PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 GRADE 12

Module SESSION/DAY 22 Lesson: STATISTICAL METHODS

Week 10 Name:_________________________________________ Strand/Section:___________________
Date:__________________________________________ Signature:________________________

Learning Competency: Uses statistical techniques to analyze data – study of differences and
relationships limited for bivariate analysis

Preliminary activity! What is the importance of statistics in research?

___________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________Guide
Questions:
1. What is the use of statistics in quantitative research?
2. What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Key concepts Statistics anova chi-square t-test z-test

Basic Concept

Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models, representations and synopses
for a given set of experimental data or real-life studies. Statistics studies methodologies to gather,
review, analyze and draw conclusions from data. Statistical methods analyze large volumes of data and
their properties. Statistics is used in various disciplines such as psychology, business, physical and
social sciences, humanities, government and manufacturing. Statistical data is gathered using a
sample procedure or other method. Two types of statistical methods are used in analyzing data:
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are used to synopsize data from a
sample exercising the mean or standard deviation. Inferential statistics are used when data is viewed as a
subclass of a specific population.

Statistical Methodologies

Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set,
Descriptive which can be either a representation of the entire population or a sample of it. Descriptive
Statistics statistics are broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of variability,
or spread. Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode, while
measures of variability include the standard deviation or variance, and the minimum and
maximum variables.

Now, suppose you need to collect data on a very large population. For example, suppose
you want to know the average height of all the men in a city with a population of so many
million residents. It isn't very practical to try and get the height of each man. This is where
inferential statistics comes into play. Inferential statistics makes inferences about populations
Inferential using data drawn from the population. Instead of using the entire population to gather the data,
the statistician will collect a sample or samples from the millions of residents and make
Statistics inferences about the entire population using the sample. The sample is a set of data taken from
the population to represent the population. Probability distributions, hypothesis testing,
correlation testing and regression analysis are all fall under the category of inferential
statistics.
Types of Statistical Data Analysis
1. Univariate Analysis – analysis of one variable.
2. Bivariate Analysis – analysis of two variables (independent and dependent)
3. Multivariate Analysis – analysis of multiple relations between multiple variables.

Statistical Methods of Bivariate Analysis

According to the book of Baraceros (2016) bivariate analysis happens by means of

the following methods (Argyrous 2011; Babbie 2013; Punch 2014).

1. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation) – describes the relationship

between two variables and also tests the strengths or significance of their linear
relation.

Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the change in the
relationship of two random variables. Random variables are data with varied values
like those ones in the interval level or scale (Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral,
agree, strongly agree) whose values depend on the arbitrariness of the respondents

Cross Tabulation – is also called ―crosstab or students-contingency table‖ that follows the format of
a matrix that is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and other expressions. Similar to one type of
graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns. If the table compares data on only two
variables, such table is called Bivariate Table.

Example:
Secondary School Participants who attend the 1st UCNHS Research Conference
SCHOOL MALE FEMALE ROW TOTAL
QMA 152 127 279
(18.7%`) 15.4%
UNCNHS 120 98 218
14.8% 11.9%
PUNP 59 48 107
7.2% 5.8%
UCU 61 58 119
7.5% 5.8%
LNL 81 79 159
10% 9.5%
U-Pang. 79 99 178
9.7% 12%
CLLC 102 120 222
12.6% 14.5%
ABE 69 93 162
8.5% 11.3%
STI 83 101 184
10.2% 12.2%
COLUMN TOTAL 806 823 1629
 100% 100%
Measure of Correlations

Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strengths of association between two variables
and the direction of the relationship. In terms of the strength of relationship, the value of the correlation
coefficient varies between +1 and -1. When the value of the correlation coefficient lies around ± 1,
then it is said to be a perfect degree of association between the two variables. As the correlation
coefficient value goes towards 0, the relationship between the two variables will be weaker. The
direction of the relationship is simply the + (indicating a positive relationship between the variables) or
- (indicating a negative relationship between the variables) sign of the correlation. Usually, in statistics,
we measure four types of correlations: Pearson correlation, Kendall rank correlation, Spearman
correlation, and the Point-Biseria.

PEARSON R CORRELATION Pearson r correlation is the most widely used correlation

statistic to measure the degree of the relationship between linearly related variables. For
example, in the stock market, if we want to measure how two stocks are related to each other,
Pearson r correlation is used to measure the degree of relationship between the two. The Point-
bi serial correlation is conducted with the Pearson correlation formula except that one of the
variables is dichotomous. The following formula is used to calculate the Pearson r correlation:

Types of research questions a Pearson

correlation can examine:

Is there a statistically significant relationship

r = Pearson r correlation
between age, as measured in years, and height,
coefficient
measured in inches?
N = number of value in each
data set
Is there a relationship between temperature,
∑xy = sum of the products of
measure in degree Fahrenheit, and ice cream sales,
paired scores
measured by income?
∑x = sum of x scores
∑y = sum of y scores
Is there a relationship among job satisfaction, as
∑x2= sum of squared x scores
measured by the JSS, and income, measured in
∑y2= sum of squared y scores
dollars?
Assumptions
For the Pearson r correlation, both variables should be normally distributed (normally distributed
variables have a bell-shaped curve). Other assumptions include linearity and homoscedasticity.
Linearity assumes a straight line relationship between each of the variables in the analysis and
homoscedasticity assumes that data is normally distributed about the regression line
 CONDUCT AND INTERPRET A PEARSON CORRELATION

KEY TERMS Effect size: Cohen‘s standard will be used to evaluate the
correlation coefficient to determine the strength of the relationship, or the effect size,
where correlation coefficients between .10 and .29 represent a small association,
coefficients between .30 and .49 represent a medium association, and coefficients of .
50 and above represent a large association or relationship.

Continuous data: Data that is interval or ratio level. This type of data possesses
the properties of magnitude and equal interval between adjacent units. Equal intervals
between adjacent units‘ means that there are equal amounts of the variable being
measured between adjacent units on the scale. An example would be age. An increase
in age from 21 to 22 would be the same as an increase in age from 60 to 61.

Kendall rank correlation is a non-parametric test that

measures the strength of dependence between two variables. If we
consider two samples, a and b, where each sample size is n, we
KENDALL RANK know that the total number of pairings with a b is n(n-1)/2. The
CORRELATION following formula is used to calculate the value of Kendall rank
correlation:
Nc= number of concordant
Nd= Number of discordant

CONDUCT AND INTERPRET A KENDALL CORRELATION

KEY TERMS
Concordant: Ordered in the same way.
Discordant: Ordered differently.

Spearman rank correlation: Spearman rank correlation is a non-parametric test that is

used to measure the degree of association between two variables. It was developed by
Spearman, thus it is called the Spearman rank correlation. Spearman rank correlation
test does not assume any assumptions about the distribution of the data and is the
appropriate correlation analysis when the variables are measured on a scale that is at
least ordinal.

The following formula is used to calculate the Spearman rank correlation:

P= Spearman rank correlation
di= the difference between the ranks of corresponding values Xi and Yi
n= number of value in each data set.

Questions Spearman Correlation Answers

Is there a statistically significant relationship between participants' responses to two Likert scales
questions?
Is there a statistically significant relationship between how the horses rank in the race and the
horses‘ages? a
 Assumptions
Spearman rank correlation test does not make any assumptions
about the distribution. The assumptions of Spearman rho correlation
are that data must be at least ordinal and scores on one variable must
be monotonically related to the other variablee.

Effect size: Cohen‘s

. standard will be used to evaluate
the correlation coefficient to determine the strength of the
relationship, or the effect size, where coefficients between . CONDUCT AND INTERPRET A
10 and .29 represent a small association; coefficients SPEARMAN CORRELATION
between .30 and .49 represent a medium association; and KEY TERMS
coefficients of .50 and above represent a large association
or relationship.

Ordinal data: Ordinal scales rank order the items that are being measured to indicate if they possess more,
less, or the same amount of the variable being measured. An ordinal scale allows us to determine if X > Y, Y > X,
or if X = Y. An example would be rank ordering the participants in a dance contest. The dancer who was ranked
one was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked two. The dancer ranked two was a better dancer than the
dancer who was ranked three, and so on. Although this scale allows us to determine greater than, less than, or
equal to, it still does not define the magnitude of the relationship between units.

Activity: Problem solving: Compute of the correlation coefficient for the data
obtained in the study of age and blood pressure given. You can use another papers for
your answer.
Subject Age x Pressure y Xy X2 Y2
A 43 128
B 48 120
C 56 135
D 61 143
E 67 141
F 70 152
∑X ∑Y ∑XY ∑X2 ∑y2
Substitute in formula and solve for:
 Homework:

1. A random sample of Philippines cities is selected to determine if there is a

relationship between the population (in thousands) of the people under 5 years
of age and the population (in thousands) of those 65 years of age and older.
The data for the sample are shown here.
Under 5 x 65 and Xy X2 Y2
over y
178 361
27 72
878 1496
314 501
322 585
143 207
∑X ∑Y ∑XY ∑X2 ∑y2

Substitute in formula and solve for:

Name of Student: _____________________________________________ Year Level & Strand:

________________________________
Name of Teacher: _____________________________________________ Subject:
___________________________________________
Type of Assessment: ________________________ / Week: __________ Deadline:
__________________________________________

Senior High Department

S/Y 2020-2021
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
 Week 10
DAY 1
Name:: Strand/section
Date: Signature:

Test I: True or False

F.A. 1.1. The first step for a researcher after finishing data collection is to start hypothesis testing
procedures.
F.A 1.2. A researcher should explore the characteristics of the data and the examined variables to
summarise the data once data is clean and ready for investigation.
FA.1.3. One of the important considerations in preliminary analysis is to look for patterns in the data
and to check if any specific variable looks extremely erratic.
FA. 1.4. Descriptive statistics are mathematical techniques which are used make inferences about the
population of interest based on data collected from a representative sample.
FA. 1.5. Blunders are errors made in transferring the manual data onto software for analysis during
data entry or coding.
FA.1.6. Preliminary analysis through descriptive summaries can be used to portray frequency of
responses for each of the key study variables through tables of visual charts.
F.A 1.7. Different data types command the use of similar analysis techniques, whereby statistical
methods for analysing categorical data can also be used for continuous data.
F.A 1.8. Criteria that can be used to assess the best statistical technique to employ for examining a
phenomenon and testing hypothesis include (please select the answer that DOESN’T apply) ______.
F.A 1.9. Bivariate statistical methods analyse any number of variables and can offer different types of
inferences, whereas multivariate statistical techniques analyse two variables at a time.
F.A 1.10. Univariate analysis, through one-way frequencies and descriptive statistics, offer a good
understanding of variables, but only individually.

Test I: Multiple Choice Quizzes

1. The first step for a researcher after finishing data collection is to start hypothesis
testing procedures.

a. True
b. False

Answer: B

2. A researcher should explore the characteristics of the data and the examined variables
to summarise the data once data is clean and ready for investigation.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

3. One of the important considerations in preliminary analysis is to look for patterns in the
data and to check if any specific variable looks extremely erratic.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

4. Descriptive statistics are mathematical techniques which are used make inferences
about the population of interest based on data collected from a representative sample.

a. True
b. False

Answer: B

5. Blunders are errors made in transferring the manual data onto software for analysis
during data entry or coding.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

6. Preliminary analysis through descriptive summaries can be used to portray frequency

of responses for each of the key study variables through tables of visual charts.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

7. Different data types command the use of similar analysis techniques, whereby
statistical methods for analysing categorical data can also be used for continuous data.

a. True
 b. False

Answer: A

8. Criteria that can be used to assess the best statistical technique to employ for
examining a phenomenon and testing hypothesis include (please select the answer that
DOESN’T apply) ______.

a. the number of variables to be analysed

b. the type of variables
c. techniques the researcher prefers to use
d. the purpose of the analysis

Answer: C

9. Bivariate statistical methods analyse any number of variables and can offer different
types of inferences, whereas multivariate statistical techniques analyse two variables at a
time.

a. True
b. False

Answer: B

10. Univariate analysis, through one-way frequencies and descriptive statistics, offer a
good understanding of variables, but only individually.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

11. Parametric statistical techniques underscore stringent assumptions regarding the

distribution of data for the population under study.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

12. Parametric statistical techniques are best used to analyse categorical data.

a. True
b. False

Answer: B

13. Non-parametric statistics are less sensitive than parametric statistics, whereby they
may not detect significant relationships or differences when they actually exist.

a. True
b. False
Answer: A

14. Parametric statistics permit the analysis of small data samples.

a. True
b. False

Answer: B

15. In using any non-parametric statistical tools, assumptions must be checked first to
ensure they are not violated.

a. True
b. False

Answer: B

16. Independent t-tests and compares data about (please select the ONE answer that
applies) ______.

a. two distinct groups of different (independent) respondents

b. three distinct groups of different (independent) respondents
c. multiple distinct groups of different (independent) respondents

Answer: A

17. To investigate relationships, bivariate correlation analysis can be used when the
analysis involves two continuous variables.

a. True
b. False

Answer: 

18. Multiple regression analysis enables an understanding of a set of DVs for their ability
to explain variance in the IV.

a. True
b. False

19. Regression analysis has stringent assumptions that must be checked before running
the tests to ensure they are not violated towards achieving a good regression model.

a. True
b. False

Answer: A

20. It is likely that with large samples even minor differences/relationships may appear to
be statistically significant so the researcher must interpret the results in perspective to
reflect the real theoretical/practical significance of findings.

a. True
 b. False

Answer: B