Module 3: Conventional Machining

Orthogonal cutting
Tool geometry
Chip formation
Force components
Velocity, shear strain and strain rate
Heat generation
Tool life
Mathematical modelling approach
Solution of problems

1
 INTRODUCTION

Machining
 Removal of unwanted material from substrate in the form of chips by an appropriate
cutting tool and by providing relative motion
• To obtain desired geometric dimension
• Enable high-precision control
• Various types of surfaces can be produced

 Overall energy (𝜀𝑚 ) required for machining operation is sum of

• Energy required to deform material plastically i.e. 𝜀𝑝
• Energy required to overcome friction i.e. 𝜀𝑓

𝜀𝑚 = 𝜀𝑝 + 𝜀𝑓

Traditional
or conventional
Machining
Non-Traditional
or Non-conventional
2
Tool harder than No physical contact
Machining b/w workpiece and
workpiece required Process
tool

Non-
Conventional
conventional

Cutting Mechanical Erosion

based abrasion based based

Turning, Milling, Boring, Drilling, Planing,

Conventional

Cutting based
Shaping (gear cutting), Broaching

Mechanical Grinding, Honing, Polishing, Buffing,

abrasion based Lapping, Super finishing

Erosion based EDM, ECM, LBM, AJM, USM, CHM, WJM

3
 Parameter Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

Cutting edge (Tool) Perpendicular to cutting speed
Cutting dimension Two dimensional
Chip flow It occurs on the rake face of the
tool with chip velocity
perpendicular to the cutting edge
Inclined at inclination angle ‘i’
with normal to cutting speed
Three dimensional
It occurs on the rake face of the
tool at an angle ~ equal to i with
the normal to the cutting edge in
the plane of rake face

Cutting force It acts along x and z directions It acts along all three directions
only i.e. no cutting force along y i.e. x, y, and z axes.
direction
Examples Sawing, Broaching Turning, Milling, Drilling,
Shaping

Diagram

4
Tool geometry of single point cutting tool

Cutting edge Side rake angle (αs )

Nose
Face

Side clearance
Angle (θs )

End cutting edge Front view

Back rake
angle (Cs ) angle (αb )

Nose angle
Nose radius (R) Lip angle

Side cutting
edge angle (Ce ) Top view End clearance Side view
angle (θe )

5
 Influence of tool geometry
Optimum value of tool angle depends on majorly two factors
(i) Machining parameters (i.e. cutting force, surface finish, heat
generation etc.)
(ii) Combination of the tool-workpiece materials

Rake angle
 Rake face can controls the directions of chip flow and resultant
force on the tool.
 With zero back rake (or inclination) angle, chip will flow parallel
to work surface.
 For larger angle of rake angle, cutting forces and power
consumption decreases and better surface finish can be achieved
 Large rake angle minimizes tool material availability to conduct
heat away due to plastic deformation and hence reduces Tool Life.

6
 Influence of tool geometry
Flank or clearance angle
• To avoid the friction between flank surface against the workpiece.
• Larger the clearance angle - lower flank wear and increase tool life
• Further increase in clearance angle – tool weakens and affects heat
dissipation
• Insignificant effect on - cutting force, power and surface finish
Cutting edge angle
• Larger angle - weakens the tool and affects heat conduction
• Large principal cutting edge angle – force component tries to
separate the tool that promote tool chatter
Nose radius
• Sharp tool tip contains high stress and having short tool life.
• Nose radius smoothens feed marks, strengthens the tool and elevates
the effective heat conductivity 7
 Tool signature – Tool specification
ASA (American Standard Association)
 αb − αs − θe − θs − Ce − Cs − R

where 𝛼 – back/side rake angle, θ – end/side flank or clearance angle, C – end/side

cutting edge angle, R – nose radius

Orthogonal cutting

8
 Chip formation
V𝑐
Chip
P
𝜙
F𝑛
Shear Force
Elastic Tool
Plastic
Plastic
Compression
Boundary
Plastic
deformation
σ𝑟 in surface
Radial Elastic σ𝐻 Radial
Compression Tension

High Strain rate plastic deformation

Large-strain evolves Radial Compression Zone
Radial Compression Zone – Changes from Elastic to Plastic Compression Region

 The machining process produces a radial compression ahead of the shear process.
 The stress reveres from compression to tension across the neutral axis.
9
 Types of chips
Types of chips
 Continuous chip
 Discontinuous chip
 Continuous chips with built-up-edge (BUE)
Discontinuous chips: Cutting strain (𝜀𝑐 ) > Fracture strain (𝜀𝑓 )
Happens at low cutting speeds when the workpiece material is strain-
hardened and temperature is low
Possible to produce during machining of ductile materials - if substrate
is plastically deformed beyond critical strain

Machining conditions for Discontinuous chip

 Very low/very high cutting speed Large depth of cut
 Tool having low stiffness Very low rake angle
 Insufficient effective cutting fluid
10
 Continuous Chips

 Chip flows over the rake surface of the tool

 Sticking may occur due to strong adhesion between tool
and newly-formed chip surface
 The tendency of continuous chip formation increases due
to factors that reduces cutting force
 Chips are produced during machining of most of ductile
materials under steady- state machining conditions

Continuous chip formation is promoted by

• Large rake angle and sharp cutting edge angle
• High cutting speed and low feed
• Low friction and efficient cutting fluid
11
 Continuous Chips with built-up edge (BUE)
o At specified pressure and temperature at tool-chip interface - instead of
chip sliding over the rake surface, a layer of chip material is fractured
and sticks to rake surface
o Carried away by chips or escape at flank face - inferior surface finish
Machining condition that promotes
continuous chips with BUE
Built-up edge
 Low cutting speed fragments
Chip
 Large depth of cut Tool
 Coarse feed rate Built-
up edge

High friction at the chip-tool

interface
Dull cutting edge
Substrate
Applicable for ductile material:
steel, aluminium and copper 12
 Representation of orthogonal cutting
Factors that affects the orthogonal cutting: Workpiece material, tool
material, cutting speed, feed rate and rake angle
Merchant’s assumption for 2D orthogonal Secondary
cutting model Depth of cut 𝑉𝑐
shear zone
 Tool is perfectly sharp (i.e. zero nose C
B
radius) and no contact along clearance Tool
face. V
 Shearing occurs in a plane A Workpiece
 Cutting edge is perpendicular to the Primary shear zone
cutting velocity.
 Formation of continuous chips without
BUE
Width of tool is greater than that of the workpiece
Uniform velocity of workpiece and Constant coefficient of friction
Shear stress of work material is independent of normal stress.
13
 Force diagram
For equilibrium condition it is assumed that the
force R and 𝑅′ are collinear and equal
R = R′ Chip
Tool
Components of forces
 Cutting force 𝐹𝑐 in the direction of the
cutting velocity 𝑉 and the feed force 𝐹𝑡 is
normal to 𝐹𝑐 . Workpiece
 Shear force 𝐹𝑠 along the shear plane and
normal force to shear plane i.e. (𝐹𝑛𝑠 ).
 Friction force 𝐹𝑓 along the tool face and 𝐹𝑛𝑡
normal to the tool face.

 Reaction forces are concentrated at tool point

 Trace a circle having diameter equal to R or R′ that passes through
the tool point
R= 𝐹𝑐 2 + 𝐹𝑡 2 ; R = 𝐹𝑠 2 + 𝐹𝑛𝑠 2 R= 𝐹𝑓 2 + 𝐹𝑛𝑡 2
14
 Force diagram
At shear plane
Chip 𝛼
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝜙 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝐹𝑛𝑠
𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝜙 Tool
𝐹𝑠
𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠 tan(𝜙 +𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝐹𝑐 𝜙
𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑡 𝛽−𝛼
tan 𝛽 = =𝜇 R
𝐹𝑛𝑡 𝛽 𝐹𝑓
Workpiece
where 𝛽 is friction angle, and 𝜇 is the
𝐹𝑛𝑡
coefficient of friction b/w the chip and
tool face Merchant force diagram
At tool face,
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼
𝐹𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼

𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼+𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 𝐹𝑡 + 𝐹𝑐 tan 𝛼

Coefficient of friction (𝜇) = = =
𝐹𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼−𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼 𝐹𝑐 − 𝐹𝑡 tan 𝛼 15
 Shear angle

Shear angle (𝜙) - shear plane creates with the cutting speed vector
L, W, and t are length, width and thickness for uncut chip
𝐿𝐶 , 𝑊𝐶 and 𝑡𝑐 are corresponding to chip
Volume conservation L × W × t = 𝐿𝐶 × 𝑊𝑐 × 𝑡𝐶
Assume W = 𝑊𝐶 for orthogonal machining; L × t = 𝐿𝑐 × 𝑡𝐶
𝑡 𝐿𝑐
Chip thickness ratio = = 𝑟𝑐
𝑡𝑐 𝐿

Length of shear plane AB (𝐿𝑠 ) is

expressed as
𝑡 𝑡𝐶
𝐿𝑠 = ; 𝐿𝑠 =
sin 𝜙 cos(𝜙−𝛼)
𝛼 - normal rake angle
𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝑟𝑐 = =
𝑡𝑐 cos(𝜙−𝛼)
𝑟𝑐 cos 𝛼
Shear angle 𝜙 = tan−1
1−𝑟𝑐 sin 𝛼 16
 Shear stress and normal stress
𝐹𝑠
Mean shear stress on shear plane 𝜏𝑚 =
𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑠 - shear plane area
𝑊× 𝑡
𝐴𝑠 =
sin 𝜙
𝑊, t - width and depth of cut

(𝐹𝑐 cos 𝜙 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝜙) sin 𝜙

𝜏𝑚 =
𝑊× 𝑡

The normal stress at the shear plane

𝐹𝑛𝑠 (𝐹𝑐 sin 𝜙 − 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝜙) sin 𝜙

𝜎𝑛 = =
𝐴𝑠 𝑊× 𝑡
17
 Velocity estimation
Velocity components of orthogonal cutting
 V = Cutting speed of workpiece relative to cutting tool in
direction of tool movement
 𝑉𝑠 = Shear velocity of chip relative to workpiece in the direction
of shear plane
 𝑉𝑐 = Velocity of chip relative to tool at the tool face

Velocity relation
Chip
𝑉𝑐 𝑉 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑐 𝛼
= = 𝛼 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑐
s𝑖𝑛 𝜙 cos(𝜙−𝛼) s𝑖𝑛(90−𝛼) 𝜙
V B
Tool
𝑉𝑐 V 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
V
= = t
𝜙
s𝑖𝑛 𝜙 cos(𝜙 − 𝛼) 𝑐𝑜s 𝛼
A
𝑉𝑐 s𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑉
= cos(𝜙−𝛼) = 𝑟𝑐 Workpiece

18
 Shear strain
Workpiece material shears a deck of
cards inclined to shear angle 𝜙.

Assume one card at a time moves

𝐵′ 𝐷′ 𝐷 ′ 𝐴′
Shear strain 𝜀𝑠 = + ′ ′
𝐷′ 𝐶 ′ 𝐷 𝐶

𝜀𝑠 = co𝑡 𝜙 + tan( 𝜙 − 𝛼)
co𝑠 𝛼
𝜀𝑠 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙−𝛼)
𝜏𝑚
𝑉𝑠
𝜀𝑠 =
𝑉 s𝑖𝑛 𝜙

19
𝜏𝑚
 Strain rate
Strain rate during machining process
Δ𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝜀𝑠ሶ = =
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑦

where Δ𝑡 is a time interval to achieve the shear strain

𝑉 𝑐𝑜s 𝛼
𝜀𝑠ሶ =
cos(𝜙−𝛼)Δ𝑦

How to relate between shear angle (𝜙) and friction angle (𝛽)

Ernest-Merchant theory

Assume that cutting operation occurs at the minimum energy

requirement and the shear stress reaches the maximum at the shear
plane that remains constant 20
 Shear angle (𝜙) and friction angle (𝛽)
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑅 cos 𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑅 cos 𝛽 − 𝛼 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏𝑚 𝐴𝑠

𝑊× 𝑡 𝜏𝑚 𝑊𝑡 cos(𝛽− 𝛼)
𝐴𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 =
sin 𝜙 s𝑖𝑛 𝜙 cos( 𝜙 + 𝛽−𝛼)

𝐹𝑠 R cos( 𝜙 + 𝛽−𝛼) sin 𝜙

𝜏𝑚 = = 𝐴𝑐 - cutting area (Wt)
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑐

Energy requirement 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑐 × 𝑉
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Friction angle i.e. 𝛽 is independent of the shear angle i.e. 𝜙. 𝑃 𝜙 =
sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙+𝛽−𝛼
𝑑𝑃
For the Minimum energy requirement: =0
𝑑𝜙
𝝅 𝜷 𝜶
i.e. cos( 2𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼) = 0 i.e. 𝝓 = − +
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

However, theoretical value of shear angle (𝜙) do not agree with experimental result
because
o shear and normal stress on the tool face not varies uniformly
o friction angle also varies along the contact length
21
 Shear angle (𝜙) and friction angle (𝛽)
Merchant’s assumption
𝜏𝑚 varies linearly with 𝜎𝑛 i.e. 𝜏𝑚 = 𝜏𝑜 + 𝑘𝜎𝑛
𝜏𝑜 is the shear stress when normal stress 𝜎𝑛 = 0 and k is material
constant.
Assume total power would be minimized
cos(𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑐 𝑉 = 𝜏𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝑉
s𝑖𝑛 𝜙 cos( 𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠 tan(𝜙 +𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝜎𝑛 = 𝜏𝑚 tan ( 𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼)

𝑑𝑃
Hence, =0
𝑑𝜙
2𝜙 = cot −1 𝑘 − 𝛽 + 𝛼

cot −1 𝑘 is the machining constant

22
 Heat generation in machining

Assumed that Machining Chip

Tool
operation follows first law of
𝑉c
thermodynamics i.e. total energy Secondary
evolved during machining deformation zone

converted into heat energy Primary shear Tertiary

zone deformation zone

Workpiece

Amount of heat generated at different zones

 Primary shear zone (due to plastic deformation of the metal)
~ 75%
 Secondary deformation zone (at chip-rake face of tool) - due to
friction b/w rake face and moving chip ~ 20%
 Tertiary deformation zone (tool sliding on the workpiece
machined surface) ~ 5%
23
 Heat generation in machining
 Rate of energy consumption during
machining Chip
Tool
𝐸𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐 × V 𝑉c
Secondary
 Assume this energy converted into deformation zone

heat at primary (𝐸𝑝 ) and secondary Primary shear Tertiary

zone (𝐸𝑠 ) only zone deformation zone

Workpiece

𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑠
Energy consumption takes place
specially at the shear plane due to
𝐸𝑝 = 𝐹𝑠 × 𝑉𝑠
plastic deformation of material as
well as at the tool face interface
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐹𝑓 × 𝑉𝑐

24
 Specific Energy Consumption

The total energy per unit volume of material removed is therefore

𝐹𝑐 𝑉 𝐹𝑐
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = = = 𝑘𝑠
𝑉𝑊𝑡 𝑊𝑡
where 𝑘𝑠 is the specific cutting resistance/energy; i.e. the cutting
force required to remove unit chip area
Specific Power Consumption  Total Power Consumption/MRR
MRR  Vfd
In Orthogonal Machining, fd  Wt (  As sin φ )
MRR  VWt  VAs sin 

𝐹𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝜏𝑚 𝑉𝑠
Shear energy per unit volume 𝑊𝑠𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑊𝑡 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝐹𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝐹𝑓
Friction energy per unit volume 𝑊𝑓𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑊𝑡 wtc
25
 Heat generation in machining

Total heat generated during machining is dispersed to

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑝 + 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄𝑤𝑝

The relative amounts of heat dissipated varies with mainly cutting

velocity

Approximately: chip (80%); Workpiece (10%); Tool (10%)

Heat passing to tool affects its life, wear resistance and hardness

Heat dissipation to workpiece affects dimensional accuracy

26
 Temperature at shear plane

Assume at primary deformation zone, the β% of shear energy

converted into heat energy

The average temperature at the shear plane is 𝑇𝑠

𝐸𝑝 = 𝐹𝑠 × 𝑉𝑠
From energy balance,

𝜌𝑡𝑉𝑤 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇0 = 𝛽𝐸𝑝 = 𝛽𝐹𝑠 × 𝑉𝑠

𝑉 𝑐𝑜s 𝛼
𝑉𝑠 =
cos(𝜙−𝛼)

𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝜙 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝜙
27
 Tool Life
Experimentally established that tool life equation:
V𝑇 𝑛 = 𝐶
where C and n are Taylor’s constant and Taylor’s exponents for tool and
work material.
Other important factors which affects tool life are: uncut thickness and width
of cut.
By considering these factors, generalized Taylor equation can be written as
V 𝑡𝑥 𝑆𝑦 𝑇𝑛 = 𝐶′
where t is depth of cut (mm), and S is the feed rate (mm/rev).
Important geometric parameter of tool - rake angle and clearance angle
significantly affects the Tool life
28
 Tool Life
V4 V3 V2 V1 C
Flank wear (𝑉𝐵 )

Allowable flank
wear

V4> V3> V2> V1

T4 T3 T2 T1 Cutting Time
Log T 2000

Cutting speed v (m/min)

𝑉𝐵 = constant
V4, T4
V3, T3 1/n=a/b
a
V2, T2
b
1 min V1, T1
50

C Log V 0.5 100

Tool life T (min)
 Tool Wear
During machining some progressive forms of Tool wear is observed

o Crater wear: it is characterized by formation of crater due to hot

chip flowing over the tool face.

o Flank wear: it is in the form of a wear land that is generated as

newly cut surface of the workpiece rubs against the cutting tool.

o Notch wear: it occurs locally in the area of the main cutting

edge. It is caused by hard surface layers and work-hardened
burrs

o Thermal cracks: it is caused by thermal shock loads during

interrupted cutting operation.

30
 Physical modeling approach

 Analytical models represents basic physics and mechanics of metal

cutting, using mathematical relationships.
 Shear angle, cutting forces, and temperatures are estimated
 Analytical models are simplified by assumptions
For example: Primary shear deformation zone may not be a plane
 Orthogonal cutting model - discussed

Numerical model: Finite element (FE) method,

Finite volume (FV), finite difference (FD) method
Solution domain – FE mesh associated with
workpiece
Formulation: Eulerian, Lagrangian, arbitrary
Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE)
31
 Physical modeling approach

Eulerian
 FE grid is spatially fixed with predefined control volume
 Material flows through the domain
 It is free from element distortion problems
 No remeshing is necessary
 Beneficial in terms of computational cost
Lagrangian
 Elements deform during cutting
 Appropriate for metal cutting simulation because of
unconstrained material flow due to evolution of the chip
 Not necessary to predefine the geometric shape of the chip
 Remeshing is necessary
 Computationally expensive 32
 Physical modeling approach
ALE
 FE mesh is allowed to move arbitrarily relative to the workpiece
 Easily reduced to either Eulerian or Lagrangian
 In metal cutting Eulerian approach is followed near the tool tip
(fixed boundary) and Lagrangian is followed to flow of material at
the free boundaries

Constitutive equations – deformation behavior (Stress, strain

distribution)
Material behavior – elastic-plastic
Plasticity model: von-Mises yield surface and isotropic hardening
 Strain-rate dependency
 Johnson–Cook model (strain, strain rate, temperature)
Heat conduction equation – temperature distribution
Material flow – solid mechanics and fluid mechanics based approach
33
 Problems
Problem 1: In an orthogonal cutting process, the rake angle of the tool
is 0° and the cutting speed used is 150 m/min. What is the total power
consumption during this machining process? The thrust force is
measured as 420 kN and assume the coefficient of friction between the
tool and the chip is 0.7.
Chip 𝛼

Solution: 𝐹𝑛𝑠
𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝑡 Tool
= = 𝜇 since 𝛼 = 0 𝐹𝑠
𝐹𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑐
𝐹𝑐 𝜙
420
= 0.7 𝐹𝑡 𝛽−𝛼
𝐹𝑐 R
𝛽 𝐹𝑓
𝐹𝑐 = 600 N Workpiece

150 𝐹𝑛𝑡
Power = 𝐹𝑐 × V = 600 × = 1.5 kW
60

34
 Problems
Problem 2: What is the average temperature of the shear plane for an orthogonal cutting?
Use the following data to solve the problem.
Parameter value
Tool rake angle 12°
Shear stress of work material 300 N/m2
Uncut chip thickness 0.1 mm
Width of cut 2 mm
Chip thickness ratio 0.37 mm
Cutting speed 2 m/s
Density of workpiece 6000 kg/m3
Specific heat of work material 550 J/kg K
Solution: For temperature estimation at shear plane, the shear angle 𝜑 is determined
by
𝑟𝑐 cos 𝛼
𝜙 = tan−1 ( 1−𝑟 sin 𝛼
)
𝑐

𝑡
𝑟𝐶 = = 0.37
𝑡𝑐 35
 Problems
Therefore,
0.37× cos 12
𝜙 = tan−1 = 21°24′
1−0.37×sin 12

• Shear stress = 300 N/m2

Area of shear plane 𝐴𝑠 is given by
𝑊× 𝑡 2 × 0.1
𝐴𝑠 = = sin 21°24′ = 0.55 mm2
sin 𝜙
• Shear force 𝐹𝑠 is
𝐹𝑠 = 300 × 0.55 = 165 N

• Shear velocity is 𝑉𝑠
V × 𝑐𝑜s 𝛼 2 × 𝑐𝑜s 12
𝑉𝑠 = cos(𝜙−𝛼) = cos(21°24′−12) = 1.98 𝑚/𝑠

 The average temperature at the shear plane,𝑇𝑠 is given by

0.9 𝐹𝑠 × 𝑉𝑠 0.9×165×1.98
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇0 = = 6000×0.1×10−3 ×2×10−3×2×550
𝜌𝑡𝑉𝑤 𝐶𝑝

= 223℃ 36
 Problems
Problem 3: In an orthogonal cutting operation, the parameters are
given as follows:
Parameter value
Rake angle 45° What is the coefficient of friction,
Shear angle 45° shear power if shear velocity is 15
Cutting force 2000 N m/min, and the cutting power?
Feed force 0
Chip 𝛼

𝐹𝑛𝑠
Solution:
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 cos 𝛼 Tool
𝐹𝑠
𝐹𝑐 𝜙
𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐 sin 45° 𝐹𝑡 𝛽−𝛼
R
𝛽 𝐹𝑓
𝐹𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝛼 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝛼 Workpiece
𝐹𝑛𝑡
𝐹𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 45° 37
 Problems
𝐹𝑓
The coefficient of friction becomes: 𝜇 = 𝐹 = 1
𝑛𝑡
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 𝜙 − 𝐹𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹𝑐 cos 45°

𝐹𝑠 = 1414.21 N

𝐹𝑠 ×𝑉𝑠
Shear power 𝑃𝑠 (kW) 𝑃𝑠 =
60,000
𝐹𝑠 ×𝑉𝑠 1414.21 ×15
𝑃𝑠 = = W= 0.353 kW
60 60

Cutting power 𝑃𝑐 (kW)

V 𝑐𝑜s 𝛼
𝑉𝑠 = cos(𝜙−𝛼)
𝑉𝑠 cos(𝜙−𝛼) 15 ×𝑐𝑜s(0)
V= = = 21.21 m/min
𝑐𝑜s 𝛼 cos 45°

𝐹𝑐 ×𝑉 2000×21.21
𝑃𝑐 = = = 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝐖 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝐤𝐖
60 60
38
 Problems
Problem 4: The durability of a cutting tool is 25 minutes at a cutting
speed 120 m/min and 80 min at a cutting speed of 60 m/min. what is
(a) Taylor’s constants, (b) cutting speed for a tool life T = 1 min, (c)
tool life for V = 1 m/min, and (d) cutting speed for durability of 100
min.
Solution: a) For Taylor’s constants:
As we know that, tool life equation is given by
VT n = C
120× (25) n = C
n = 0.594
n
60 ×(80) = C
C = 810.2
n n
120× (25) = 60 ×(80)

39
 Problems
Solution: b) For tool life T = 1 min, cutting speed will be:
VT n = C

V = C = 810.2 m/min

c) Tool life for cutting speed V = 1m/min

Tn = C

T 0.594 = 810.2

T = 78815.3 min

d) For durability of 100 min, cutting speed will be:

V(100)0.594 = 810.2

V = 52.55 m/min
40
 Problems
Problem 5: A seamless tube which is having 25 mm outer diameter is turned on the lathe the
cutting velocity of tool relative to workpiece is 8 m/min. Rake angle = 30º, depth of cut = 0.15
mm and length of chip = 50 mm. Horizontal cutting force of the tool on workpiece = 150 N
whereas vertical cutting force required to hold the tool against work = 60 N. Estimate:
a) Coefficient of friction
b) Chip thickness ratio
c) Shear plane angle
d) Velocity of chip with respect to workpiece
e) Velocity of chip with respect to tool

Solution:
V = 10 m/min, 𝛼 = 30º, 𝑙𝑐 = 60 mm
Assuming no expansion along width
t × 𝜋 ×D = 𝑙𝑐 × 𝑡𝑐
25 mm
𝑡 𝑙𝑐
𝑟𝐶 = =
𝑡𝑐 𝜋 ×D
t = 1.5 mm
50
𝑟𝐶 = = 0.636
𝜋 ×25
tool

𝐹𝑐 = 150 N, 𝐹𝑡 = 60 N 41
 Problems
𝐹𝑐 tan 𝛼 + 𝐹𝑡 150 tan 30 + 60
a) Coefficient of friction, 𝜇 = = 150 − 60 tan 30 = 1.27
𝐹𝑐 −𝐹𝑡 tan 𝛼

b) Chip thickness ratio, 𝑟𝐶 = 0.636

c) Shear plane angle (𝜙)

𝑟 cos 𝛼 0.636 cos 30
tan 𝜙 = 1−𝑟 sin 𝛼 = 1−0.636 sin 30
𝝓 = 38.9º

d) Velocity of chip with respect to workpiece,

V 𝑐𝑜s 𝛼 8 × cos 30
𝑉𝑠 = cos(𝜙−𝛼) = cos(38.92−30)
= 7 m/min

e) Velocity of chip with respect to tool,

𝑉𝑐 = V . 𝑟 = 0.636 × 8
= 5.1 m/min
42
 Summary

 Orthogonal cutting is of two dimensional where cutting

edge is perpendicular to velocity vector
 In traditional machining, the cutting tool is in contact
with workpiece where relative velocity and tool
hardness are significant
 Rake angle is having high influence on cutting force
whereas clearance angle is having list significant
 Continuous chip formation without BUE is more
desirable for ductile material
 Maximum heat is generated at the primary deformation
zone
 In metal cutting use of ALE approach is more suitable
for overall modelling of the process 43
Thank you
for your kind attention

End of Module 3

44