An Elementary Constructive Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Author(s): P. C. Rosenbloom
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 52, No. 10 (Dec., 1945), pp. 562-570
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
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562 PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA [December,

the question of their independence is vital, and this depends on the rank of a
matrix,that is to say, the vanishingor non-vanishingofdeterminants.
The conclusion of the matter seems rather bleak. Modern mathematics is
extremelyabstract and extremelygeneral.That is excellent.We always wish to
know the extremelimitsto which any truthwill stretch.But I personallyhave
the depressingfeelingagain and again, "Well, where do we go fromhere?" and
I don't findthe answer. Historically,progressis always fromthe particularto
the general. I do not know of a single interestingtheoremdealing with the ge-
ometry of the plane which was firstfound as a special case of somethingthat
holds in higherspace, and there are plenty of interestingplane theoremsthat
do not step up. With Fermat's and Goldbach's theoremsstillmockingus and the
four color ptoblem still unsolved there still remain some simple puzzles to tax
our ingenuity.

AN ELEMENTARY CONSTRUCTIVE PROOF OF THE

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
P. C. ROSENBLOOM, BrownUniversity
1. Introduction.In this paper we shall give a methodof constructingfroma
given polynomial P(z) by rational operations a sequence of complex numbers
Zn} whichsatisfies the Cauchyconvergence and suchthat P(Zn) con-
criterion
verges to zero. All of this part of the proofis constructiveand completelyele-
mentary. The existence of a root of P(z) then follows immediatelyfromthe
definitionof the real number system by means of Cantor's regular sequences.
(See forexample [4].) Brouwer and deLoor [I] gave an "intuitionistic"proof
(see also [2 ]), but made use of the propertiesofcontinuouscurvesand functions,
-whileWeyl's proof [5 ] makes use of integration,and in particular,the formula
If f'(z)dz
a
-
= n
2,ri J cf(Z)
for the number of zeros of the polynomialf(z) enclosed by the contour C. If
these preliminarieswere developed in full, their proofs would be much more
complicated than theyappear to be. In our proofthe only appearance of limiting
processes is in the very definitionof the real numbersystem.
Our main device is the use of summingover the lattice points of squares in-
stead of integration.This idea can be used to replace other function-theoretic
proofs by elementary algebraic proofs. We suspect that, for example, the
Schottky-Landau theorem can be proved for polynomials in this way. Peda-
gogically, however, it would be better to preface our present proofby the fol-
lowingfunction-theoretic argumentafterwhich it is modeled. If the polynomial
P(z) of degree N had no zeros, then P'(z)/P(z) would be regular everywhere,
and therefore
1945] PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 563

I ()dz =0
2ri c P(z)
forthecircleC: Iz =R. But
1 P'(z)dz 1 Ndz
I --I ~~=O(R)
i
27r P(z) 27riJc z
asR-- co, and
1 Ndz
2iii z = N.

P(z) musthave a root.The

and therefore
These threeresultsare incompatible,
minordetailsof the computationsinvolvedin the following
argumentwill be
moreperspicuous ifthis skeleton is
key kept in mind.
2. Sums overlatticepoints.Iff(z) is anyfunction ofthecomplexvariablez
definedon the square Ca(zo) with center at zo and sides equal to 2a and parallel
to thecoordinateaxes,we definethenthsumoff(z) overC,(zo)as
2a n
Sn(f; zo,a) =- ? [{f(zo-a-ai + (2k-l)h) -f(zo + a + ai-(2k- 1)h)}
n k..1

+ i{f (zo + a - ai + i(2k - 1)h) -f(zo - a+ ai - i(2k -l)h)}],

whereh = a/n. This is obtained by dividingeach side of CQ(zo) into n equal seg-
ments,denotingby zi, ... , Z4n+i= Zi the pointsofsubdivrisiontakenin counter-
clockwiseorderand by rk = (Zk+Zk+i)/2 the midpointof the kthsegment,and
formingthe sum
4
Sn(f; zo, a) = Ef(ik) (Zk+ - Z) .
k-i

theex-
Ifwe workedwithcirclesinsteadofsquares,we wouldhave to introduce
and otherforeign
ponentialfunction matter.
The followingpropertiesof this summingoperation are almost trivial:
Sn(c;zo,a) = 0 (c = constant);
S,,(z; zo, a) = 0;
8ni
S,,(1/z; 0, a) =E - = 27r,,i;
k-i n2 + (n + 1- 2k)2

Sn(cf; zo,a) = cS.(f; zo,a) (c = constant);

Sn(f + g; zo, a) = Sn(f; zo, a) + Sn(g; zo,a);

Sn,(f;zo, a) = Et Si zpq a-,

p,q-1 n
564 PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTALTHEOREM OF ALGEBRA [December,

where the zpq's are the centers of the n2 squares with sides equal to 2a/n ob-
tained by dissectingCa(zo) by lines parallel to the coordinateaxes. We note that
n.4n
7r >
2 + =2.

Also, if If(z)
I M at the points rk, then
(1) I Sn(f; zo, a) I< 8aM.
3. Cauchy's theorem. We now derive an analogue to Cauchy's theoremfor
rational functions.The details will be clearer if the classical proofof the latter,
say as presentedin Knopp [3], is borne in mind.
Letf(z) =Q(z)/P(z),whereP(z) =Si' oakZk, Q(Z) =2N ObkZk; letA =maxlakl
and B = max IbkI for k = 0, 1, * * *, N. We shall maintain these notations
throughoutthe restof the paper.
LEMMA 1. If IP(z) I _ m > 0 on thelatticepointsin and on thesquare C,(O) with
themeshh = a/n, and a < 212, then
64A2Ba3
I Sn(f; 0, a) I <m'(1-

Proof. Let E(z) =f(z) -f(0) -zf'(0). Then we have Sn(f; 0, a) =S.(e; 0, a).
But

a2Q(z) - aoboP(z) - (aob1- boal)zP(z)

a2P(z)

Ek2(aobk - aOakbO- aoak-lb, + alak-lbo)z

a20P(z)

where aN+i bN+1=0. Therefore

4A2BN+I 8a2BA
2
e(z)I <
|E - m3
3 E (-2a)k <
k=2
,(-a
m3(1 - -/a

on the lattice points of Ca(O). The lemma now follows from (1).
We must now eliminate the special position of the point 0 in this lemma.

LEMMA 2. If IP(z) f>m >0 on thelatticepointsof Ca(zo) withthemeshh=a/n,

and a <2-1/2, /zoj
1 R, R_1, then
6493RINBA 2a3
Sn(f; zo a)
-m3(1 -/2a)
where-yis thebinomialcoefficient
CN+1,qwithq= [(N+1)/2].
Proof. Let Pj(z) =P(zo+z) ZNoaklzk, Qi(z) = Q(zo+z) =Eobk,zk, A1
-maxlakll, and B1=maxlbkll. Then
1945] PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 565

(2) ~P(k)(Zo) [N -kkN-k

C ,k ? yARN.
(2) |IaklI = |= | a,,+kC+k,kzol < ARN- '
k! W.$ n~~~~~~~~~i-0
Hence A :?yARN, and similarlyBj,<7BRN. Then the above estimatefollows
by Lemma1 appliedtofi(z)=f(zo+z).
THEOREM 1. Let

m= min p ((k+il)a)

and let V2a -R, 1<R, V02a<n. Then

64-3RINBA 2a3
| S,(f; 0, a) j <
64RNBA2a3
mn(n -\V2a)
Proof.We have
0,a)I s a
f zpq,-n/
Snf; = 649yR3NBA2aS
| 5.(f; 0, a) | <5 SI _ ?2
m3(1
P,qg1 \ - (Va)/n)n3

case as n-+ 0.
whichis thelimiting
This is theanalogueofCauchy'stheorem,
theorem.
4. Estimatesform. We shallestablishthefollowing
THEOREM 2. Let aN=1 (so thatA >1), a 2 5NA, n > 2/a, and letm beas in
Theorem1. Then
K
ml <-) where K = 2(3N/2)+633a3N+.
n
Proof.Let f(z) =P'(z)/P(z), so that Q(z) =P'(z), and B =max kakI<NA.
We can take R = V/-a in Theorem1 and obtain IS.(f; 0, a) <Kil/m3n,where
K1 2(3N12)+7,yNASa3N+3 B ut
2r,,Ni = S,n(N/z;0, a) = Sn(f; 0, a) + Sn((NP - zP')/zP; 0, a).
Now
N-1 1N-1
1 NA Z N2AIzIN-'
|NP-zP'|= (N- k)akZk zk<
k_O k-O

if I ZI21, and
N-I

|P(z) I I |N
|Z I ak|| glk
I | Al #1
k-O

Therefore

NP- zP' N2A

zP Iz (Iz zl-NA)
566 PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA [December,

if Izj >max(1, NA). Hence

8aN2A 8N2A
S,,((NP - zP')/zP; 0, a) i a-NA

Therefore
K1 8N2A
4N < I 27r,,Ni < - +
m3n a-NA
and
m3< KI(a-NA) - K1 K
4Nn(a - 3NA) 2Nn n
forourpurpose.We mention,however,that
Theorem2 is alreadysufficient
a muchbetterestimateform immediatelyfollowsfromTheorem2.
COROLLARY 1. If a 5NA, and e >0, thenthereis a pointZfinside C,(0) at
whichIP(z.) I < e.
We needonlytake n >K/e3 in Theorem2.
The numbersP((k+il)a/n) can be calculatedin a finitenumberofstepsby
rationaloperationsonly,and therefore thenumberze in theabove corollarycan
be foundconstructively. Sincethepoints(k+il)a/n fora givenn can be ordered,
say by letting(kl+ill)a/n precede(k2+il2)a/nifk1< k2ork1= k2and 11<12, then
iffora givenn wealwayschoosethefirst suchpointwhichsatisfiestheinequality
P(z) I <e, no elementofarbitrary choiceis involved.
5. The fundamental theoremofalgebra.Theorem2 is thecruxofthispaper;
fromhereon we can proceedin manyways.The following argumentwas sug-
gestedby theproofof Brouwer and deLoor but is more
perhaps direct.
LEMMA 3. Let aN=1, and 0 <e <1. Thenwecanfindpointsz1, - , ZN such
that
IP(zi) I < e, i 1, N,
and suchthatif IP(z) I < 5, wheree < a < 1, then
min zi -- z < 2fl/2N

Proof.We shallactuallyprovethelemmawiththefactor21-112Ninsteadof2.
Firstwe notethatif Izi21++NA, then
(3) I P(z) I 2! IZ|N- NAI Zi|N1= I Z|N-1(I
zI - NA) > 1.
The lemmais obviousifN =1. Supposethatit is trueforN-1. Let 0 <el < e,
and byTheorem2 we finda pointzxsuchthatIP(z1) I < ei.By (3), zi4< 1 +NA. I
Now
1945] PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 567

P(Z) = P(z1) + (z -z)Pi(z),

where
N-1
Pl(z) = E bmzm,
m_o
and

| bm| = | azl | < NA(1 + NA)N-1 = A1.

k-m+l

By assumptionwe can findpointsZ2, * , ZNsuch that jPj(zi) | <El, i =2, * , N,

and such that

IPl(z)I < 6, where ei _ a < i,

implies
min |Z - z <

By (3) applied to IPi(z)I, we have Iz4 <1+(N-1)A1, i=2, *, N. Hence

IP(z.) I < el + IZi- ZI el < Ce1,

where
C = 1+ 1 + (N - 1)Al + 1 + NA.
Now if IP(z) I < S, then
I(z - zi)Pi(z) I < 5 + E1? 26.
Thereforeeither
(4) z - | < (26)1/2 < 21-12N61122N

or
IPl(z) I < (26)112
In the latter case,
(5) min z - zi I < 21-1/2N-1(26)1/2N
2S fSN

The required inequality followsfrom(4) and (5). If we choose E1= E/C,all the
assertions in the lemma follow.
THEOREM sequence {zn} such thatP(z.)-*O.
3. We can finda convergent
Proof. Let e, = 2 n = 1, 2, * . By Lemma 3 we can find points
j
Zin, * * *I ZNn, such that P(zpn)I< En, v = 1, * N, and such that if jP(z) < 6, 1
<
where En < 1, then
568 PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA [December,

min z-I ZnI < 261/2d'.

Let z1= zi. If z. has alreadybeenchosenas one ofthepointsz,n,,

v 1, * * , N,
then
(6) |P(Zn,)I < ent
and c-n+1 en< 1. Hence there is a point z,nl such that

I
X Xp n+iI < 2 2-n
1
We choose Zn+1to be that one forwhichA is smallest. Hence we have constructed
the sequence f{zn} in sucha way that
I Zn - Zn-+|I < 21-n,

and, by (6), P(z,,)--O.It followsimmediately } is convergent,

that {Iz" for
I ZnZ+p I < IZn - Zn+1 + **+ I ZN+p-l - Zn+p

< 21-n + * * + 21-(n+P-1) < 22-n

whichcan be madearbitrarily
small.
6. Anotherapproach.Theorem3 is, of course,the fundamental theoremof
algebra.We believethatit is worthwhileto giveanotherapproachwhichmay
be moredesirablefor,say, pedagogicalpurposes.If P(z) is relativelyprimeto
P'(z), thatis,ifthediscriminant ofP(z) is different
fromzero,we can construct
a rootby Newton'smethodof approximation. Since Newton'smethodis not
usuallydiscussedin thecomplexdomain,we shall,forthesake ofcompleteness,
givea proofofitsvalidity.This proofis essentiallythesameas thatofBrouwer
and deLoor,exceptthatwe carrythecomputations out in moredetailin order
to get explicit(but crude)estimatesforthe constantsinvolved.
Let P(z) be relatively
primeto P'(z). Then we can findby a finitenumberof
rationaloperations(see [4], p. 91) polynomialsC(z) and D(z) ofdegreeat most
N satisfying
C(z)P(z) + D(z)P'(z) -1.
Let C(z) =ZOCNZk, D(z) =Z=ff..odkZk, C=maxlckI, and D=maxldkl; let
E = NA + 1,and letaN =1. We can assume,ofcourse,thatN _2.
LEMMA 4. If

|P(z)I < a-=Nmin -- 1 ,- ~~1

IP(z)I<a=min(
2NCEN 4NDEN
1,
B
, whereX = ___I and
21VDEN
g = 27A EN,

then
19451 PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 569

I > XI
IP'(Z)
and
() g .
P P(-P(z
z < I p(Z) 12 < p(Z)

Proof.By (3), we have IzI <E. Then IC(z) I <NCEN, | D(z) < NDEN, and
1 < NCENa + NDEN I P'(Z),
so that

P'(z) I> X.
Let z1=z-P(z)/P'(z) = z+h; then

P(Z) P(z)I 1
P'(Z) X 2
Now
N P (k)(z)
P(ZI) = P(z) + hP'(z) + a hk
k=2 k
N P(k)(z)
= h2E hk-2
k=2 k!
By (2),
)
P(k)(Z| < AENp

and therefore

IP()I< hfN2E hkyAEN<21AEN

kO 0 2h<2< 2P(Z) 12 < P(Z)I.
THEOREM 4. If IP(zi) <a, thenthesequence {zx} definedby

P(Zn)

is convergent
and P(zn)-*O.
Proof.Let
P(z-)
wn = P(z), hn= -
P() = Zn+1-Z n = 1, 2,

Then we can easily show by inductionfromLemma 4 that

570 PROOF OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA

(7) | w,n < 02n-1,

g
and

g
where

0=gl 'I <1.

)2

Then
-Zn+pz=Z kn+ + hn+p_I
< _ (02'n- + + 02n+p-2)

g
X02n-1

g(l - 0)

criterion.
whichshowsthat {Zn} satisfiesthe Cauchyconvergence The restof
the theoremfollowsfrom (7).
If the Euclidean algorithmcan be performedto obtain the greatestcommon
divisorof P(z) and P'(z), then even if the discriminantof P(z) vanishes, we can
constructa rootofP(z) by Newton's method. For ifP(z) is divided by thisgreat-
est common divisor, we obtain a polynomial which is relatively prime to its
derivative, to which Theorem 4 applies. In general, however, the Euclidean
algorithmcannot be performedin a finitenumberof steps since to carryout the
second division we must know the degree of the remainderin the firstdivision;
this requires that we know the highestpower of z whose coefficientis different
fromzero. But in general it is impossibleto determineconstructivelyin a finite
numberof steps whethera given real numberis zero or not. If the coefficientsare
in a fieldlike that of the rationalnumbersor of the algebraic numberswhere such
a constructiveprocess always exists, Newton's method can always be used. We
make a finalremarkthat the application of Theorem 4 depends on Theorem 2
which shows how a point z1satisfyingIP(zi) I <a can be found.
Bibliography
Beweisdes Fundamentalsatzes
1. L. E. J.Brouwerand B. deLoor, Intuitionistischer derAl-
gebra,Amsterdam Kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen, Proc.,vol. 27, 1924,pp. 186-188.
Ergiinzung
2. L. E. J. Brouwer,Intuitionistische des Fundamentalsatzes derAlgebra,ibid.,
pp. 631-634.
3. K. Knopp, Funktionentheorie,ErsterTeil, Leipzig,1937.Englishtranslationby F. Bage-
mihl.New York,Dover,1945.
4. B. L. Van derWaerden,ModerneAlgebra,Berlin,1937.
5. H. Weyl,Randbemerkungen zu Hauptproblemen der Mathematik,Math.Zeit.,vol. 20,
1924,pp. 131-150.