It is done to remove tumour or granules from delicate tissue
or cells like, brain, heart and nerve cells. These days the image is seen on
large TV screen or monitor while dissecting.
4 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Tissue Culture

Cell cultures are a suspension of cells in a liquid medium. Tissue cultures

are small pieces of plant or animal organ grown in liquid or on solid medium. In
plant tissue the root and shoot tips are taken and cultured in a suitable medium to
see any infection. Phloem tissue of plants is removed and placed in a germ free
medium containing adequate food supply, mineral salts and growth substances.
The cell will develop into a new plant, which will flower and produce seeds.
Animal tissue culture is usually set up by growing individual cells to form a
single layer of cells over the surface of a glass container. Tissue cultured cells are
used to see any abnormality in the cell e.g. cancer etc.

Chromatography

Chromatography is a
procedure through which
various substances in a mixture
are separated from each other
and identified. Separation
involves the use of two phases,
one of which is stationary and
the other is mobile. Separation
depends upon the differential
movement of the test substances
between two phases. Can you
find out names of seven types of
chromatography? You may
consult books or search on the
internet. Paper chromatography
is a simple and most widely Fig: 1.2 Chromatography Chamber
used technique.

Electrophoresis
It is a laboratory procedure that separates molecules according to their
size, shape, molecular weight and surface charge whether (+) or (–).
Macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins can be separated in a
mixture. Often the gel is sandwiched between glass or plastic plates to form a
viscous slab (fig. 1.3). The two ends of the slabs are suspended in two salt
solutions that are connected by electrodes to a power source. When voltage is
applied to the apparatus, the molecules present in the gel migrate through the
electric field according to their individual charge and they move away from

www.learningall.com
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 5

one another in the gel. The

negative charged molecule will
move towards the positive pole
and the molecule having positive Upper
charge will move towards the buffersolution

Movement of proteins
negative pole. Later on the
Electrode
molecules can be pin pointed by
Glass tube or plates
staining the gel.
containing gel
Spectrophotometry Gel
Lower
buffer solution

Power supply
Electrode
Fig: 1.4 Spectrophotometer Fig: 1.3 Gel Electrophoresis

A spectrophotometer (fig. 1.4) is an instrument that measures the

amount of light that passes through the sample and from this it can be
calculated how much light was absorbed. The amount of light absorbed at
each wavelength is plotted in a graph and the result is what we call the
absorption spectrum (fig. 4.6). The procedure is called spectrophotometry.
It can be used to determine the wavelengths of light that take part in
photosynthesis. It is also used to know the turbidity or cloudness. The more
cells e.g. microorganisms are in suspension the greater will be turbidity.
Resolution and Magnification in Microscopy
Most animal cells and plant cells are between 10 µm and 30 µm. µ is the
Greek letter mu. The unit of microscopic measurement is micrometre (preffered
to micron). The correct symbol is µm (preferred to µ) i.e. the µm is the
abbreviation for micrometre (American spelling: micrometer). (1 µm = 1/10000
mm). When two objects are closer together than about 100 micrometres, the two
light beams fall on the same “detector” cells at the rear of the eyes. When the two
dots are farther apart than 100 micrometres, the two beams fall on different cells,
only then our eyes resolve them i.e. tell that they are two objects and not one.
Resolution is the minimum distance that two points can be separated and be
distinguished as two separate points by an optical instrument.

www.learningall.com
6 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

One way to increase resolution, is to increase magnification to make small

object seen larger. The increase in the apparent size of an object is called
magnification. Robert Hooke was able to see small cell by magnifying i.e.
enlarging the size, so the cells appeared larger than 100µm limit imposed by the
structure of human eye.
Graticule and Micrometre
Graticule is a photographically produced gird,
cemented between two glasses. In order to use the
graticule for measurement it must be calibrated so that we
know what each square represents when a particular object
is used. Measurement of microscopic objects is called
micrometry. This can be done using specially designed
scales or micrometre. There are two types of micrometres:
Ocular graticule or micrometer and stage micrometre.
Ocular Micrometre
Fig: 1.5 Graticule
Ocular micrometre is also known as eyepiece
micrometre (fig. 1.6). It is a circular glass piece. It can be
put between the two lenses of the eyepiece. A scale showing 100 arbitrary
divisions, have been photographically produced, cemented between two
glasses.
www.learningall.com

Fig: 1.6 Ocular Micrometre or Graticule

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 7

As this micrometre is put between the two lenses of the ocular so, it is
called ocular micrometre. The micrometre acts as ruler and its scale is used
for direct measurement of the object.
Stage Micrometre
As this scale is placed on the stage of the microscope, so it is called
stage micrometre. This is a plane slide. On the centre for the slide, a scale
has been produced photographically or engraving. This scale is usually 1 mm
having 100 divisions.
1 mm = 100 divisions
100 division = 1000 micrometres
1000
1 division = = 10 micrometres (0.01 mm)
100
20 Angstrom = 1 Nanometre.

Fig: 1.7 Stage Micrometre, Total Length is 1mm

The resolution of an electron microscope is about 0.5 nm in practice, compared

with 200 nm for light microscope. Infact, the most powerful modern electron
microscope can distinguish objects as small as 0.2 nanometre (abbreviated nm,
1
1nm = 1,000,000 mm), a thousand fold improvements over the light microscope.

www.learningall.com
8 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

1.2 CELL WALL AND PLASMA MEMBRANE

The plasma membrane is the outer living boundary of the cell. Many
cells have an extracellular component that is formed exterior to the
membrane, which is called cell wall.
Cell Wall
The cell wall is present in plant cells, prokaryotes and fungi. Plant cell
walls differ in chemical composition from those of the prokaryotes and fungi.
Do you know the differences? We will discuss here only plant cell wall. The
cell wall is secreted by the cell. The structure, thickness and chemical nature
of the cell wall varies with type of cell and its function. The plant cell wall
consists of three main layers, primary cell wall, middle lamella and secondary
cell wall.
Primary cell wall is a true wall and develops in newly growing cell
i.e. during cell division. Each cell produces a primary cell wall. The young
growing cells, storage cell and photosynthesising cells of leaves have primary
cell wall. The cell wall surrounds the protoplast and plasma membrane. The
primary cell wall is thin i.e. 1-3 mm in thickness.
www.learningall.com
 www.learningall.com

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 9

Not in
most
plant
cell

Fig: 1.8 Electron Microscopic Structure of an Animal Cell

Fig: 1.9 Electron Microscopic Structure of a Plant Cell

www.learningall.com
 www.learningall.com

10 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig: 1.10 Plant Cell Wall

The primary cell wall consists of cellulose microfibrils, running

through the matrix of other polysaccharides. The microfibrils show a
crisscross (fig. 1.11) arrangement. The primary cell wall is adapted to
growth. The wall stretches plastically i.e. irreversibly. The cell wall is porous
and allows free passage of water and dissolved material.
Secondary cell wall is formed between the primary cell wall and plasma
membrane. It is found in most of the cells specially that provide support for the
plant. The protoplast secretes extra layers of cellulose on the inner surface of the
primary cell wall i.e. outer surface of the plasma membrane. Its microfibrils also
show crisscross arrangement (fig. 1.11). The secondary cell wall develops only
when the cell has reached maximum size i.e. completes its growth.The secondary
cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Lignin cements and
anchors cellulose fibres together.
Lignin is a complex polymer, not
a polysaccharide. Lignin is much
rigid than cellulose and cannot be
easily compressed and resists
changes in form. It provides the
cell wall extra tensile and
compressional strength. The
secondary cell wall provides
mechanical support to the cell
and those to the plant as it is
present in xylem and
sclerenchyma. Fig: 1.11 Crisscross Arrangement of Microfibrils
 www.learningall.com

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 11

Middle Lamella is present between adjacent primary cell walls of two

cells. It is the first layer to be formed. It is formed of sticky, gel-like
magnesium and calcium salts (pectates) of proteins. The middle lamella holds
neighbouring cell walls together.
Q. Why cell wall is not present in animal cell?
Plasma Membrane
Every cell is bounded by plasma membrane. The membrane is also
called cell membrane or cell surface membrane. It gives shape and
mechanical support to the cell. Chemically cell membrane consists of proteins
60-80%, lipids 20-40% and small quantity of carbohydrates. The most
common lipids are phospholipids. Membranes also contain glycolipids,
cholesterols and glycoproteins. The membrane is about 7nm thick.
Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
In 1972 Sanger and Nicholson put forward the fluid mosaic model of
membrane structure. The model proposes that the membrane is a
phospholipids bilayer in which protein molecules are either partially or
wholly embedded. The protein are scattered throughout the membrane in an
irregular pattern that can vary from membrane to membrane. The mosaic
distribution of protein is supported especially by electron micrograph of
freeze fractured membrane (see Glossary).

Fig: 1.12 Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane

www.learningall.com