Chemical-Technology Compressed

CHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY
For
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
SYLLABUS
Inorganic chemical industries (sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlor-alkali industry),
fertilizers (Ammonia, Urea, SSP and TSP); natural products industries (Pulp and Paper,
Sugar, Oil, and Fats); petroleum refining and petrochemicals; polymerization industries
(polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polyester synthetic fibers).
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CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. INORGANIC INDUSTRIES
1.1 Sulfuric Acid 1
1.2 Chlor Alkali Industry 2
Gate Questions 4
2. FERTILIZER
2.1 Ammonia Production 9
2.2 Urea 10
2.3 Single Super Phosphate & Triple Phosphate 11
2.4 Ammonia Phosphate 11
2.5 Nitric Acid 11
Gate Questions 12
3. NATURAL INDUSTRY
3.1 Paper & Pulp Industry 15
3.2 Oils & Fat Industry 16
3.3 Soap Industry 17
3.4 Glycerin 18
3.5 Detergents 18
3.6 Sugar Industry 18
Gate Questions 20
4. POLYMER INDUSTRY
4.1 Polymers 23
4.2 Fibers 23
4.3 Polyamides 23
4.4 Polyester 23
4.5 Acrylic Fibers 26
4.6 Cellulosic Fiber 26
4.7 Thermoplastic Polymer 26
4.8 Thermosetting 26
Gate Questions 29
5. PETROLEUM REFINING 34
5.1 Classification of Crude 34
5.2 Properties of Petroleum Products 35
5.3 Petroknock 36
5.4 Calorific Value 37
5.5 Cracking 37
5.6 Reforming 38
5.7 Sweeting Process 39
Gate Questions 42
6. PETROCHEMICAL
6.1 Introduction 46
6.2 Formation of HCHO in Two steps 46
Gate Questions 49
1 INORGANIC INDUSTRIES
1.1 SULFURIC ACID

concentration is done with 97% H 2 SO 4 in
Manufacturing of sulfuric acid is done absorption column.
by two processes:
Oleum tower reaction:
I. Contact Process
II. Lead Chamber Process H 2SO 4 + SO3 H

→ 2S2 O 7
CONTACT PROCESS Note : Oleum is mixture of H 2 SO 4 & SO 3 .

20% Oleum means 20 kg SO 3 & 80 kg
Firstly Sulfur and oxygen from moisture H 2 SO 4 .
free air enters burner. Moisture is removed
with H 2SO 4 or other dehydrating agents. The overall process is exothermic & the
Dry air is required to avoid corrosions. The moles of product is less than the moles of
sulphur which enters the burner is reactants so low temperature and high
generally obtained by either Frasch pressure favours the process.
process (sulphur obtained by mining
process) or Claus process (sulphur
obtained from hydrotreating). In the
burner the sulphur and oxygen are burned
and converted to sulphur dioxide.
S + O 2 
→ SO 2
The mixture containing 7-10 % SO 2 & 11-
15 % O 2 is sent to multi stage catalytic
converter. The active catalyst in multi stage
catalytic converter is Vanadium pentaoxide
(V 2 O 5 ). Multi stage catalytic converter
consists of 2 stages. First is high
temperature stage followed by inter-stage
cooling and enters low temperature stage.
1ststage-500-600 °C ; 80% conv.

2ndstage-400-450 °C ; 97% conv.
SO 2 + 0.5 O 2 
V2 O5
→ SO3
SO 3 product is cooled down and absorbed

by oleum in oleum tower followed by
absorption to desire
Most commonly contact process is only
used for sulfuric acid rather than Chamber
process because conversion in Chamber
process is less than 78% only.
caustic soda product containing 2% NaCl
In place of V 2 O 5 ; Platinum (Pt) can also be and 0.1-0.5% NaClO on a dry basis.
used as catalyst but it is more expensive Commercial grade caustic can be obtained
than V 2 O 5 .
by evaporating the solution to produce
saturated 73% NaOH liquor, fused to flake,
Diaphragm Mercury
Membrane
Less purified More
Most granular or stick caustic. In the process we
brine is purified
purified can use other cells as well instead of
required brine is
brine is diaphragm cell. The difference between
required
required them are mentioned below.
10-12% 70% NaOH
% NaOH is
NaOH is is produced
between Faraday law of electrolysis
produced both of them
It uses It uses It uses
asbestos mercury membrane One gram of equivalent weight of matter
Produces Cl 2 Produces Produces (NaOH) is deposited in electrode for 96500
that contains pure Cl 2 Cl 2 that coulombs of electricity passed through the
O2 contains O 2 electrode.
Energy Energy It consumes
consumption consumption 77% of 2NaCl + 2H 2 O → 2NaOH + H 2 + Cl2
is less is more electrolytic
Decomposition efficiency
cell
= ηDe
( Gm. Eq. weight of NaOH produced ) ×100
( Gm. Eq. weight of NaCl Charged )
1.2 Chlor alkali industry
Current efficiency
Electrolytic process for NaOH
 Theoretical amount of current required to 
 
ηc   ×100
produce 1 gram equivalent of NaOH
Brine solution =
flows through pipelines to a
 Actual amount of current required to 
storage reservoir and then through a brine  
 produce 1 gram equivalent of NaOH. 
treatment system. Caustic soda, soda ash,
and barium carbonate removes calcium,
Soda ash (Na 2 CO 3 )
magnesium and iron salts which would clog
Soda ash is generally manufactured using
up diaphragms. This purified saturated
Solvay process as compared to earlier
brine is heated and electrolyzed in a
days where its production took place by
diaphragm cell.
Leblanc process. Soda ash is sold on basis
The cell operating at 45-55%
of Na 2 O content which is generally 58%.
decomposition efficiency, discharges a 10-
Raw materials for Solvay process are
12 % solution of caustic soda with about an
limestone, brine, ammonia and
equal concentration of NaCl.
coke/natural gas.
Multiple effect evaporation concentrates

Reactions
the cell liquor to 50 % NaOH solution. The
precipitated salt is separated, centrifuged,
washed and then slurried with treated
brine. Salt separator overflow is 50%
→ NH 4 ( CO3 )
NH 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O 
2
CaCl 2 is the major pollutant in this process.
 Ammonium 
 
 bicarbonate 
NH 4 ( CO3 ) + NaCl 
→ NaHCO3 + NH 4 Cl
2
NH 4 Cl + CaO 
→ NH 3 + CaCl2
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 In the converter of the contact process (a) P-1, Q-3 (b) P-1, Q-2
for the manufacturing of H2SO4, the (c) P-3, Q-1 (d) P-2, Q-3
equilibrium conversion of SO2.... (A) ....
with increase in the temperature and.... Q.5 Match the processes in Group I with
(B)..... with increase in mole ratio of SO2 to the products in Group II.
air. Group l Group ll
[GATE-2001] P DCDA process 1 Sodium hydroxide
A B Q Mercury cell 2 Sulphuric acid
(a) increases decreases 3 Sodium carbonate
(b) decreases increases 4 Nitric acid
(c) increases increases [GATE-2004]
(d) decreases decreases (a) P-1, Q-4 (b) P-1, Q-3
(c) P-2, Q-3 (d) P-2, Q-1
Q.2 In the manufacturing of sulphuric acid
from elemental sulphur, which of the Q.6 Match the process in Group I with the
following sequences of major operations is catalysts used in Group II.
following? Group l Group ll
[GATE-2002]
P Sulphuric acid 1 Platinum
(a) Furnace “Converter “Absorber manufacture
(b) Furnace “Evaporator “Absorber Q Vegetable oil 2 Vanadium pentoxide
(c) Furnace “Converter “Evaporator hydrogenation
(d) Converter “Furnace “Absorber 3 Iron
4 Raney Nickel
Q.3 The catalytic converter for conversion
of SO2 to SO3 by contact process should [GATE-2004]
have a feed with SO2 content between (a) P-3, Q-1 (b) P-2, Q-1
[GATE-2003] (c) P-2, Q-4 (d) P-4, Q-2
(a) 2-5% (b) 7-10%
(c) 12-15% (d) 20-25% Q.7 Match the products in Group I with
the catalysts used for its production in
Group II.
Q.4 Match the items in Group I with the
Group l Group ll
items in Group II.
P Nitric acid 1 Silver oxide
Group l Group ll
Q Formaldehyde 2 Raney nickel
P. Calcium 1. Fertilizer
3 Activated carbon
ammonium industry
4 Pt-Rh
nitrate
[GATE-2005]
Q.CaCl2-NaCl 2. Paper and pulp
liquor industry (a) P-1, Q-2 (b) P-2, Q-3
3. Soda ash industry (c) P-3, Q-4 (d) P-4, Q-1
[GATE-2003]
Q.8 Match the products in Group I with the (a) nickel (b) iron
raw materials in Group II. (c) platinum (d) palladium
Group l Group ll
P Caustic soda 1 Ammonia and Q.12 Match the products in Group I with
sulphuric acid the name of the processes in Group II.
Q Soda ash 2 Sodium carbonate Group l Group ll
and slaked lime P Sodium 1 Haber
3 Salt and limestone carbonate
4 Salt and sulphuric Q Ammonia 2 Solvay
acid R Sulphuric acid 3 Fischer-
[GATE-2005] Tropsch
(a) P-2, Q-3 (b) P-1, Q-2 4 Contact
(c) P-3, Q-4 (d) P-4, Q-1 [GATE-2009]
P Q R
Q.9 Pair the following reactors in Group I (a) 2 1 4
with their products in Group II. (b) 4 1 2
Group l Group ll (c) 3 4 2
P Arc furnace 1 Citric acid (d) 2 1 3
Q Fermenter 2 Calcium
carbide Q.13 Match the products in Group I with
R Hydrogenator 3 Saturated fats the material in Group II.
4 Alum Group l Group ll
P Ethylene 1 Natural gas
[GATE-2006] Q Methanol 2 Synthesis gas
(a) P-4, Q-1, R-3 (b) P-2, Q-1, R-3 R Pthalic 3 Naphtha
(c) P-4, Q-3, R-1 (d) P-2, Q-3, R-1 anhydride
4 Naphthalene
Q. 10 Which one of the following process [GATE-2009]
sequences is used in the production of P Q R
synthesis gas? (a) 1 2 3
[GATE-2008] (b) 2 1 4
(a) Desulphurization “steam reforming” (c) 3 1 4
Hot K2CO3 cycle (d) 3 2 4
(b) Steam reforming “Desulphurization”
Hot K2CO3 cycle Q.14 In the manufacturing of caustic soda
(c) Hot K2CO3 cycle “Steam reforming” from brine, which one of the following
Desulphurization statements is true?
(d) Hot K2CO3 cycle “Desulphurization” [GATE-2010]
Steam reforming (a) The membrane cell cannot produce
concentrated NaOH solution, and cannot
Q.11 The active component of catalysts tolerate calcium and magnesium ions in
used in steam reforming of methane to the feed brine
produce synthesis gas is (b) The membrane cell cannot produce
[GATE-2009] concentrated NaOH solution, and can
tolerate calcium and magnesium ions in oxidation of SO2 is carried out in multiple
the feed brine stages mainly to
(c) The membrane cell can produce [GATE-2013]
concentrated NaOH solution, and cannot (a) Increase the reaction rate by providing
tolerate calcium and magnesium ions in inter-stage heating
the feed brine (b) Increase the overall conversion by
(d) The membrane cell can produce
concentrated NaOH solution, and can providing inter-stage heating
tolerate calcium and magnesium ions in (c) Increase the overall conversion by
the feed brine providing inter-stage cooling
(d) Decrease the overall conversion by
Q.15 Match the processes in Group I with removing Sulphur trioxide between stages
the products in Group II.
Group I Group II Q.18 Decomposition efficiency of an
P Claus process 1. Syngas
electrolytic cell used for producing NaOH
Q Linde process 2. Oxygen
R Lurgi process 3. sulphur is defined as
[GATE-2010] [GATE-2014]
P Q R (a) (Grams of NaOH produced/ grams of
(a) 1 2 3 NaCl decomposed) x 100
(b) 2 1 3 (b) (Grams of NaOH produced/ grams of
(c) 3 1 2 NaCl charged) x 100
(d) 3 2 1 (c) (Gram equivalent of NaOH produced/
gram equivalent of NaCl charged) x 100
Q.16 The correct sequence of process
equipment used in the production of (d) (theoretical current to produce one
sulphuric acid from sulphur by contact gram rquivalent/actual current to
process is produce one gram equivalent) x 100
[GATE-2011]
(a) burner, catalytic converter, 98% Q.19 India has no elemental Sulphur
sulphuric acid absorption tower, oleum deposits that can be economically
absorption column exploited. In India, which one of the
(b) Catalytic converter, oleum absorption following industries produces elemental
column, 98% sulphuric acid absorption Sulphur as a byproduct?
tower, burner [GATE-2016]
(c) Burner, catalytic converter, oleum
(a) Coal carbonization plants
absorption column, 98% sulphuric acid
absorption tower (b) Petroleum refineries
(d) Burner, oleum absorption column, (c) Paper and pulp industries
catalytic converter, 98% sulphuric acid (d) Iron and steel making plants
absorption tower
Q. 20 Two pulp and paper plants P & Q use
Q.17 In the manufacturing of sulphuric the same quality bamboo as a raw
acid by contact process the catalytic
material. The chemicals used in their
digester are as follows:
Chemicals Plant P Plant Q
NaOH Yes No
Na2S Yes No
Na2CO3 Yes Yes
NaHCO3 No Yes
Na2SO3 No Yes
Which of the following is correct?
[GATE-2016]
(a) Plant P and plant Q both use sulfite
process
(b) Plant P and plant Q both use kraft
process
(c) Plant P uses sulfite process
(d) Plant P uses kraft process
Q.21 The DCDA process is used for the

manufacture of
[GATE-2017]
(a) Urea (b) Sulphuric acid
(c) Nitric acid (d) Ammonia
Q. 22 Match the following

1. Fluidized bed P. Paper making
2. Multistage Q. Sodium hydroxide
Reactor with
interstage cooling
3. Fourdrinier R. SO2 oxidation
Machine
4. Diaphragm cell S. Catalytic cracking
[GATE-2017]
(a) 1-S, 2-R, 3-P, 4-Q
(b) 1-S, 2-R, 3-Q, 4-P
(c) 1-R, 2-S, 3-P, 4-Q
(d) 1-R, 2-S, 3-Q, 4-P
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b a b a d c d a
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
b a a a b c d c
17 18 19 20 21 22
c c b d b a
2 FERTILIZER
2.1 Ammonia production Shift converter
Firstly the natural gas containing sulphur It consists of 2 stage shift converter. High
in form of sulphide, disulphide, mercaptans temperature shift converter followed by
etc. which are poisonous to catalyst enter Low temperature shift converter.
desulphurisation unit to remove sulphur. It In first converter Iron (Fe) is used as
is two-step process. First hydrogenation of catalyst while in second converter Copper
sulphur compounds in presence of catalyst (Cu) is used as catalyst.
Cobalt-molybdenum. Hydrogen reacts with
organic sulphur and forms H 2 S. H 2 S is ( CO + H O ) 
 ( CO + H + Heat )
2 2 2
absorbed by Zinc Oxide in sulphur
absorber where temperature is 350-390 °C Stripper
and pressure is 40 bar. When heated to 350
°C everything becomes vapour and is The solution containing CO, CO 2 , H 2 , N 2
passed through desulphurisation reactor. now enters stripping column to eliminate
Here H 2 S is separated at top sweetened CO 2 . CO 2 is separated by benefit solution
hydrocarbon is obtained at bottom. i.e. K 2 CO 3 or ethanol amine solution.
Reformer Methanation
Sweetened hydrocarbon mixed with steam Gas stream containing N 2 , H 2 , small

and passes through tube having nickel as amount of CO and unabsorbed CO 2 now
catalyst in it. enters methanation column. CO and CO 2
should be removed as they act as catalytic
 Hydrocarbon   CO + H 2  poison for ammonia synthesis. So their
    concentration should be reduced below 10
 +  
→  + Lower 
ppm. Hence CO and CO 2 are converted to
 H O ( Steam )   Hydrocarbon 
 2    CH 4 by hydrogenation over nickel catalyst.
It then goes to secondary reformer in ( CO + H ) 

2 → CH Ni Catalyst
on Al support 4
which reforming takes place in presence of
air.
Ammonia reactor
 CO + H 2 + air   CO + CO 2  Here only 20% conversion into ammonia is

  
→
 + H + N 
 +Hydrocarbon   2 2 
achieved and remaining H 2 and N 2 are sent
to refrigeration cycle where mixture is
All these reformed gases are sent to main cooled down to -35 °C . It is a two-step
recovery boiler where large amount of heat process where pressure reduces and liquid
is released and temperature reduces to 300 NH 3 separates out and sent to urea plant
°C . and mixed with CO 2
Process description
NH 3 and CO 2 are compressed separately

under a pressure of
185 atm and 180 °C temperature and
enters the reactor.
2NH 3 + CO 2 
→ NH 4 COONH 2
 Ammonium 
 
 carbamate 
From the reactor urea, ammonium

carbamate, unreacted NH 3 , CO 2 and H 2 O
streams are heated and being pressurized
and sent to Flash evaporator operating at
27 atm. The carbamate in urea are fed to
Flash drum at 1 atm pressure followed by
Vacuum Evaporator which produces 99%
urea.
NH 4 COONH 2 
→ NH 2 CONH 2 + H 2 O
( Urea )
The reaction takes place in presence of

Fe 2 O 3 catalyst along with promoter like
Silicon, Zirconium or Aluminium Oxide. It is
used in manufacturing of nitro compound
fertilizer such as ammonium nitrate,
ammonium phosphate etc.
2.2 UREA
Urea is a nitrogen fertilizer which contains

40-42 % of nitrogen. It is also used to make
urea formaldehyde resin. The main raw
material required for urea production is
CO 2 and NH 3 .
These molten urea is then sprayed to a sloping rotary drum. Water is sprayed on
Prilling tower where the molten urea is the tumbling solids to form free flowing
sprayed from top and cooled air comes in granules and to enhance the acidulation
contact with it in cross current flow. The reaction. Product is dried in a rotary dryer
temperature in the tower is maintained just and packaged.
above the melting point of urea. The
residence time is kept very small i.e. 1–2 For triple super phosphate the process is
seconds to avoid biuret formation. similar but H 3 PO 4 acid is used instead of
H 2 SO 4 .
2NH 2 CONH 2 
→ NH 2 CONHCONH 2 + NH 3
( Biuret ) 
  Ca 3 ( PO 4 )2  3 . CaF2
 
 
10 CaH ( PO ) 
→ 4 4 2

2.3 Single super phosphate & triple 
 + 14H PO

  
   + 2HF 
super phosphate 3 4
Triple Superphosphate
As seen in figure initially phosphate rocks
are crushed in a Jaw crusher and ground to 2.4 Ammonium Phosphate
100 mesh in a Hammer or Ring mill. A
continuous feed of dilute sulphuric acid It acts as a fire retarding agent for wood,
(65-70%) and powdered rock phosphate is paper and clothes.
monitored by automatic control into steel
trough, lead-lined and brick-lined, covered 2.5 Nitric acid
with a hood to collect SiF 4 and HF fumes.
The rotating mechanism is made of cast Ammonia can be burned in air in presence
iron blades on a square shaft moves the of platinum and 10% rhodium and NO
product gradually forward at the rate of 0.2 formed can be oxidised further and
to 0.5 meter per minute through the 12-15 absorbed in water to form nitric acid.
meters reactor-conveyor unit. With proper Extractive distillation is used to increase
grinding and acid control the reaction is the concentration of nitric acid.
effectively complete and can be sent
directly to a granulator. The older method
was to store for a nominal 24 hour period
to ensure complete reaction.
 
 Ca 3 ( PO 4 )2  3 .CaF2 
  3CaH ( PO ) .7CaSO 
 →
 
4 4 2 4

 + 7H 2SO 4( aq.)   
   + 2HF 
Superphosphate
The SiF 4 and HF fumes along with CO 2 are
scrubbed in water and the silica is removed
by NaCl according to following reaction.
4 HF + SiO 2 
→ SiF4 + 2 H 2 O
3SiF4 + 2 H 2 O 
→ 2 H 2SiF6 + SiO 2
H 2SiF6 + 2 NaCl  → Na 2SiF6 + 2 HCl
The porous crumbly material formed is
mixed with rock dust from grinding
sections of the plant and fed to the inside of
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Consider the production of ammonia

from methane and air as raw materials. Group l Group ll
The catalysts used are ..... (A) ...... for steam P Urea 1 Ammonia and carbon
reforming of methane and ..... (B) ..... for dioxide
ammonia synthesis. Q Polyester 2 Dimethyl terephthalate
[GATE-2002] and ethylene glycol
A B 3 Ammonia and carbon
(a) Ni/Al2O3 Cu-ZnO/Al2O3 monoxide
(b) Fe/Al2O3 Cu-ZnO/Al2O3 4 Hexamethylene
(c) Ni/Al2O3 Fe/Al2O3 diamine and adipic acid
(d) Fe/Al2O3 Ni/Al2O3 [GATE-2004]
(a) P-1, Q-4 (b) P-3, Q-2
Q.2 The composition of fresh feed to the (c) P-3, Q-2 (d) P-1, Q-2
high temperature high pressure urea
autoclave is Q.5 For making superphosphate by
[GATE-2003] acidulation of phosphate rock, use of nitric
(a) excess liquid ammonia and liquified acid is desirable because
CO2 [GATE-2010]
(b) excess liquid ammonia and (a) nitric acid is less expensive than
compressed CO2 gas sulphuric acid
(c) excess liquid ammonia and excess (b) the availability of nitrogen enhances
compressed CO2 gas the value of the superphosphate as a
(d) compressed NH3 gas and excess fertilizer
compressed CO2 (c) the process produces non-hygroscopic
superphosphate
(d) the process produces superphosphate
Q.3 Prilling tower is found in the flow
having higher phosphorus content then
sheet for the manufacturing of
the sulphuric acid
[GATE-2004]
(a) ammonia
Q.6 The main unit processes used for the
(b) urea
production of hydrogen from natural gas
(c) superphosphate
are steam reforming (SR), pressure swing
(d) triple superphosphate
adsorption (PSA), low temperature water
gas shift reaction (LT WGS), high
Q.4 Match the products in Group I with the
temperature water gas shift reaction (HT
raw materials in Group II.
WGS). The correct sequence of these in the
plant is
[GATE-2012]
(a) SR;LT WGS;HT WGS;PSA
(b) PSA;SR;LT WGS;HT WGS
(c) SR;HT WGS;LT WGS;PSA
(d) PSA;HT WGS;LT WGS;SR
Q.7 Match the following raw materials

with their final product
1.Single super P.Phosphate rock +
phosphate sulphuric acid + NH3
2.Triple super Q.Brine
phosphate
3.Diammonium R.Phosphate rock +
phosphate sulphuric acid
4.Caustic Soda S.Phosphate rock +
phosphoric acid
[GATE-2015]
(a) 1-Q, 2-R, 3-S, 4-P
(b) 1-S, 2-P, 3-Q, 4-R
(c) 1-R, 2-S, 3-P, 4-Q
(d) 1-S, 2-R, 3-P, 4-Q
Q.8 Select the wrong statement regarding

water gas shift converters from the list
below.
[GATE-2015]
(a) Inter stage cooling is provided between
the two stages of shift converters
(b) Usually high temperature shift reactor
has an iron based catalyst and low
temperature shift reactor has a copper
based catalyst
(c) HTS reactor followed by LTS
(d) LTS reactor followed by HTS
Q.9 The purpose of methanation reaction

used in ammonia plants is to
[GATE-2017]
(a) Remove CO as it is a catalyst poison
(b) Increase the amount of hydrogen
(c) Remove sulphur as it is catalytic poison
(d) Utilize methane as a catalyst for
ammonia synthesis
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C B B D D C C D A
3 NATURAL INDUSTRY
Blowdown Valve & Blow Tank:

3.1 Paper & Pulp industry
First the blowdown valve reduces pressure
Pulp is obtained from bamboo, wood, and then the mixture enters into blow tank.
bagasse etc. pulping means disintegration Here heat is recovered in the form of steam.
of bulky fibrous material into small fibers. The blow tank has high concentration of
These is done by 3 modes pulp and low concentration of water.
I.Mechanical Screens & Filters:

II.Chemical
III.Semi-Chemical Pulp is screened to remove wood knots and
undigested residue. Pulp is filtered to
Chemical method is most widely practised separate black liquor.
as the energy needed for mechanical
method is very high. Chemical pulping can Bleaching:
be done by 2 processes.
Bleaching is done to produce white paper.
I.Sulfate Kraft Process Earlier bleaching was done using chlorine
II.Sulfite Process but it used to release dioxins and other
harmful products which are carcinogenic.
Now-a-days bleaching is done with ozone,
SULFATE KRAFT PROCESS hydrogen peroxide, oxygen, chlorine
dioxide etc. They produce white paper by
It is most widely used process. It is an removing small amounts of lignin which
alkaline process. The presence of sodium remains after digestion.
sulphide makes bleaching of pulp easy and
paper produced has better strength. Recovery of black liquor:
Manufacturing process: Black liquor which contains 95-98% of

digested chemicals is recovered to reduce
Chipper Bin: pollution & making the process more
economical by recovering the chemicals
Logs are conveyed to the chipper where the which are added in digester tank.
wood is reduced to a size of 2-5 cm of flat
chips. Size reduction is done to maximize Multi effect evaporator:
penetration of process chemicals by
increasing surface area. It concentrates the black liquor from 15-
18% to 60-65%.
Digester Tower:
Mixing Tank & Boiler:
Here digestion is done to free lignin and
other non-cellulosic component by adding In mixing tank make up chemicals i.e.
NaOH and Na 2 S (white liquor). The Na 2 SO 4 and S are added. It then enters
temperature in digester tower is boiler which produces molten slag. Here
maintained at 170 °C and residence time is the organic carbon present in black liquor
90 minutes. is burned.
2NaR + Air → Na 2 CO3 + Air I.Magnifite process:
Na 2SO 4 + 2C → Na 2S + 2CO 2 Mg(HSO 3 ) 2 & SO 2
II.Natural sulphite:
Dissolving Tank:
Na 2 CO 3 , NaHCO 3 , Na 2 SO 3
The molten chemical is smelt dissolved
with cold water and yield green liquor.
III.Acid Sulfite:
After that it reacts with Ca(OH) 2
 2NaOH  Na 2 SO 3 & NaHSO 3
Na 2 CO3 + Ca ( OH )2  →  
 + CaCO3 
Green Liquor 3.2 OILS & FAT INDUSTRY
The above reaction takes place during
castisizing operation where we get CaCO 3 Oils are mainly of two types:
as by product. CaCO 3 is converted to
Ca(OH) 2 by following reaction 1) Vegetable oil
2) Essential oil
CaCO3 
→ CaO + CO 2
Oils and fats are mixture of glycerides of
→ Ca ( OH )2
CaO + H 2 O  fatty acid. They are reactive with oxygen
when double bond increases. Melting point
Beater: decreases and reactivity towards oxygen
increases as no. of double bond increases.
Pulp fibres are mechanically disintegrated
with help of metal blades. To decrease the double bond character
hydrogenation takes place in presence of
Web Formation: raney nickel catalyst i.e. Ni-Al alloy
Here water is added to mixture such that Vegetable oil Extraction:

there is 99% water and 0.9% pulp fibres.
Cleaning & Dehulling:
Pressing & Drying:
Cleaning of seeds of oil seed plant is done
In this section rolls are used to reduce to remove impurities and other unwanted
water content to 65% followed by drying substances.
where water content is reduced to 5-6%
Digester:
Finishing:
Here the seeds are softened by means of
Calendering rolls are used and finally paper steam. Because of steam the seeds gets
is produced. swollen. Generally for 100 parts of seeds 5-
10 parts of water is mixed.
Filers are added like AKD (alkyl ketine
dimer), ASA (alkyl saxsanic anhydride), Expeller:
AKA etc.
The shell of the seeds gets rupture due to
Chemicals used in sulphite process pressure applied by expeller and oil is
released. Oil is further sent for purification.
Mixed Tank: Vacuum Still:
Alkaline chemicals like NaOH or Na 2 CO 3 is The concentrated fatty acids enters vacuum
added in oil to remove fatty acids. still where jet ejectors are used to create
vacuum.
Centrifuge:
Mixer
Fatty acids are separated from oil. These
fatty acids are sent for soap manufacturing. Fatty acid produced from vacuum still is
now pumped to mixer where base such as
Rotary Filter: NaOH & KOH are added.
The oil here is dark and has very bad colour Blender:
so it is treated with some bleaching
chemical like fuller earth carbon. The clear Ingredients like antifungal agents, anti-
oil then enters rotary filter drum to remove caking agent, scents etc. are added here and
left seed shells. The finished oil is obtained. the solids which comes out of blender is
known as soaps.
3.3 SOAP INDUSTRY
Soaps are generally sodium and potassium

salts of fatty acid. The soap contains two
parts a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic
head. During cleaning the hydrophobic part
of the soap gets attached to the dirt present
and the hydrophilic part gets attached to
water and hence dirt gets removed. They
are called surface active agent or
surfactants. TiO 2 is an additive which is
used for whiteness.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Hydrolyser:
The fats along with catalyst enters the

hydrolyser where hot water is added with
intimate mixing. The fatty acid & glycerine
is produced as top and bottom stream
respectively.
Flash Tank:
The mixture then enters flash tank where

water is removed and fatty acids are
concentrated.
3.4 GLYCERIN: 3.5 DETERGENTS:
Ion Exchange: Detergents are of two types:

1) Anionic
15-20% glycerine along with impurities 2) Cationic
from hydrolyser goes to ion exchange for
removing impurities. Anionic:
These are those which releases R − ions in
Triple Effect Evaporator & Vacuum Still: water. They are most widely used. Some
examples of it are sulfates, sulfonates, alkyl
The glycerine solution is concentrated in benzene sulfonate (ABS).
triple effect evaporator. It then enters
vacuum still where yellow glycerine is Cationic:
obtained.
These are those which releases R+ ions in
Mixer: water. They have excellent germicidal
properties. Some examples of it are
The solution is then passed through ammonium compounds.
activated carbon to remove colour and
white glycerine is obtained. 3.6 SUGAR INDUSTRY:
The yield of glycerine is 30-35 kg for 1000 Sugar is obtained from fruits and
kg soap vegetables and is obtained in maximum
quantity from sugarcane. Sugar is
disaccharides (C 12 H 22 O 11 ).
Manufacturing:
Cutter & Rolls:
The cutter cuts sugarcane into small pieces.

It then goes to crushing rolls where it is
crushed and its juice is obtained.
Clarifier:
Here CaHPO 4 along with milk of lime is

added for flocculation to separate
impurities. Because of this the solution
becomes alkaline and to maintain its pH
(=7) SO 2 is added. SO 2 not only maintains
its pH but also acts as bleaching agent. SO 2
can be replaced by phosphoric acid and
CO 2 . The impurities are settled at bottom.
Rotary Filter:
The solution from the clarifier enters
rotary filter where the impurities are
removed from sugar solution.
Multi effect evaporator:
The Clarified overflow solution goes to

multi effect evaporator were it is
concentrated from 80% water to 40%
water.
Crystallizer:
The concentrated sugar solution goes to

crystallizer were it is further boiled in
vacuum pans at its vapor temperature until
crystals are seen.
Centrifuge:
The mixture of crystal and syrup which is

called masscuite enters centrifuge where
the mother liquor (molasses) is separated
from crystals. Hence sugar crystals are
obtained.
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 One of the steps during refining of cane (b) Cellulose nitrate
sugar consists of addition of hydrated lime (c) Polyvinyl chloride
to the sugar syrup followed by (d) Alkyl benzene sulphonate
carbonation of the resulting solution. The
purpose of this step is to Q.5 Choose the most appropriate pairs
[GATE-2001] from Group I and Group II.
(a) adjust the pH of the syrup Group l Group ll
(b) remove the colouring matter from the P Nitration 1 Detergent
syrup Q Sulphonation 2 Pulp and paper
(c) reduce the viscosity of the syrup R Carbonation 3 Explosives
(d) improve the rate of crystallization of
4 Sugar
sugar
[GATE-2006]
(a) P-1, Q-2R-4 (b) P-3, Q-1, R-2
Q.2 For the hydrogenation of oils, ....(A).... (c) P-3, Q-1, R-4 (d) P-3, Q-2, R-4
is commonly used as catalyst, and
....(B).... is a catalyst poison.
[GATE-2002] Q.6 Multiple effect evaporators are
A B commonly used in the manufacturing of
(a) platinum sulphur P) Paper
(b) palladium oxygen Q) superphosphate
(c) nickel sulphur R) sugar
(d) nickel oxygen S) fats
[GATE-2007]
Q.3 Match the items in Group I with the (a) P and Q (b) P and R
items in Group II. (c) P and S (d) R and S
Group l Group ll
P Black liquor 1 Petroleum Q.7 In the sulphite process for paper
refining manufacturing, the ‘cooking liquor’ is
Q Activated 2 Sugar industry [GATE-2007]
silica alumina (a) magnesium bisulphite and sulphur
R Press mud dioxide in acid medium
[GATE-2003] (b) magnesium sulphite and magnesium
dicarbonate
(a) P-1,R-2 (b) P-2, Q-1
(c) sodium sulphite and magnesium
(c) Q-1, R-2 (d) Q-2, R-1
sulphite
Q.4 Which of the following is a detergent? (d) sodium sulphite and sodium bisulphite
[GATE-2005] and sulphur dioxide
(a) Benzene hexachloride
Q.8 Which one of the following process
sequences is used in the sugar industry?
[GATE-2008]
(a) Ca2HPO4/Lime treatment
"Crystallization" Crushing
(b) Ca2HPO4/Lime treatment "Multiple
stage evaporation" Crystallization
(c) Crushing "Crystallization"
Ca2HPO4/Lime treatment
(d) Multiple stage evaporation
"Crystallization" Ca2HPO4/Lime treatment
Q.9 Identify which of the statements are

wrong
(P) oils with an oleic radical (1 double
bond) are more suitable than oils with a
linolenic radical (3 double bonds) as film
forming vehicles for paints.
(Q) production of synthesis gas from coal
and steam is an endothermic process.
(R) Use of chlorine for bleaching of wood
pulp results in the release of dioxins
(S) In the manufacturing of urea from
ammonia, the main intermediate product
formed is ammonium bicarbonate
[GATE-2013]
(a) P & Q (b) R & S
(c) Q & R (d) P & S
Q.10 The molecular formula of the

predominant chemical compound in
commercial sugar is
[GATE-2018]
(a) C12H22O11
(b) C12H24O12
(c) C6H10O5
(d) C6H12O6
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A C B D C B A B D A
4 POLYMER INDUSTRY
Polymer is derived from the “poly” which

means many and “mer” means units i.e. In homo polymerisation the
polymer means having many repeating monomer is of single species I.e.
units. This repeating structural unit is addition of same type of monomer
derived from some simple and reactive occurs.
molecules called monomers and the
process of formation of polymers from n CH 2 CH
− 2 
→  −CH 2 − CH 2 − 

n
these monomers is called polymerisation.
o Co polymerisation
4.1 Polymers
Polymerisation takes place by
Types of polymers: two different types of monomer
is called co polymerisation.
1) Based on sources:
i. Natural
ii. Semi synthetic
iii. Synthetic
2) Based on structure:
i. Linear
ii. Branched
iii. Cross linked
• Condensation Polymerisation
3) Based on bonds: Condensation polymerisation small
molecules such as water, alcohol, HCl etc
i. Additional polymer are eliminated during reaction between bi
ii. Condensation polymer functional or tri functional monomers.
• Additional polymer
They are also called chain growth polymer.

Addition of monomer having double or
triple bond is called addition
polymerisation. They are further divided
into homo polymerisation and co
polymerisation.
o Homo polymerisation
Elastomers polymerisation. It is used in tires and
related products.
These are rubber like solid with elastic
properties in which the polymer chain are
held together by weak intermolecular
force. This weak binding force permits
polymer to be stretched and regain its
original shape after release of the force.
Vulcanisation of rubber
Buna N
Natural rubber becomes soft at high It is produced by reacting butadiene with
temperature and brittle at low acrylonitrile. It is also co polymer. It is
temperature. It shows high water resistant to action of petrol, oils and
absorption and is soluble in non-polar organic solvents.
solvents. The vulcanisation process
includes heating the raw rubber with
sulphur at 373-415 K. During vulcanisation
sulphur forms cross links to reactive sides.
There are two types of rubber:
1) Natural rubber
2) Synthetic rubber Butyl rubber
Butyl rubber i.e. polyisobutylene is used for
Synthetic rubber are further divided into: balloons that are impermeable to gases. It
is homo polymer whose monomer is
i.Buna S isobutylene.
ii.a N
iii.Butyl rubber
iv.Neoprene
v.Silicone rubber
vi.Chlorobutyl rubber
Natural rubber (polyisoprene)
Naturally it is derived from hevea trees but Neoprene

it can also be manufactured synthetically
from polymerisation of isoprene It is also called chloroprene because of
presence of chlorine. It is used during
CH 3 CH 3
| | vulcanisation process.
n ( CH 2 = C − CH 2 − CH 3 ) → ( CH 3 − C = CH − CH 3 )
n
iso prene Poly isoprene
Buna-S
It is prepared by reacting butadiene with

styrene. It is an example of co
Silicone rubber
These are elastomers composed of silicone
together with carbon, hydrogen & oxygen
monomer. They have exceptional
mechanical & electrical properties.
Chlorobutyl rubber:
It is produced by reacting isobutylene with
isoprene (1-3%). It is used in tubeless tires.
4.2 Fibres Nylon 6

It is obtained by heating caprolactum in
Thread forming solid possessing high presence of water at high temperature. The
tensile strength and high modulus. These temperature is 533 – 543 K. It is used in
characteristic is due to strong manufacturing of ropes, tires, fabrics etc.
intermolecular force like hydrogen bond.
These strong forces also lead to close
packing of chain and thus impart
crystalline structure.
Fibres are classified into:
1) Polyamide
2) Polyester
3) Acrylic
4) Cellulosic
4.4 Polyester
4.3 Polyamides
These are polyamides because it possess This is example of condensation polymer as
amide linkage and are example of synthetic H2O is eliminated in final product. It is
fibres and are termed as nylon. Examples of product of diols and dicarboxylic acid.
polyamides are nylon 6,6 & nylon 6. Example of polyester is dacron or terylene.
Nylon 6,6 Dacron/Terylene

Nylon 6,6 is prepared by reacting diamines Dacron is product of two different
with dicarboxylic acid i.e. by reacting adipic monomers i.e. ethylene glycol and teri
acid with hexamethylene diamine. It is used phtalic acid at 420-460 K in presence of
in textile Industries. It is example of zinc acetate antimony trioxide. It is used in
condensation polymer as H 2 O molecule is blending with cotton and wool. It is also
eliminated. used in reinforcing the glass.
4.5 Acrylic fibers For LDPE the presuure is high generally
aroun 1000-2000 atm pressure and 350-
The commercial acrylic fibers are orlon and 370 K temperature. These takes place in
dynel. For orlon the monomer is presence of catalyst like dioxygen or
acrylonitrile while dynel is modified peroxide.
acrylonitrile. Dynel is co polymer of
acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride. LLDPE (linear low density poly
ethylene)
4.6 Cellulosic fibers
It takes place at lower pressure than LDPE
Viscous Rayon, acetate rayon and cupra and with significant short branches. These
ammonium rayon are examples of process takes place in presence of zeigler
cellulosic fibers. The raw nata catalyst (Triethyl Aluminium Titanium
materials/monomers required for these Tetrachloride). T has high tensile strength
are as follows. and flexible under elongated stress.
Viscous rayon HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene)
Raw materials: Cellulose These reaction takes place in Presence of 6-

Carbon disulphide 7 atm and catalyst used here is zeigler nata
Sodium hydroxide catalyst.
Acetate rayon Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC):
Raw materials: Wood pulp Major portion of chlorine manufactured is

Acetic anhydride used in PVC. The catalyst used here is
Sulphuric Acid butyllithium.It contains 56.8% Cl and
balance hydrogen and carbon. Its monomer
Cupra ammonium rayon is vinyl chloride.
Raw materials: Copper salt Polycarbonate:

Ammonia
Cellulose They are prepared by reaction between
bis-phenol and Phosgene gas (CoCl2).
4.7 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMER
This polymers have intermediate

intermolecular force of attraction between
fibres and elastomers. They are long chain
molecules capable of softening on heating
and hardening on cooling. Polyethylene, Bis-Phenol
polypropylene, polystyrene, poly vinyl
chloride (PVC), polycarbonates etc are all
examples of thermoplastic polymer.
4.8 THERMOSETTING
Polyethylene
This polymer are cross linked or heavily
LDPE (low Density Poly Ethylene): branched when on heating undergoes
extensive cross link and becomes unusable.
They can’t be reused. Phenol formaldehyde Epoxy resin
resin, urea formaldehyde resin, melamine
formaldehyde resin, epoxy resin etc are Epoxyresin is prepared by reacting two
examples of thermosetting polymers monomers i.e. epichlorohydrine and bis
phenol. It is used in coating surfaces.
Phenol formaldehyde resin Types of additional polymer
There are two types of phenolI. Bulk polymerisation

formaldehyde resin: II. Solution polymerisation
III. Suspension polymerisation
I.Novalac phenol formaldehyde IV. Emulsion polymerisation
II.Resole phenol formaldehyde
Bulk polymerisation
Novalac - It is catalysed by acid and
is used in paints Novalac on heating with Bulk polymerisation is very simple process
formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to as the starting product is just pure
form infusible solid called Bakelite. monomer and reaction take place without
any solvent or initiator. As there is only
Resole - It is catalysed by base. It is pure monomer the rate of reaction is high
used in making combs. and yield is also very high. As the staring
material is pure monomer the product is
Melamine formaldehyde resin relatively pure. The major disadvantage is
the reaction is exothermic i.e. it releases
Melamine is produced from urea. Urea is heat so heat removal becomes very
heated in presence of quartz at 360-700 oC important operation but as there is only
and the molten urea gets decomposed to pure monomer and no solvent it’s thermal
isocynic acid. Isocynic acid then gets conductivity is low and is very viscous. Due
converted to melamine in presence of to this there might be local hotspots and
alumina catalyst. Melamine then reacts material may degrade. Polyethylene,
with formaldehyde to form melamine Polypropylene, PET (polyethyl triethylene)
formaldehyde resin. It is used in non- are examples of bulk polymerisation.
breakable crockery having better chemical
and heat resistant properties. Solution polymerisation
Unlike in bulk polymerisation in this the

starting material is monomer dissolved in
solvents like aliphatic, alcohol, aromatic,
water etc. Because of the presence of
solvent heat removal becomes easier and
there are no local hot spots as in case of
bulk polymerisation. The disadvantage is
that the final product is not pure and
solvent is also present with it. Vinly acetate
and acrylonitrile are examples of solution
polymerisation.
Suspension polymerisation
It involves fine droplets of insoluble

monomer suspended in water. These
droplets are dispersed in water which also
acts as heat transfer medium. Examples of
suspension polymers are Gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O), Epsom (MgSO4.7H2O),
bleaching powder (CaOCl2), glaubers salt,
PVC etc.
Emulsion polymerisation
It is carried out by suspending large

droplets of insoluble monomer along with
catalyst in water. The water to monomer
ratio is 1:1 to 4:1 in most cases. It is used
for production of polymer requiring high
molecular weight like SBR and Teflon.
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Identify the group in which all the Q.4 Match the polymerisation mechanism
polymers mentioned can be used to make in Group I with the corresponding
fibres. polymers in Group II.
[GATE-2003] Group I Group II
(A) Butadiene copolymers, Polymides, P Chain l Polyethylen
Urea aldehydes growth/addition e
(B) Cellulose derivatives, Polyisoprene, polymerisation
Polyethylene Q Step ll Polyvinyl
(C) Cellulose derivatives, Polyamides, growth/condens chloride
Polyethanes ation
(D) Polypropylenes, Polyvinylchloride, polymerisation
Silicones lll Polythylene
terephthala
Q.2 Pair the following polymers in Group I te
with their chain characteristics in Group [GATE-2011]
II. (A) P-III; Q-I, II
Group I Group II (B) P-I, II; Q-III
P HDPE 1 Very few branches (C) P-II, III; Q-I
Q LDPE 2 Short and regular (D) P-I; Q-II, III
branches
R LLDPE 3 High branching with
both short Q.5 Match each of the following
and long chain
techniques of polymerization in Group I,
branches
[GATE-2006] with the corresponding process
(A) P-1, Q-2, R-3 (B) P-2, Q-1, R-3 characteristics in Group II.
(C) P-1, Q-3, R-2 (D) P-2, Q-3, R-1
Group I Group II
P Bulk 1 Polymer with very
Q.3 Match the appropriate pairs from high molecular
Group I and Group II. weight can be
Group I Group II obtained
P Carbon 1 Nylon 6 Q Solution 2 Heat removal is
disulphide crucial but very
Q Caprolactum 2 Nylon-6,6 difficult
R Gypsum 3 Phosphoric acid R Suspension 3 Small amount of
4 Viscose rayon undesired low
[GATE-2006] molecular weight
(A) P-4, Q-2, R-3 (B) P-2, Q-1, R-3 polymer is formed
(C) P-3, Q-1, R-4 (D) P-4, Q-1, R-3
S Emulsion 4 Polymer Q Terylene 2 Dimethyl
concentration in the terephthalate and
product stream is ethylene glycol
low 3 Acetylene and
[GATE-2010] hydrogen cyanide
P Q R S 4 Hexamethylene
(A) 1 2 3 4 diamine and
(B) 2 4 3 1 adipic acid
[GATE-2005]
(C) 2 3 4 1
(A) P-3, Q-4 (B) P-4, Q-3
(D) 2 3 1 4
(C) P-4, Q-2 (D) P-1, Q-2
ANS: (C)
Q.6 Match each of the polymers in Group I
with the raw material in Group II, from Q.9 Match the products in Group I with the
which they are made. nature of reactions in Group II.
Group I Group II Group I Group II
P Polyester 1 Ethylene glycol P Polyethylene 1 Condensation
Q Polyamide 2 Adipic acid polymerization
R Viscose 3 Cellulose Q Nylon 2 Additional
rayon polymerization
S Epoxy resin 4 Bisphenol R Polystyrene
[GATE-2010]
P Q R S [GATE-2004]
(A) 1 2 3 4 (A) P-1, Q-1, R-2 (B) P-2, Q-2, R-1
(B) 2 1 3 4 (C) P-1, Q-2, R-1 (D) P-2, Q-1, R-2
(C) 1 2 4 3
(D) 3 2 4 1 Q.10 Pair the following industrial
processes in Group I with the catalysts
used in
Q.7 Which of the following is not employed
Group II.
in the commercial production of linear
polyvinyl chloride?
Group I Group II
[GATE-2005]
P Polyethylene l Elastomeric
(A) Emulsion polymerization Q Phenol ll Fiber
(B) Suspension polymerization Formaldehyde
(C) Addition polymerization R Polyisoprene lll Thermoplasti
(D) Condensation polymerization c
S Polyester lV thermosettin
Q.8 Match the products in Group I, with the g
raw materials in Group II. [GATE-2012]
Group I Group II (a) P-lll, Q-lV, R-l, S-ll
P Nylon 6,6 1 Chlorodifluoro
methane (b) P-lV, Q-ll, R-lll, S-l
(c) P-lll, Q-ll, R-l, S-lV P1 + Q2 → R3; P2 + Q1 → R4;
(A)
P3 + Q4 → R2; P4 + Q3 → R1
(d) P-lV, Q-lll, R-l, S-ll
P1 + Q1 → R3; P2 + Q3 → R1
Q.11 Match the following polymers with (B)
P3 + Q4 → R4; P4 + Q2 → R2
their respective catalyst
P1 + Q2 → R4; P2 + Q3 → R1;
1. Low density P. Ziegler- nata (C)
P3 + Q4 → R3; P4 + Q1 → R2
polymer
2. High density Q.Traces of oxygen
P1 + Q1 → R4; P2 + Q2 → R3;
polymer (D)
3. Polyethylene R. Butly lithium P3 + Q4 → R2; P4 + Q3 → R1
terephthalate
4. PVC S. Antimony Q.14 Match the following
[GATE-2015] Group I Group II
(a) 1-Q, 2-R, 3-S, 4-P P Free radical 1 Nylon 6,6
(b) 1-S, 2-P, 3-Q, 4-R polymerisation
Q Ziegler nata 2 Polypropylene
(c) 1-Q, 2-P, 3-S, 4-R
R Condensation 3 Poly vinyl
(d) 1-S, 2-R, 3-P, 4-Q chloride
Q.12 “Nylon 66’ is so named because [GATE-2017]

[GATE-2003] (A) P-1, Q-2, R-3 (B) P-3, Q-2, R-1
(A) the average degree of polymerization (C) P-1, Q-3, R-2 (D) P-2, Q-1, R-3
of the polymer is 1966
(B) the number of carbon atoms between
Q.15 Polyvinyl chloride is produced by
two nitrogen atoms are 6
(C) the number of nitrogen atoms [GATE-2018]
between two carbon atoms are 6 (A) co polymerization
(D) the polymer was first synthesized in (B) addition polymerization
1966 (C) reacting chlorine with polyethylene
(D) reacting hydrochloric acid with
Q.13 Match the raw materials with their polyethylene
respective products
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Q.16 Choose the correct statement in

P1 Ethylene Q1 Ammonia R1 Synthetic viscos rayon manufacturing process
fibre [GATE-2018]
P2 Q2 Butene R2 Nylon 6,6 (A) Carbon disulphide used as a reactant
Propylene for xanthate formation is regenerated in a
P3 Adipic Q3 Ethylene R3 LLDPE later step
glycol (B) Caustic soda used as reactant for
P4 Q4 R4
steeping of cellulose is regenerated in a
Terephthali Hexamethylen Acrylonitrile
c e diamine later step
(C) Sulphuric acid is used in steeping
process of cellulose
(D) The spun ciscos rayon is hardened in
an alkali bath
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B A D B B A C C
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
D A C B A B B A
5 PETROLEUM REFINING
Crude oil is a multicomponent mixture

containing more than 108 compounds. This
crude contains carbon 84-87%, Hydrogen
11-14%, Sulphur 0.2%, Oxygen 0-0.6%,
nitrogen 100 ppm etc. Petroleum refining
means removal of this impurities from
crude by various reactions and processes. Cyclopropane Cyclohexane
5.1 Classification of crude: Aromatic
Paraffin These compounds contribute most

to the octane number. Benzene,
They do not have any unsaturation and xylene, toluene etc. are examples of
they are generally alkanes like methane, aromatic compounds. The target in
ethane, propane, butane, pentane, iso reforming process is to maximize
pentane etc. their quantity.
Olefin
They possess unsaturation i.e. they possess

alkenes like ethylene, propylene, butylene
etc. They are not found in measureable
quantity in crude.
Toluene Benzene
Naphthalene
Polynuclear aromatics such as

naphthalene have at least or more
Butene Ethene than 2 aromatic rings.
Not all compounds in crude are
Napthene hydrocarbons comprising of carbon
and hydrogen. It consists of many
They are cycloalkanes like cyclopropane, other impurities.
cyclohexane etc. which are present in
crude. These compounds are not aromatic
and hence do not contribute much to
octane number. They are generally target
in reforming process for converting them
to aromatics.
Naphthalene
Sulphur instantaneous flash is called flash point. If
the flash is sustained for more than 5
Organic sulphur is present in crude as seconds it is called fire point. Generally the
thiophenes, pyridine etc. sulphur needs to fire point is 4-5oC greater than flash point.
be removed as it acts as catalytic poison This both points indicates suitability of
and is generally removed by hydro treating. temperature for crude. They indicate
Crude possessing sulphur is called sour temperature upto which the fuel can be
crude while crude free from sulphur is used safely.
called sweet crude. Also presence of
sulphur decreases octane number of the Cloud point
crude.
The minimum temperature at which the oil
Oxygen becomes cloudy or hazy on cooling is called
cloud point.
Generally oxygen is present in 0-0.6% in
crude. Compounds which contains oxygen Pore point
are acetic acid, benzoic acid etc. They have
to be removed from crude as it causes When the oil is cooled it first becomes hazy
corrosion. and on further cooling it just stops to flow.
The minimum temperature below which
Moisture the oil stops to flow is called pore point.
Pore point is 4-5oC lower than cloud point.
Water in fuel is undesirable as it causes
flame failure and corrosion. It is present in Octane number
crude up to about 1 %.
It is a characteristic of petrol engine.it is
Resins expressed in spark ignition and knocking
characteristic.
Resins are polynuclear aromatic structure High octane number is preferred for petrol.
with side chain of small paraffins. They Octane number is defined as % volume of
contain elements like sulphur, oxygen, iso octane upon % volume of isooctane + %
nitrogen, nickel etc. volume of n heptane. Octane number of iso
octane is 100 while octane number of n
Asphalts heptane is 0. Iso octane is 2,2,4 trimethyl
pentane.
Petroleum with high content of napthanic
compounds is known as asphalt. They are
Octane No.=
( % Vol of iso − Octane )
polynuclear aromatic structure consisting  % Vol of iso-Octane + 
of at least 20 rings. Crude having high  
asphalt content is generally target for coke  % Vol of n − Heptane 
production.
5.2 PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM

PRODUCTS
Flash point
Iso octane
It is the minimum temperature at which the
crude gives sufficient vapours to produce
5.3 Petroknock
Knocking is characteristic of petrol engine.

When we use low grade/quality fuel it
might adhere to the wall of engine. During
the starring of engine the piston is in its
return stroke. This compression is done to
produce heat and ignite the spark plug. Due Methyl Naphthalene
to this spark is produce in the spark plug
and centre flame propagates. Because of Smoke point
the fuel adhered to the wall it gets heated
and another flame is produced when this It is characteristic property of kerosene
flame collides with central flame an audible and it determines suitability of kerosene as
sound is produced which is knocking. fuel. Higher the smoke point higher is the
quality of kerosene. Smoke point is defined
In India gasoline of octane number 87 is as sample of kerosene burned in standard
sold while in US gasoline of 95 is sold. flame for 5 min without leaving any
Octane number can be increased by TEL smoking tail. The height of this flame is
(Tetra Ethyl Lead) but nowadays because called smoke point. Generally good quality
of economic considerations TEL is not used. kerosene the smoke point should be
Higher the octane number better is the around 25 mm.
performance of engine and lower the
knocking. Higher the aromatic content lower will be
the smoke point. So aromatic is undesirable
for smoke point as they are the major
Octane number decreases in following component for producing smoke. Paraffin
order: are most desirable in this.
Aromatics > Iso paraffins > Olefins > Carbon residue

Napthenes > Paraffins
It is the percentage of carbon residue left
after distillation of crude oil for its product
Cetane number in absence of air. Carbon deposits foul the
surface and effects regeneration of catalyst.
It is the characteristic property of diesel It gives an indication of relative coke
engine. It facilitates the easy starting of formation for evaporation and pyrolysis of
diesel engine. Cetane number is defined as oil. For a good fuel it should be less than
% volume of cetane upon % volume of 0.1%.
cetane + % volume of methyl naphthalene.
Aromatics are undesired for higher cetane Aniline point
number.
It is the lowest temperature at which equal
Cetane No.=
( % Vol of n − cetane ) volume of oil is completely miscible with
 % Vol of n − cetane +  equal volume of aniline. It is measure of
 
 % Vol of methyl Naphthalene  aromatic content of an oil. More is the
aniline point lesser will be aromatic
content. The aromatic content in oil have a
tendency to deteriorate rubber sealing and ADU Unit
packing. Fraction T (oC) Carbon Used in
chain
Acid number Fuel gas >40 C 1 -C 2 Fuel
LPG >40 C 3 -C 4 Domestic
Acid number is defined as milligrams of fuel
KOH required to neutralize the free acid Straight 20 - C 6 -C 10 Gasoline
present in 1 gram of an oil. It determines run 90
the acidity of oil. Higher acid number gasoline
indicates sludge formation and corrosion Naphtha 120– C 6 -C 10 Feed stock,
problems. Acid number should be less than 180 steam
0.1%. cracking
Kerosene 150– C 11 -C 12 Aviation
5.4 Calorific Value 270 turbine fuel
Light gas 230– C 13 –C 17 High speed
Total heat produced per unit mass of fuel oil 270 diesel
completely burned with pure oxygen. Heavy 340- C 18 –C 25 High speed
There are two types of calorific vale: gas oil 380 diesel
VDU Unit
Gross calorific value
Net calorific value Fraction T (oC)Carbon Used in
chain
Gross calorific value Light 320 – C 18 – Feed to FCC
vacuum 425 C 25
It is the amount of heat released by gas oil
complete combustion of unit mass of gas. It Heavy gas 425 – C 28 – Feed to FCC
is also called higher heating value. oil 550 C 38
Vacuum >560 >C 38 Visbreaking
Net calorific value residue
5.5 Cracking
It is obtained by subtracting heat of
vaporization of water vapour from gross
Cracking means heating of high boiling
calorific value. It is also called lower
petroleum fraction at high temperature and
heating value
pressure to produce lower boiling
petroleum fraction i.e. breaking of a long
molecule into smaller ones by heating. It is
used to produce smaller molecules from
larger ones like gasoline, olefins etc. They
are also used to lower the viscosity of oil.
Thermal cracking is carried out at high
temperature 450-700 °C and high pressure
1-70 atm while for catalytic cracking the
temperature required is 350-700 °C and
pressure is 1-15 atm. The catalyst used in
cracking are in form of pellets or bed. The
catalyst is generally silica, zeolite,
aluminium, natural clay etc.
Fluid catalytic cracking molecular weight product from higher
ones. It completely removes sulphur,
The fluidised catalytic cracking requires nitrogen, oxygen and olefins. It is possible
two units working simultaneously which because of surplus amount of hydrogen
are fluid catalytic cracking reactor (FCCR) available.
and catalytic regenerator. The basic
principle of FCCR is fluidisation of catalyst. Hydro treating
Catalyst regenerator is required to
regenerate catalyst by burning coke in air It is used to remove impurities like sulphur,
oxygen, nitrogen etc. It is possible because
Fluid catalytic cracking reactor of surplus amount of hydrogen. It is also
used to stabilize the petroleum products by
FCCR consists of two main components: saturating the olefins. The temperature and
Riser and cyclones. In riser the feed comes pressure are 300-350 °C and 15-17 atm.
in contact with hot catalyst. The catalyst is The catalyst for this process is cobalt
risen upwards through lift media which is molybdenum. Generally H 2 S is recovered
generally steam. Riser contact time is from this process and is sent to contact
generally 250 millisecond. From riser it process for production of H 2 SO 4 .
goes to cyclone separator. Catalyst along
with finished product goes to cyclone
separator. Here the catalyst is fully coked 5.6 Reforming
and needs to be regenerated the finished
product comes out from the top of the Reforming means changing the
cyclone separator while the catalyst goes to arrangements of molecule without much
regenerator. changing the molecular weight of it i.e.
rearrangement of molecules. Generally
The spent liquor which is relatively cold napthenes are converted to aromatics.
enter regenerator unit. The catalyst is There are three types of reforming:
burned in air. Due to the burning of catalyst
the coke gets removed and from theI. Fixed bed
catalyst and gets released as flue gases andII. Moving bed
also it helps in increasing the temperatureIII. Fluidised bed
of catalyst. This hot catalyst whose activity
is regained is sent to riser through a pipe. Polymerisation
The temperature of the catalyst is 650-750
°C . These burning of catalyst helps in Gases produced in cracking are rich in
raising the temperature of catalyst which is olefins this gases undergoes
required to carry out endothermic reaction polymerization in presence of phosphoric
in FCCR. The FCCR unit is endothermic acid to give a branched chain polymer. E.g.
while the catalyst regenerator is 2-iso butane undergoes polymerisation to
exothermic. form di-iso butane which is a branched
Hydrocracking: chain polymer. Its main aim is to increase
the branching.
Cracking in presence of hydrogen is called
hydrocracking. Catalyst used is tungsten Alkylation
sulphide for vapour phase while iron
catalyst is used in liquid phase. The Alkylation means reaction of olefins with
temperature and pressure are 400-500 °C paraffin or with aromatics. The reaction
and 70-700 atm. It produces lower takes place in presence of sulphuric acid or
hydrofluoric acid which acts as catalyst. Its regenerated back but alkali consumption is
main aim is to produce larger isoparaffins high.
having higher octane number e.g. isobutane
+ n-butane gives isooctane Copperchloride process
Isomerisation Gasoline free of sulphur and hydrogen

sulphide is first passed through moisture
It aims to convert normal paraffins to iso- remover. Moisture is removed by passing
paraffins. This reaction takes place in through dehydrating agents like NaCl or
presence of Aluminium chloride (AlCl 3 ) CaCl 2 . The feed is heated by exhaust steam
which acts as catalyst. Example is to a temperature of 40-60 °C and then sent
isomerisation of n-butane to iso-butane. to mixer. Part of circulating slurry
consisting of copper chloride and clay in
5.7 Sweeting process water is mixed up thoroughly with the feed.
Oxygen is admitted into the mixer
Removal of sulphur and its related containing slurry and gasoline. This mixer
compounds like H 2 S, mercaptans etc. from acts as reactor when air is sent in it. The
petroleum products is called sweeting floating layer consists of gasoline and is
process. Five different sweeting process taken to water washing system. Water
are: removes the trapped particles of catalyst
and acid. After settling the gasoline phase is
I.Doctors test routed through another dehydrator to
II.Copperchloride sweeting process storage tank.
III.Solutizer process
IV.Catalytic desulphurisation
V.Hydrofinning process
Lead doctoring of gasoline
In this method treating stock i.e. sour

gasoline is thoroughly agitated with caustic
plumbite solution. Lead becomes lead
sulphide during reaction:
→ Pb ( SR )2 + 2NaOH
2RSH + Na 2 PbO 2 
Pb ( SR )2 + S 
→ PbS + R 2S2
This lead sulphide is reacted with fresh

sulphur to free lead sulphide from
disulphide. Lead sulphide is converted back
to sodium plumbite by blowing air into
spent solution which.
 PbS+O 2   Na PbO 2 +2H 2 O 
  → 2
 + Na SO 
 +NaOH   2 4 
The regenerated solution is reused again
for treatment. As can be seen consumption
of lead is negligible as it is again
Solutizer process
1200 ° C
C+H 2 O → CO+H 2
This process requires solute for removing This mixture is not called synthesis gas as
of sulphur from sour gasoline and converts synthesis gas means presence of CO and H 2
into sweet gasoline. When methanol is the in ratio of 1:2. It is called water gas. Hence a
agent for promoting solutes as solutizer part of CO is removed and converted to CO 2
this process is called unisol process. While by following reaction.
if napthanic acid is used instead of
methanol it is called mercapsol process.


 CO 2 + H 2
CO+H 2 O 
Fe
Catalytic desulphurisation
Hydrogen so obtained is mixed with the
In such processes whole molecule water gas in ratio of synthesis gas i.e. H 2 :CO
containing sulphur is not removed as in is 2:1. The synthesis gas is passed at
extraction or acid treatment but only atmospheric pressure over cobalt catalyst
sulphur atom is picked and thrown out. at 180-200 °C to yield straight run
Thus material loss is negligible with gasoline, paraffins and olefins.
possible recovery of sulphur. Generally the 5.8 Composition of various gaseous fuels
catalyst used in this processes are oxides of
transitional metals. Natural Gas
Hydrofinning process CH 4 = 96%

N 2 = 3%
It is similar to catalytic desulfirisation but it CO 2 = 1%
takes place in presence of hydrogen
Coke oven gas
Dewaxing
H 2 = 53%
Removal of wax from petroleum product is CH 4 = 32%
important because at low temperature CO = 6%
waxes crystallizes out and gets N 2 = 3%
precipitated. Solvent used in dewaxing are CO 2 = 2%
methyl ethyl ketone, propane etc.
Water gas (blue gas)
Bergius process
H 2 = 50%
Finely powdered coal is made into paste CO = 43%
with heavy oil and then heated to 400-800 CO 2 = 3%
°C under 200-250 atm pressure in N 2 = 3%
presence of organic compound tin which
acts as catalyst. It is then sent to converter Producer gas
followed by cracking and hydrogenation to
yield gasoline, middle oil and heavy oil. N 2 = 51%
CO = 27%
Fisher tropsh process H 2 = 17%
CO 2 = 5%
This method involves conversion of coal
into water gas with the help of water at
1200 °C .
The heating value of producer gas is 15 %
of natural gas.
The value decreases in the following order
Natural gas > Coke oven gas > Carburated

gas > Water gas > Producer gas
Carburated gas is obtained by atomized oil

spraying in water gas
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 In the Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC), (A) lubricating oil > diesel > petrol > LPG
the cracking reaction is (A) ....... and the (B) lubricating oil > petrol > diesel > LPG
regeneration is (B) .......... (C) petrol > lubricating oil > diesel > LPG
[GATE-2001] (D) petrol > diesel > LPG > lubricating oil
A B
(A) exothermic endothermic Q.6 Match the feeds in Group I with the
(B) exothermic exothermic processes in Group II.
(C) endothermic endothermic
(D) endothermic exothermic Group l Group ll
P Gas oil 1 Acetylene
Q.2 Among the following, choose one that production
is not an exothermic process. Q Residue 2 Ethylene
[GATE-2002] crude production
(A) Methanol synthesis 3 Coking
(B) Catalytic cracking 4 Cracking
(C) Ammonia synthesis [GATE-2005]
(D) Oxidation of Sulphur (A) P-3, Q-4 (B) P-4, Q-3
(C) P-2, Q-3 (D) P-1, Q-4
Q.3 The average boiling point of aviation
turbine fuel is closest to that of Q.7 In a fluid catalytic cracking unit, the
[GATE-2002] nature of the reactions occurring in the
(A) lubricating oils (B) LPG reactor and the regenerator is
(C) diesel (D) Kerosene [GATE-2006]
(A) Reactor - Exothermic, Regenerator -
Q.4 The order of preference for feedstock Exothermic
to a catalytic reformer is (B) Reactor - Exothermic, Regenerator -
[GATE-2003] Endothermic
(A) catalytic naphtha - coling naphtha - (C) Reactor - Endothermic, regenerator -
virgin naphtha Exothermic
(B) coking naphtha - virgin naphtha - (D) Reactor - Endothermic, Regenerator –
catalytic naphtha Endothermic
(C) virgin naphtha - catalytic naphtha -
coking naphtha Q.8 Which of the following is desirable in
(D) virgin naphtha - coking naphtha - gasoline but undesirable in kerosene?
catalytic naphtha [GATE-2007]
(A) Aromatics
Q.5 The proper arrangement of the (B) Mercaptans
petroleum fractions in the order of their (C) Naphthenic acid
boiling points is (D) Paraffins
[GATE-2004]
Q.9 Which one of the following is not a (C) 1 2 4
major constituent of crude oil? (D) 2 1 3
[GATE-2008]
(A) Paraffins (B) Olefins Q.13 Which one of the following sequences
(C) Naphthenes (D) Aromatics is arranged according to increasing
calorific value?
Q.10 Match the unit processes in Group I
[GATE-2011]
with industries in Group II.
(A) Producer gas, Natural gas, Water gas
Group l Group ll (B) Natural gas, Producer gas, Water
P Saponification 1 Petroleum (C) Producer gas, Water gas, Natural gas
refining (D) Water gas, Natural gas, Producer gas
Q Calcination 2 Synthetic fibres
R Alkylation 3 Cement Q.14 Hydrotreating is used for
4 Soaps and [GATE-2011]
detergents
(A) removal of water from crude oil
[GATE-2008]
(B) treatment of crude oil with water
P Q R
(C) improving octane number of gasoline
(A) 1 3 4
(B) 2 3 4 (D) removal of sulphur and nitrogen from
(C) 4 2 1 petroleum fractions
(D) 4 3 1
Q.15 Zeolite ZSM-5 is added to commercial
Q.11 In petroleum refining operations, the FCC catalyst for
process used for converting paraffins and [GATE-2011]
naphthalenes to aromatics is (A) promoting SO2 reduction
[GATE-2009] (B) promoting CO oxidation
(A) catalytic reforming (C) improving tolerance to metal content
(B) catalytic cracking in feed
(C) hydrocracking (D) enhancing octane number
(D) alkylation
Q.16 In petroleum refining catalytic
Q.12 Match the unit processes in Group I reforming is used to convert
with the industries in Group II. [GATE-2012]
Group l Group ll (A) Paraffin’s and naphthenic to aromatics
P Steam 1 Petroleum (B) Paraffin’s to hydrogen and CO
cracking refining (C) Gas oil to diesel and gasoline
Q Hydrocracking 2 Petrochemicals (D) Light olefins to gasoline
R Condensation 3 Polymers
4 Soaps and Q.17 The final boiling points of gasoline,
detergents diesel, atmospheric gas oil (AGO) and
[GATE-2009] lubricating oil vary as
P Q R [GATE-2012]
(A) 1 2 3 (A) Gasoline>diesel>AGO>lubricating oil
(B) 2 3 3 (B) Lubricating oil>AGO>diesel> gasoline
(C) AGO>lubricating oil>diesel> gasoline (A) Desalting of crude oil is done before
(D) Lubricating oil>diesel>AGO> gasoline processing it in atmospheric distillation
unit
Q.18 Catalytic cracking is
(B) A stream of hydrogen is produced in
[GATE-2014]
catalytic reforming of naphtha
(A) A hydrogen addition process
(B) A carbon rejection process (C) Asphalt used for paving is a petroleum
(C) An exothermic process product
(D) A coking process (D) Cetane no. indicates the quality of
petrol
Q.19 Which one of the following
statements is correct?
[GATE-2014]
(A) The major components of biodiesel are
triglycerides
(B) Biodiesel is essentially a mixture of
ethyl esters
(C) Biodiesel is highly aromatic
(D) Biodiesel has a very low aniline point
Q.20 Match the following processes with

their respective catalyst
Group l Group ll
Ethylene Nickel
polymerization
Petroleum feedstock Vanadium
cracking pentoxide
Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 Zeolite
Hydrogenation of oil Zeigler Nata
[GATE-2014]
(A) P-lV, Q-lll, R-ll, S-l
(B) P-l, Q-lV, R-lll, S-ll
(C) P-l, Q-ll, R-lll, S-lV
(D) P-ll, Q-lll, R-lV, S-l
Q.21 In connection with petroleum

refining, identify the incorrect statement
among the following options
[GATE-2018]
ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
D B D B A B C
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
D B D A D C D
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
D A B B B A D
6 PETROCHEMICALS
6.1 Introduction recover heat and to generate steam which

is used in plant in cold section. Now firstly
Petroleum is a fossil fuel. It is called a fossil H 2 separation takes place then ethylene
fuel because it was formed from the separation takes place then propylene
remains of tiny sea plants and animals that separation takes place and so on.
died millions of years ago. When the plants 6.2 Formation of HCHO in two step
and animals died, they sank to the bottom
of the oceans. They were buried by Catalytic conversion of CHO to CH3OH in
thousands of feet of sediment and sand that presence of copper zeolite. CH3OH is
turned into rock. Petroleum is a complex, cracked to form HCHO in presence of silver
naturally occurring liquid mixture or zinc oxide.
containing mostly hydrocarbons, but
containing also some compounds of CH 3OH 
AgO/ ZnO
→ HCHO + H 2
oxygen, nitrogen and Sulphur. It is often
referred to as the ‘black gold’.
Chloromethanes:
Over time this organic mixture was CH 4 + Cl2 
→ CH 3Cl + HCl
subjected to enormous pressure and heat CH 3Cl + Cl2 
→ CH 2 Cl2 + HCl
as the layers increased. The mixture
CH 2 Cl2 + Cl2 
→ CH Cl3 + HCl
changed chemically, breaking down into
compounds made of hydrogen and carbon CHCl3 + Cl2 
→ CCl4 + HCl
atoms. Finally, an oil saturated rock much
like a wet household sponge was formed. Vinyl Chloride:
All organic material buried underground
does not turn into oil. A typical petroleum C2 H 4 + Cl2 
FeCl3
→ C2 H 4 Cl2
reservoir is mostly sandstone/limestone in
which oil is trapped. C2 H 4 Cl2  
Charcoal
→ C H 2 CHCl + HCl
It has wide application in manufacturing of Ethylene Oxide:

polymer; ethylene and propylene are main
products. Steam cracking is the heart of C2 H 4 + 0.5O 2 
Ag on
Alu min a
→ CH 2 OCH 2
petrochemical industry.
Ethanol amine:
Steam cracking has 3 sections: CH 2 OCH 2 + NH 3 

→ CH 2 CHNH 2
1) Hot section
2) Quench section Monoethanol a min e
3) Cold section
In 1st hydrocarbon feed stock is preheated

and mixed with steam heated to a
temperature of 800 °C and thermal
cracking takes place. In quench section
products are quenched with water to
Isopropanol: 1. From Cumene
Sulphonation 2. From Toluene
Pr opylene + H 2SO 4 
→ Iso propyl sulphate 3. From Benzene
Hydration 1. From Cumene
Iso propyl sulphate + H 2 O 
→ Iso propane + H 2SO 4
Cumene + Air 
Basic medium
NaOH
→ Cumene hydroperoxide
Acetone:
− H2
Isopropanol 
Cu
→ Acetone
Sulphation
Cumene (isopropyl benzene): Cumene hydroperoxide + H 2SO 4 
→ Phenol + Acetone
Alkylation
2. From Toluene
Benzene + Pr opylene 
Zeolite
→ Cumene
Oxidation of toluene to produce
Acrylo Nitrile:
benzoic acid
By ammoxidation of propylene Toluene 
Cobalt
naphthanate
→ Benzoic acid
Mo − Bi
C3 H 6 + NH 3 + O 2  → Acrylonitrile Benzoic acid is reduced to give phenol
Oxo processing: Benzoic acid →
LiALH 4
Phenol
C3 H 6 + H 2 + CO 
Cobalt Naphthanol
→ Aldehyde 3. From Benzene
The reaction for aldehyde is known as
hydroformylation reaction. For making of Benzene + Cl2 
FeCl3
→ Monochlorobenzene
alcohols aldehyde undergoes Caustisizing
hydrogenation in presence of Ni catalyst. Monochlorobenzene + NaOH 
→ Sodium Benzoate
Isoprene:
Hydrolysis in acidic medium
Dimerization Sodium Benzoate 
Aq HCl
→ Phenol + NaCl
2 Pr opylene →
Tripropyl alu min ium
2 Methyl − 1 − pentene
Isomerization Phthalic Anhydride:
2 Methyl − 1 − pentene 
HF,H 2SO4
→ 2 Methyl − 2 − pentene
Naphthalene + O 2 
V2 O5
→ Pthalic anhydride + H 2 O
Pyrolysis
OR
2 Methyl − 2 − pentene  
HBr
→ Isoprene + CH 4
o − xylene + O 2 
→ Pthalic anhydride + H 2 O
V2 O5
Butadiene:
− H2
n − Butadiene 
Cromium oxide
→ Butadiene
on alu min a
Maleic Anhydride (MA):
Benzene:
Benzene + O 2 
V2 O5
→ M A + H 2 O + CO 2
Hydroalkylation of toluene to produce benzene
Toluene + H 2 
Cromium oxide
→ Benzene + CH 4 Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane
on alu min a
(DDT) :
Phenol:
Chlorination of ethanol
Phenol is produced by three methods:
C2 H 5OH + Cl2 + H 2 O 
→ Chloral
Monochlorobenzene + Chloral → DDT

Styrene:
1. Alkylation of benzene from ethyl

benzene in presence of AlCl 3
2. Dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene in

presence of FeO
GATE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Styrene is produced from ethyl-

benzene by the process of Group I Group
[GATE-2001] II
(A) dehydrogenation P Oxidation of o-xylene l V2O5
(B) oxidation to phthalic anhydride
(C) alkylation Q Oxidation of ethanol to ll Pd
(D) dehydration acetaldehyde
R Oxidation of ammonia lll Ag
Q. 2 The commonly used solvent in to oxides of nitrogen
supercritical extraction is lV Pt
[GATE-2002] [GATE-2006]
(A) methyl - ethyl – ketone (A) P-1, Q-3, R-4
(B) water (B) P-2, Q-1, R-4
(C) carbon tetrachloride (C) P-4, Q-3, R-1
(D) carbon dioxide (D) P-1, Q-3, R-2
Q. 3 In a refinery, petroleum crude is
Q. 5 The oxo-reaction is used for
fractionated into gas fraction, light ends,
converting
intermediate distillates, heavy distillates,
[GATE-2006]
residues and by products. The group
(A) alcohol to aldehyde
of products including gas oil, diesel oil and
(B) paraffins to olefin
heavy fuel oil belongs to the fraction
(C) olefin to aldehyde
[GATE-2003]
(D) aldehyde to alcohol
(A) heavy distillates
(B) intermediate distillates
(C) light ends
Q. 6 Match the chemicals in Group I with
(D) residues
their functions in Group II.
Q. 4 The chief raw material for the Group I Group II
commercial production for methanol is P Styrene l Buffer
[GATE-2005] Q Tert-dodecyl ll Catalyst
(A) Synthesis gas mercapton
(B) Formaldehyde R Potassium lll Modifier
(C) Acetic acid pyrophosphat
(D) Ethanol e
lV Monomer
Q. 4 Pair the following industrial [GATE-2007]
used in Group II.
P Q R Group I Group II
(A) 1 4 4 P Ammoxidatio l
Aniline from
(B) 4 1 2 n benzene
(C) 4 1 3 Q Nitration ll Benzoic acid
(D) 4 3 1 from toluene
R Dehydrogenat lll Acrylonitrile
Q. 7 Match the products in Group I with ion from propylene
its applications in the industries of Group S Oxidation lV Styrene from
II. ethylbenzene
[GATE-2011]
Group I Group II (A) P-III, Q-I, R-IV, S-II
P Lithium l Cosmetics (B) P-IV, Q-I, R-III, S-II
stearate
(C) P-I, Q-III, R-IV, S-II
Q Magnesium ll Paper
stearate (D) P-I, Q-II, R-III, S-IV
R Aluminium lll Dry cleaning
sulphate Q.10 Pair the following industrial
lV Greases processes in Group I with the catalysts
[GATE-2007] used in
P Q R Group II.
(A) 2 3 1
(B) 3 4 2 Group I Group
(C) 4 2 3 II
(D) 4 1 2 P Fischer tropsch l Nickel
Q Formaldehyde from ll Fe2O3
methanol
Q. 8 Match the petrochemical derivatives
R Hydrogenation of lll Ag
in Group I with the raw materials in vegetable oil
Group
S Dehydrogenation of lV Cobalt
II.
methylbenzene
Group I Group II [GATE-2012]
P Acrylonitrile l Methane
Q Ammonia ll Ethane (A) P-lll, Q-lV, R-l, S-ll
R Dodecene lll Ethylene
lV Propylene (B) P-lV, Q-ll, R-l, S-lll
[GATE-2007]
(C) P-lV, Q-lll, R-l, S-ll
P Q R (D) P-lll, Q-lV, R-ll, S-l
(A) 1 2 1
(B) 2 1 2
(C) 3 4 3
(D) 4 1 4 Q.11 Pair the following industrial
Q. 9 Match the reactions in Group I with
used in Group II.
the products in Group II.
Group I Group II
P Propylene-butanol l Pyrolysis
Q Cumene-phenol ll Dehydrog
enation
R Butane-butadiene lll Hydrofor
mylation
S Ethylene dichloride- lV Peroxiatio
vinyl chloride n
[GATE-2013]
(A) P-3, Q-2, R-4, S-1
(B) P-2, Q-4, R-3, S-1
(C) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4
(D) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A D A A C D D D A C C

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CHEMICAL

1.1 SULFURIC ACID

CONTACT PROCESS Note : Oleum is mixture of H 2 SO 4 & SO 3 .

1ststage-500-600 °C ; 80% conv.

SO 3 product is cooled down and absorbed

Multiple effect evaporation concentrates

Q.21 The DCDA process is used for the

Q. 22 Match the following

2.1 Ammonia production Shift converter

Sweetened hydrocarbon mixed with steam Gas stream containing N 2 , H 2 , small

It then goes to secondary reformer in ( CO + H ) 

 CO + H 2 + air   CO + CO 2  Here only 20% conversion into ammonia is

NH 3 and CO 2 are compressed separately

From the reactor urea, ammonium

The reaction takes place in presence of

Urea is a nitrogen fertilizer which contains

Q.1 Consider the production of ammonia

Q.7 Match the following raw materials

Q.8 Select the wrong statement regarding

Q.9 The purpose of methanation reaction

Blowdown Valve & Blow Tank:

I.Mechanical Screens & Filters:

Manufacturing process: Black liquor which contains 95-98% of

Na 2SO 4 + 2C → Na 2S + 2CO 2 Mg(HSO 3 ) 2 & SO 2

Here water is added to mixture such that Vegetable oil Extraction:

Soaps are generally sodium and potassium

The fats along with catalyst enters the

The mixture then enters flash tank where

Ion Exchange: Detergents are of two types:

Cutter & Rolls:

The cutter cuts sugarcane into small pieces.

Here CaHPO 4 along with milk of lime is

The Clarified overflow solution goes to

The concentrated sugar solution goes to

The mixture of crystal and syrup which is

Q.9 Identify which of the statements are

Q.10 The molecular formula of the

Polymer is derived from the “poly” which

They are also called chain growth polymer.

There are two types of rubber:

Natural rubber (polyisoprene)

Naturally it is derived from hevea trees but Neoprene

iso prene Poly isoprene

It is prepared by reacting butadiene with

4.2 Fibres Nylon 6

Nylon 6,6 Dacron/Terylene

Viscous rayon HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene)

Raw materials: Cellulose These reaction takes place in Presence of 6-

Acetate rayon Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC):

Raw materials: Wood pulp Major portion of chlorine manufactured is

Raw materials: Copper salt Polycarbonate:

This polymers have intermediate

Phenol formaldehyde resin Types of additional polymer

There are two types of phenolI. Bulk polymerisation

Unlike in bulk polymerisation in this the

It involves fine droplets of insoluble

It is carried out by suspending large

Q.12 “Nylon 66’ is so named because [GATE-2017]

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Q.16 Choose the correct statement in

Crude oil is a multicomponent mixture

5.1 Classification of crude: Aromatic

Paraffin These compounds contribute most

They possess unsaturation i.e. they possess