Benedicto A. Pintor Jr.

Mid Terms
Philosophy of Science and Technology

Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Alexandrian Greek mathematician Euclid,
which he described in his textbook on geometry: the Elements. Euclid's method consists in assuming a
small set of intuitively appealing axioms, and deducing many other propositions (theorems) from these.
Although many of Euclid's results had been stated by earlier mathematicians, Euclid was the first to
show how these propositions could fit into a comprehensive deductive and logical system. The Elements
begins with plane geometry, still taught in secondary school as the first axiomatic system and the first
examples of formal proof. It goes on to the solid geometry of three dimensions. Much of the Elements
states results of what are now called algebra and number theory, explained in geometrical language.
Euclid the elements are mainly a systematization of earlier knowledge of geometry. Its superiority over
earlier treatments was rapidly recognized, with the result that ratios between the volume of a cone and
a cylinder with the same height and base.

The parallel postulate

If two lines intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two
right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.

Euclide Failure
Since the dawn of time, Man has always been concerned to understand the world he lived in. He
observed carefully and accurately the shapes of nature and felt the need to theorize, and later, to find
mathematical proofs for various empirical elements. If we examine with some attention, in fact, we have
a daily need to use Geometry. When we say something is far away, we are referring to a length and this
is Geometry. When we discuss about the area of a football field, we use Geometry. If we say that a dress
is wide, we are thinking of volumes, and therefore thinking in Geometry. Geometry accompanies us all
the time. One of the most important books ever written is probably Euclid's Elements. Its volumes have
provided a model for the rigorous development of mathematical ideas, which is still used today. The
Euclidean Geometry defines the situations of the plan. However, when we are dealing with different
surfaces, we are faced with the impossibility of solving problems through the same geometry. Unlike
what happens with the initial four postulates of Euclid, the Fifth Postulate, the famous Parallel Postulate,
revealed a lack intuitive appeal, and several were the mathematicians who, throughout history, tried to
show it. Many retreate before the findings that this would be untrue; some had the courage and
determination to make such a falsehood, thus opening new doors to Geometry. One puts up, then, two
questions. Where can be found the clear concepts of such Geometries? And how important is the
knowledge and study of Geometries, beyond the Euclidean, to a better understanding of the world
around us? The study, now developed, seeks to answer these questions. Since the primary objective is a
response to these earlier questions, this study is divided into three phases. The first phase focuses on
the historical evolution of Geometry, from its beginnings to the work of the Greek Euclid. In a second
phase, the main precursors of Geometry are presented and, subsequently, the discoverers of Non-
Euclidean Geometries, the Elliptic and Hyperbolic Geometries themselves, being the most outstanding
among all the Non-Euclidean, and even some models of its representations. The third and final phase is
related to the analysis of the presence of Non-Euclidean Geometries in Art and in the Real, the study of
Geometry in Secondary Education and Non-Euclidean Geometries in Higher Education, ending up with
some philosophical implications that one understands be relevant, given all the controversy generated
around these Non-Euclidean theories of Geometry.

The Forerunners of Non-Euclidean Geometries

(The fifth postulate of Euclidean geometry)

Several mathematicians tried to prove the correctness of Euclid’s 5th Postulate for a long time. Although
they could get close to real conclusions, they failed, as its primary objective was to prove the Postulate,
and not conclude that this could be false (Saccheri, Legendre, Farkas Bolyai, Gauss). Moreover, even
with assurances regarding their results, the fear of facing the mathematical community, and the shame
of being marginalized by their act of courage, always stopped them from publishing such findings. As
Greenberg said, it is delightfully instructive to observe the mistakes made by capable people as they
struggled with the strange possibility that they or their culture might not accept their conclusions. , but
it was finally shown to be impossible .Postulate 5, the Parallel Postulate If a straight line meets two
straight lines, so as to make the two interior angles on the same side of it taken together less than two
right angles, these straight lines, being continuously produced, shall at length meet on the Alternative,
but equivalent, version of the Parallel Postulate Given a line l and a point P not on l, there is only one
line m containing P such that l||m. These alternative versions the most commonly used version, but
there are several others. It is interesting that one of the other equivalent versions is the statement that
“the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°”. We prove this as a theorem, and the Alternative version of
the Parallel Postulate will be a very important piece of the proof. They are equivalent because if you
started with the “the sum of angles in triangle is 180°” you could prove the parallel postulate. All
theorems whose proofs rely on the Parallel Postulate, plus the Absolute Geometry theorems, are what is
known as Euclidean Geometry or Flat Geometry. Euclid's famous treatise, the Elements, was most
probably a summary of side on which are the angles that are less than two right angle what was known
about geometry in his time, rather than being his original work. In it, he sets out five geometric
"postulates", the fifth of which is this: If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior
angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet
on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.

Discovery of non-Euclidean geometry

The beginning of the 19th century would finally witness decisive steps in the creation of non-Euclidean
geometry. Circa 1813, Carl Friedrich Gauss and independently around 1818, the German professor of
law Ferdinand Karl Schweikart had the germinal ideas of non-Euclidean geometry worked out, but
neither published any results. Then, around 1830, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai and the
Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published treatises on hyperbolic
geometry. Consequently, hyperbolic geometry is called Bolyai-Lobachevskian geometry, as both
mathematicians, independent of each other, are the basic authors of non-Euclidean geometry. Gauss
mentioned to Bolyai's father, when shown the younger Bolyai's work, that he had developed such
geometry several years before, though he did not publish. While Lobachevsky created a non-Euclidean
geometry by negating the parallel postulate, Bolyai worked out a geometry where both the Euclidean
and the hyperbolic geometry are possible depending on a parameter k. Bolyai ends his work by
mentioning that it is not possible to decide through mathematical reasoning alone if the geometry of the
physical universe is Euclidean or non-Euclidean; this is a task for the physical sciences. Bernhard
Riemann, in a famous lecture in 1854, founded the field of Riemannian geometry, discussing in
particular the ideas now called manifolds, Riemannian metric, and curvature. He constructed an infinite
family of geometries which are not Euclidean by giving a formula for a family of Riemannian metrics on
the unit ball in Euclidean space. The simplest of these is called elliptic geometry and it is considered to
be a non-Euclidean geometry due to its lack of parallel lines. By formulating the geometry in terms of a
curvature tensor, Riemann allowed non-Euclidean geometry to be applied to higher dimensions.

Comparison of Euclidean geometry and non-Euclidean geometry

Euclidean Non- Euclidean Spherical geometry

Euclidean geometry in this
classification is parabolic
geometry, through the name is
less often used.
In Euclidean geometry, given a
point and a line, there is exactly
one line through the point that is
in the same plane as the given
line
In Euclidean geometry is a
triangle
Euclidean geometry is used in
surveying and building
Euclidean geometry is flat so its
curvature is zero.
The negatively curved non-
Euclidean geometry is called
hyperbolic geometry
In hyperbolic geometry there are
at least two distinct lines that
passes through the point and are
parallel to (in the same plane as
and do not intersect) the given
line.
In non-Euclidean geometry is a
triangle.
A modern use of Hyperbolic
geometry is in the theory of
special Relativity, particularly
minskowski space time ,and gyro
vector space
Negatively curved
Spherical geometry is called
elliptical geometry, but the
space of elliptic geometry is
really has points = antipodal
pairs on the sphere.
In spherical geometry there are
no such lines.
Concepts of spherical geometry
may also be applied to the
oblong sphere, though minor
modifications must be
implemented on certain
formulas. Two practical
application of the principal of
spherical geometry are to
navigation and astronomy
Positively curved

Evaluation
The Euclidean and non-Euclidean is a very important discovery and is very helpful in the field of science
and technology. Since the Euclidean is used to survey the structure of a building making sure that the
measurements are correct and accurate while the non-Euclidean to understand the theory of special
Relativism, particularly Minskowski space time, and gyro vector space.