1

Southern Luzon State University

College of Engineering
Lucban, Quezon

A MODULE FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING STUDENT

August 2020

Engr. John E. Tan, PME

 2

Table of Contents

Title Page 1
Table of Contents 2
Introduction 3
DISCUSSION
1st Term Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 4
Fluid Properties 7
Principles of Hydrostatics 12
Pressure Measurement (Manometer) 23
Hydrostatic Force on Plane Geometric Surfaces 28
Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces 34
Buoyancy (Archimedes’ Principle) 42
2 Term
nd

Relative Equilibrium (Uniform Linear Motion) 46

Relative Equilibrium (Rotational Motion) 50
Introduction to Fluid Dynamics (Reynold’s) 54
Continuity Equation, Momentum Equation 55
Momentum Equations
Bernoulli Energy Equation 57
3rd Term
Energy and Head, Power and Efficiency 58
Flow Measurement 60
Flow through an Orifice (Prismatic and Non-prismatic tank) 60
Unsteady Flow through an Orifice 61
Venturimeter and Pitot tube 68
REFERENCES 72
 3

INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is encountered in almost every area of our physical
lives. Blood flows through our veins and arteries, a ship moves through
water and water flows through rivers, airplanes fly in the air and air flows
around wind machines; air is compressed in a compressor and steam
expands around turbine blades; a dam holds back water, air is heated and
cooled in our homes, and computers require air to cool components. All
engineering disciplines require some expertise in the area of fluid
mechanics

COURSE OBJECTIVES

The students should be able to:

1. Identify the different fluid properties and the methods of measuring

them.
2. Apply the principles of conservation of mass, momentum and energy to
fluid systems.
3. Apply the concept of steady incompressible flow in conduits.
 4

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Dimensions, Units, and Physical Quantities

Fluid mechanics, as all other engineering areas, is involved with physical quantities. Such
quantities have dimensions and units. The nine basic dimensions are mass, length time,
temperature, amount of a substance, electric current, luminous intensity, plane angle, and solid angle.
All other quantities can be expressed in terms of these basic dimensions.

Example: Force

Table 1.1 Basic Dimensions and Their Units

Table 1.2 Derived Dimensions and Their Units

 5

Table 1.3 SI Prefixes

Gases and Liquids

The substance of interest in our study of fluid mechanics is a gas or a liquid. We restrict
ourselves to those liquids that move under the action of a shear stress, no matter how small
that shearing stress may be. All gases move under the action of shearing stress but there are
certain substances that do not move until the shear becomes sufficiently large; such substances
are included in the subject of rheology.

Continuum – continuously distributed throughout a region of interest

The molecules are sufficiently close to one another so as to constitute a continuum. To

determine whether the molecules are sufficiently close, we use the mean free path, the average
distance a molecule travels before it collides with a neighboring molecule. If the mean free path is
 6

small compared to a characteristic dimension of a device, the continuum assumption is

reasonable.

If a fluid is a continuum, the density can be defined as:

Actually, the infinitesimal volume cannot be allowed to shrink to zero since near zero
there would be few molecules in the small volume; a small volume would be needed as the limit
in the equation for the definition to be acceptable. This is not a problem for most engineering
applications since there are 2.7 x 1016 molecules in a cubic millimetre of air at standard
conditions.
 7

Fluid Properties

Density (ρ), Specific weight (ɣ), and Specific gravity (S)

Density is related to Specific weight by:

Specific gravity (S) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water and is often
specified for a liquid.

For water, ɣ is taken as 9810 N/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3) the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 01

A reservoir of glycerine has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 m3. Find its (a) weight (kN),
(b) unit weight (kN/m3), (c) mass density (kg/m3), and (d) specific gravity

Prob. No. 02

The specific gravity of a certain fluid is 0.82. Calculate it’s (a) specific weight in lb/ft3 and kN/m3,
and (b) mass density in slugs/ft3 and kg/m3.

Prob. No. 03

If an object has a mass of 22 kg at sea level, (a) what will be its weight at a point where the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.75 m/s2, (b) what will be its mass at that point?

Prob No. 04

A cylindrical tank 80 cm diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the liquid
weighed 420 kg. The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in
kN/m3?
 8

Fluid Properties

Viscosity can be considered to be the internal stickiness of a fluid. It results in a shear

stresses in a flow and accounts for losses in a pipe or the drag on a rocket. It can be related in a
one-dimensional flow to the velocity through a shear stress (T) by:

We can relate the shear to the applied torque as follows:

T = stress x area x moment arm

A device used to measure the viscosity is a viscometer.

 9

A very important effect of viscosity is to cause the fluid to stick to a surface, the no-slip
condition. This no-slip condition results in a very large shear stresses on the surface; this results
in extreme heat. The no-slip condition also gives rise to wall shear in pipes resulting in pressure
drops that require pumps spaced appropriately over the length of a pipe line transporting oil or
gas.

Viscosity is very dependent on temperature. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with

increased temperature but the viscosity of a gas increases with increased temperature. The
viscosity of liquid is due to cohesive forces but in gas, it is due to collisions of molecules; both
phenomena are insensitive to pressure so we note that viscosity depends on temperature only in
both a liquid and a gas.

The viscosity is often divided by density in equations, so we have defined the kinematic
viscosity to be:

Surface Tension (σ)

The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the
intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. Surface tension is the reason that
insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface tension also causes bubbles
and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area per
unit volume.

Consider the free-body diagram of a spherical droplet and a bubble, as shown. The
pressure force inside the droplet balances the force due to surface tension around the
circumference.
 10

Figure 1.5 Free-body diagrams of (a) a droplet and (b) a bubble.

A second application is where a surface tension causes an interesting result is in the rise
of a liquid in a capillary tube. Summin forces on the column of liquid gives:

Figure 1.6 The rise of a liquid in a small tube

Capillarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behaviour of a liquid in a thin-bore
tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the
relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the
containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not
wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch
(9.5mm) in diameter.

For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle θ is 0. Hence, the formula
becomes:

Practice Problems:

Prob. No. 05
 11

If the viscosity of water at 70C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 determine its
absolute viscosity in Pa-s and its kinematic viscosity in m2/s and in stokes.

Prob. No. 06

Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid
viscosity 0.958 Pa-s. assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line, what force is required to
pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m2 area at a constant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm from one
of the surfaces?

Prob. No. 07

A cylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 130 mm radius. Both
cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the
cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is required to maintain an angular velocity of 2ϖ radians/sec.
assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line.

Prob. No. 08

An 18-kg slab slides down 15-degree inclined plane on a 3-mm thick film of oil with viscosity of
0.0814 Pa-s. if the contact area is 0.3 m2, find the terminal velocity (u) of the slab. Neglect air
resistance.

Prob. No. 09

Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 mm. use surface
tension = 0.0728 N/m and unit weight of 9,810 M/m3 for water. (θ=0o)

Prob. No. 10

Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter. Use
surface tension = 0.514 N/m and θ = 140o
 12

Principles of Hydrostatics
In fluid statistics, there is no relative motion between fluid particles, so there are no
shear stresses present (a shear results from a velocity gradient). This does not mean that the fluid
particles are not moving, but only that they are not moving relative to one another; if they are
moving, as in a can of water rotating about its axis, thy move as a solid body. The only stress
involved in a fluid statics is the normal stress, the pressure. It is the pressure acting over an area
that gives rise to the forces in problems involving fluid statics. The three types of problems that are
presented in this chapter are: (1) fluids at rest, as in the design of a dam; (2) fluids undergoing
linear acceleration, as in a rocket; and (3) fluids that are rotating about an axis.

If we desire an expression where the pressure is zero, it would be:

Unit Pressure or Pressure, p

Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body or surface, with the
force acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions.

In English system, pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi); in
international usage, in kilograms per square meters (kg/cm2), or in atmospheres; and in
international metric system (SI), in Newtons per square meter (Pascal). The unit atmosphere (atm)
is defined as a pressure of 1.03323 kg/cm2 (14.696 psi), which, in terms of the conventional
mercury barometer, corresponds to 760 mm (29.921 in) of mercury. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is
defined as a pressure of 0.0102 kg/cm2 (0.145 psi).

Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the pressure on a
fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. In Figure 2-1, as liquid flows into the
large container at the bottom, pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the
container. The liquid rises to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or the angle
of the tube.
 13

Pressure and Temperature

It results from compressive forces acting on an area. The infinitesimal force acting on
the infinitesimal area gives rise to the pressure defined by:

Pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure is called gage pressure; it is what a

gage measures if the gage reads zero before being used to measure the pressure. Absolute
pressure is zero in a volume that is void of molecules, an ideal vacuum. Absolute pressure is
related to gage pressure by the equation:

ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURE

Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure)

Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be measured by
pressure gauges or manometers. For small pressure differences, a U-tube manometer is used. It
consists of a U-shaped tube with one end connected to the container and the other open to the
atmosphere. Filled with a liquid, such as water, oil, or mercury, the difference in the liquid surface
levels in the two manometer legs indicates the pressure differences, a Bourdon gauge, named after
the French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is used. This consists of a hollew metal tube with an oval
cross section, bent in the shape of a hook. One end of the tube is closed, the other open and
connected to the measurement region.

Atmospheric Pressure and Vacuum

Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth’s surface from the weight
of the air above it. A vacuum is a space that has all matter removed from it. It is impossible to creat a
perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some molecules are
always present in the vacuum area. Even remote regions of outer space have a small amount of gas.
A vacuum can also be described as a region of space where the pressure is less than the normal
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury.

Under normal conditions at sea level:

Absolute Pressure

Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum).

 14

Note:

 Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed. It is the lowest possible pressure attainable.
 Absolute pressure can never be negative.
 The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the ambient atmospheric pressure.

Figure 2.2 Absolute and gage pressure

 15

Table C. Properties of the Standard Atmosphere

There are two (2) most common scales used in measuring temperature. The absolute
scale when using temperature in degrees Celsius is the kelvin (K) scale and the absolute scale
when using temperature in degrees Farenheit is the Rankine scale. We use the following
conversions:

Sample Problems:

#1. A pressure of 28 kPa is measured at an elevation of 2000 m. what is the absolute pressure in:
(a) kPa, (b) lb/in2, (c) mmHg, (d) ft of water

#2. A gage reads a vacuum of 24 kPa. What is the absolute pressure at: (a) sea level, (b) 4000 m, (c)
8000 m

#3. A temperature of 20oC is measured at a certain location. What is the temperature in: (a) Kelvin,
(b) degrees Farenheit, (c) degrees Rankine

VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE

Mercury Barometer

A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in

atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9 in)
up a calibrated glass tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings because the atmosphere is less
thense there, and the thinner air exerts less pressure on the mercury.
 16

Aneroid Barometer

In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated metal drum expands or contracts in response

to changes in air pressure. A series of levers and springs translates the up and down movement of
the drum top into the circular motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometer’s face.
 17

Practice Problems (Variations in Pressure)

Prob. No. 01

If the pressure 23 meters below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine its unit weight (kN/m 3), mass
density (kg/m3), and specific gravity.

Prob. No. 02

If the pressre at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa, what is the pressure 27 meters below this point?
 18

Prob. No. 03

Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10 m below the free surface of oil of specific gravity
0.75, if the barometric reading is 752 mmHg.

Prob. No. 04

A pressure gage 6m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 kPa. Another gage
height 4 m reads 103 kPa. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid.

Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids

Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the top under
a gage pressure of pA, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is:

Pressure Head

The pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit weight γ that
will produce an intensity of pressure p.

To convert pressure head (height) of a liquid A to liquid B:

To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, just multiply its height by its
specific gravity:
 19

Prob. No. 05

In the figure shown below, if the atmospheric pressure is 101. 03 kPa, and the absolute pressure at
the bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa,

a) What is the gage pressure at the bottom of the tank?

b) What is the specific gravity of the olive oil?

Prob. No. 06

Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m3, what is the approximate height of Mt.
Banahaw is mercury barometers located at the base and at the top of the mountain reads (at the
same instant) 654 mm and 480 mm, respectively?

Prob. No. 07

The fuel gage for a gasoline (s=0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage. If the tank
is 30 cm deep and accidentally contaminated with 2 cm of water, how many centimeters of gasoline
does the tank actually contain when the gage erroneously reads “FULL”?

Prob. No. 08

In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?

Prob. No. 09
 20

For the tank shown, h1=3m, and h3=4m. Determine the value of h2.

Practice Problems (Pressure and Forces):

Prob. No. 01

A hydraulic press is use to raise an kN cargo truck. If oil of s = 0.82 acts on the piston under a
pressure of 10 Mpa, what diameter of piston is required?

Prob. No. 02

A drum, 700 mm diameter and filled with water, has a vertical pipe 20 mm diameter attached to the
top. How many Newtons of water must be poured into the pipe to exert a force of 6,500 N on top of
the drum?

Prob. No. 03

A hydraulic press shown below is filled with oil (s=0.82). Neglecting the weight of the pistons, what
force F acting on the handle is required to support 10 kN weight?
 21

Prob. No. 04

The figure below shows a set up with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What force F is
required to balance the weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is negligible?

QUIZ NO. 1
#1. If an abject that occupies 0.009 m3 of space has a weight of 200 N at point where the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.75 m/s2; what will be its mass (kg), weight (kN), density (kg/m3),
and unit weight (kN/m3) at a point where the the acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2.

#2. If the capillary depression of mercury (surface tension = 0.514 N/m, 2 = 13.6) in a glass
capillary tube 1.5 mm in radius is 7.5 mm, estimate for the angle θ that the mercury inside the tube
makes with the vertical.

#3. A square block weighing 1,100 N and 250 mm on an edge slides down a 20o incline on a film of
oil 6um thick. Assuming a linear velocity profile in the oil and neglecting air resistance, what is the
terminal velocity of the block? The viscosity of oil is 7 mPa-s.

#4. A cylinder of 250 mm diameter rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 270 mm
diameter. Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the
space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.75 N-m is required to maintain an angular velocity of 2
revolutions per second. Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line.

#5. In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure at this instant is 720 mmHg, and the absolute
pressure at the bottom of the tank is 250 kPa,

a) What is the gage pressure at the bottom of the tank?

b) What is the height of glycerin?

 22

#6. The figure shows a set up with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What force F is
required to balance the weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is negligible?
 23

Pressure Measurement; Manometer

MANOMETER

A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid/s to measure pressure rather

than using pressure gage.

Since point 4 is shown to be open to the atmosphere, the pressure there is zero gage pressure.

Note that a point is positioned at all interfaces. Some manometers will have several fluids with several
interfaces. Each interface should be located with a point when analysing the manometer.

Types of Manometer

Open type – has an atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring gage pressures

Differential type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only differences of
pressure

Piezometer – simplest form of open manometer. A tube tapped into a wall of a container or conduit
for the purpose of measuring pressure. The fluid in the container rises int his tube to form free
surface.

Sample Problems:

Prob. No. 01

For the manometer shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.
 24

Prob. No. 02

For the manometer setup shown, determine the difference in pressure between A and B.

Problems for Practice:

Prob. No. 01

Determine the value of y in the manometer shown in the figure.

 25

Prob. No. 02

The pressure at a point “m” in the figure shown was increased from 70 kPa to 105 kPa. This caused
the top level of mercury to move 20 cm in the sloping tube. What is the inclination, θ?

Prob. No. 03

The U-tube shown is 10 mm in diameter and contains mercury. If 12 mL of water is poured on the
right leg, what are the ultimate heights in the two legs?
 26

Prob. No. 04

For a gage reading of -17.10 kPa, determine the (a) elevations of the liquids in the open piezometer
columns E, F, and G; (b) the deflection of the mercury in the U-tube manometer neglecting the
weight of the air.

Prob. No. 05

For the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the piston if the pressure gage reading is 70
kPa.
 27

Prob. No. 06

A differential manometer is attached to a pipe as shown. Calculate the pressure difference between
points A and B.

Prob. No. 07

In the figure shown, determine the difference in pressure between points A and B.
 28

Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

The force (F) on the plane surface is due to the pressure (p=γh) acting over area (A).
29
 30

Sample Problems:

Prob. No. 01

A vertical rectangular plane of height “d” and base “b” is submerged in a liquid with its top edge at
the liquid surface. Determine the total force “F” acting on one side and its location from the liquid
surface.
 31

Prob. No. 02

A vertical triangular plane of height “d” and horizontal base “b” is submerged in a liquid with its
vertex at the liquid surface. Determine the total force “F” acting on one side and its location from
the liquid surface.

Prob. No. 03

A vertical circular gate of radius “r” is submerged in a liquid with its top edge flushed on the liquid
surface. Determine the magnitude and location of the total force “F” acting on one side of the gate.

Prob. No. 04

A vertical triangular gate 1.50 m wide and 3 m high is submerged in water with its top edge 2 m
below the water surface. Find the total pressure acting on one side of the gate and its location from
the bottom of the gate.

Prob. No. 05

A vertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5 m wide is 3 m high. It is submerged in oil
having s = 0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2 m. Determine the magnitude and
location of the total hydrostatic pressure acting on one side of the gate.

Prob. No. 06

A vertical rectangular plate is submerged half in oil (s = 0.80) and half in water such that its top
edge is flushed with the oil surface. What is the ratio of the force exerted by water acting on the
lower half to that by oil acting on the upper half?

Prob. No. 07

A vertical circular gate in a tunnel 8 m in diameter has oil (s = 0.8) on one side and air on the other
side. If oil surface is 12 m above the invert and the air pressure is 40 kPa, where will a single
support be located (above the invert of the tunnel) to hold the gate in position?

Prob. No. 08

A cylindrical tank 2 m in diameter and 8 m deep with axis vertical contains oil (s = 0.8) 6 m deep.
The air above the liquid surface has a pressure of 0.80 kg/cm 2. Determine the total normal force in
kg acting on the wall and its location from the bottom of the tank.

Prob. No. 09

In the figure, stop B will break id the force on it reaches 40 kN. Find the critical water depth. The
length of the gate is 1.50 m.
 32

Prob. No. 10

The gate shown is 1.5 m wide, hinged at A, and rests against a smooth wall at B. Compute (a) the
total force on the gate due to seawater, (b) the reaction at B, and (c) the reaction at A. Neglect the
weight of the gate.

Prob. No. 11

Determine the magnitude and location of the total hydrostatic force acting on the 2 m x 4 m gate
shown.
33
 34

Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

CASE NO. 1

Fluid is above the curved surface

Sample Problem

The submerged curve AB is one quarter of a circle of radius 2 m and is located on the lower corner
of a tank shown. The length of the tank perpendicular to the sketch is 4 m. Find the magnitude and
location of the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on AB.

Sample Problem

The crest gate shown consists of a cylindrical surface of which AB is the base supported by a
structural frame hinged at O. The length of the gate is 10 m. Compute the magnitude and location of
the horizontal and vertical components of the total pressure on AB.
 35

CASE NO. 2

Fluid is below the curved surface

 36

Sample Problem

Calculate the magnitude of the resultant pressure on a 1-ft wide strip of a semicircular tainter gate
shown.

Sample Problem

The gate shown is a quarter circle 2.5 m wide. Find the force F just sufficient to prevent rotation
about hinge B. Neglect the weight of the gate.

CASE NO. 3

Fluids both above and below the curved surface

 37

Sample Problem

Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force per meter length due to water acting on the radial
tainter gate shown.

Determine the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical components of the total force per meter
length acting on the three-quarter cylinder gate shown

Sample Problem

The 1.20 m diameter cylinder; 1.20 m long is acted upon by water on the left and oil having s = 0.80
on the right. Determine the components of the reaction at B if the cylinder weighs 19.62 kN.
 38

HOMEWORK

Determine the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on the
cylinder per meter of its length.

QUIZ NO. 2

(5 points)

A glass U-tube open to the atmosphere at both ends is shown. If the tube contains oil and water,
determine the specific gravity of the oil.
 39

(5 points)

The 1.20 m diameter cylinder 2.00 m long is acted upon by water on the left and oil having s = 0.80
on the right. Determine the height of water for the horizontal component of the reaction at B to be
zero, if the height of oil is 1.20 meters.

(10 points)

A cylindrical tank contains water at a height of 55 mm. inside is a small open cylindrical tank
containing clean fluid (s=0.8) at a height h. The pressure pB=13.4 kPa gage, and pc=13.42 kPa gage.
Assume that the cleaning fluid is prevented from moving to the top of the tank (Ɣwater=9.79 kN/m3).

(a) Determine the pressure pA in kPa,

(b) Determine the value of “h” in mm, and

(c) the value of “y” in mm.

 40

(10 points)

The gate in the figure below weighs 5 kN for each meter normal to the sketch. Its center of gravity is
0.50 m from the left face and 0.60 m above the lower face. Find “h” for the gate just to come up to
the vertical position.

(20 points)

Determine the force P needed to just open the 2-m wide parabolic gate, if the hinge is at the
following y-position in the xy-plane:

Odd: H = 2 meters

Even: H = 8 meters
41
 42

BUOYANCY (ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE)

The principle of Archimedes is as follows: “A body submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid”.

The submerged body has volume V and completely surrounded by a fluid of specific weight
w. It is divided into vertical elements of volume such ass the typical prism shown with ends at
points 1 and 2. Accordingly, the pressure forces at these ends are dF 1= p1dA and dF2=p2dA,
respectively, where p1 and p2 are the intensities of pressure at the endpoints, and dA is the uniform
cross sectional area of the prism. The unbalanced elemental force on the prism is

dF = dF2-dF1 or (p2 – p1) dA

dF = whdA = wdV

in which dV = hdA is the volume of the prism. The direction of the resultant elementary force dF is
upward; the magnitude of dF which is equal to wdV is the weight of the fluid displaced by the prism.

Fb = wV

The product wV is the total weight of the displaced fluid which is also known as the displacement of
the body. It is the buoyant force or static lift and acts through the center of the gravity of the
displaced fluid, which point is called the center of buoyancy.WB – Fb = W’B W’B is called the
apparent weight of the body or weight in liquid. The body will sink if WB (weight in air)is greater
 43

than Fb (Buoyant Force} unless external force acts upon the body.
44
45
 46

Relative Equilibrium of Fluids: Rectilinear Motion

Relative equilibrium of liquid is a condition where the whole mass of liquid including
the vessel in which the liquid is contained, is moving at uniform accelerated motion with
respect to the earth, but every particle of liquid have no relative motion between each other.
There are two cases of relative equilibrium that will be discussed in this section: linear
translation and rotation. Note that if a mass of liquid is moving with constant speed, the
conditions are the same as static liquid in the previous sections.

UNIFORM LINEAR MOTION

 Horizontal Motion – If a mass of fluid moves horizontally along a straight line at constant
acceleration a, the liquid surface assume an angle θ with the horizontal, see figure below.

For any value of a, the angle θ can be found by considering a fluid particle of mass m on the
surface. The forces acting on the particle are the weight W = mg, inertia force or reverse effective
force REF = ma, and the normal force N which is the perpendicular reaction at the surface. These
three forces are in equilibrium with their force polygon shown to the right.

 Inclined Motion – Consider a mass of a fluid being accelerated up and incline α from
horizontal. The horizontal and vertical components of inertia force REF would be
respectively, x = mah and y=mav.
 47

Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for downward motion.

 Vertical Motion – The figure shown to the right is a mass of liquid moving vertically
upward with a constant acceleration a. the forces acting to a liquid column of depth h from
the surface are weight of the liquid W = γV, the inertia force REF = ma, and the pressure
F=pA at the bottom of the column.

Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign

for downward motion. Also note that a is
positive for acceleration and negative for
deceleration.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 01

An open rectangular tank mounted on a truck is 5 m long, 2 m wide and 2.5 m high is filled with
water to a depth of 2 m.

(a) What maximum horizontal acceleration can be imposed on the tank without spilling any water?

(b) Determine the accelerating force on the liquid mass.

(c) if the acceleration is increased to 6 m/s2, how much water is spilled out?
 48

Prob. No. 02

A closed horizontal cylindrical tank 1.5 m in diameter and 4 m long is completely filled with
gasoline (sp. Gr. = 0.82) and accelerated horizontally at 3 m/s 2. Find the total force on the fluid
mass.

Prob. No. 03

A closed rectangular tank 4 m long, 2 m wide, and 2 m high is filled with water to a depth of 1.8 m. If
the allowable force at the rear wall of the tank is 200 kN, how fast can it be accelerated
horizontally?

Prob. No. 04

A vessel containing oil is accelerated on a plane inclined 15o with the horizontal at 1.2 m/s2.
Determine the inclination of the oil surface when the motion is (a) upwards, and (b) downwards.
 49

Prob. No. 05

An open tank containing oil (sp. Gr. = 0.8) is accelerated vertically at 8 m/s 2. Determine the
pressure 3 m below the surface if the motion is (a) upward with a positive acceleration, (b) upward
with a negative acceleration, (c) downward with a positive acceleration, and (d) downward with a
negative acceleration.

Prob. No. 06

A cylindrical water tank used in lifting water to the top of a tower is 1.5 m high. If the pressure at
the bottom of the tank must not exceed 16 kPa, what maximum vertical acceleration can be
imposed in the cylinder when it is filled with water?
 50

RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF FLUIDS:

ROTATIONAL MOTION

When at rest, the surface mass of liquid is horizontal at PQ as shown in the figure below.
When this mass of liquid is rotated about a vertical axis at constant angular velocity ω radian per
second, it will assume the surcae ABC which is parabolic. Every particle is subjected to centrifugal
force CF = mω2x which produces centripetal acceleration towards the center of rotation. Other
forces that acts are gravity force W = mg and normal force N.

For a cylindrical vessel of radius r revolved about its vertical axis, the height h of the
paraboloid is:

OPEN CYLINDER
 51

ROTATIONAL MOTION

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 01

An open xylindrical vessel 1.2 m in diameter and 2.1 m high is 2/3 full of water. Compute the
amount of water in liters that will be spilled out if the vessel is rotated about its vertical axis at a
constant angular speed of 90 rpm.

Prob. No. 02

An open cylindrical vessel having a height equal to its diameter is half-filled with water and
revolved about its own vertical axis with a constant angular speed of 120 rpm. Find its minimum
diameter so that there can be no liquid spilled.

Prob. No. 03

An open cylindrical tank, 2m in diameter and 4 m high contains water to a depth of 3 m. It is rotated
about its own vertical axis with a constant angular speed ω.

(a) If ω = 3 rad/sec, is there any liquid spilled?

(b) What maximum value of ω (in rpm) can be imposed without spilling any liquid?

(c) If ω = 8 rad/s, how much water is spilled out and to what depth will the water stand when
brought to rest?
 52

(d) What angular speed ω (in rpm) will just zero the depth of water at the center of the tank?

(e) If ω = 100 rpm, how much area at the bottom of the tank is uncovered?

CLOSED CYLINDER
 53

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 04

A 1.90 m diameter closed cylinder, 2.75 m high is completely filled with oil having sp. Gr. 0.8 under
a pressure of 5 kg/cm2 at the top.

(a) What angular speed can be imposed on the cylinder so that the maximum pressure at the
bottom of the tank is 14 kg/m2?

(b) Compute the pressure force exerted by oil on the side of the tank in kg.

Prob. No. 05

A closed cylindrical vessel, 2 m in diameter and 4 m high is filled with water to a depth of 3 m and
rotated about its own vertical axis at a constant angular speed, ω. The air inside the vessel is under
a pressure of 120 kPa.

(a) If ω = 12 rad/sec, what is the pressure at the center and circumference at the bottom of the
tank?

(b) What angular speed ω will just zero the depth of water at the center?

(c) If ω = 20 rad/sec, how much area at the bottom is uncovered?

Prob. No. 06

A 1.8 m diamter closed cylinder, 2.7 m high is completely filled with glycerin having sp.gr. of 1.6
under a pressure of 245 kPa at the top. The steel plates which form the cylinder ate 5 mm thick with
an ultimate tensile stress of 82 MPa. How fast can it be rotated about its vertical axis to the point of
bursting?
 54

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID DYNAMICS

This chapter deals with the fluids in motion which is based on the following principles: (a) the
principle of conservation of mass, (b) the energy principle (kinetic and potential), and (c) the
principle of momentum.

DISCHARGE, Q

Discharge is the amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of time. This is
expressed as mass flow rate, weight flow rate and volume flow rate (flow rate).

Volume flow rate (Q) = Av

Mass flow rate (M) = ρQ

Weight flow rate (W) = ɣQ

Q = discharge in m3/s or ft3/s

A = cross-section area of flow in m2 or ft2
v = velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s

TYPES OF FLOW

Steady vs Unsteady

Steady flow occurs when Q passing a given A is constant with time.

Unsteady flow occurs when Q at a given A varies with time.

Uniform vs Non-uniform

For steady flow at a given reach, uniform flow occurs when the average v is the same at
every cross-section (usually occurs when an incompressuble fluid dlows through a stream with
uniform cross section). Non-uniform flow occurs when v changes and A changes.

Laminar vs Turbulent

Laminar Flow occurs when the path of indicudual fluid particles do not cross or
intersect. Reynold’s number is less than 2100, while turbulent flow occurs when the said path are
irregular and continuously cross each other, Reynold’s number is more than 4000.

Flow Dimensions

One-dimensional flow occurs when in a incompressible fluid, the direction and

magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical; while two-dimensional flow occrs when
fluid particles move in planes or parallel lines and the streamline patterns are identical in
each plane.

Continuous Flow

Continuous flow occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at every section of the stream
is the same. (Principle of conservation of mass)

Continuity Equation

For incompressible fluids; Constant Q = A1v1 = A2v2 = A3v3

 55

For compressible fluids; Constant Q = ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 = ρ3A3v3

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 01

Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/s. Find (a) the volume flow rate
m3/s and lit/s, (b) the mass flow rate in kg/s and (c) the weight flow rate in N/s.

Prob. No. 02

What is the rate flow of water passing through a pipe with a diameter of 10 mm and speed of 2m/s?

Prob. No. 03

Air at 300C and 110 kPa flows at 20 N/s through rectangular duct that measure 160 mm x 320 mm.
Compute for the average velocity and volume flux. Use gas constant R=29.3m/ 0K.

Prob. No. 04

A 100 mm diameter plunger is being pushed at 60 mm/s

into a tank filled with oil having s = 0.82. If the fluid is
incompressible, how many N/s of oil is being forced out of a
30 mm diameter hole?

Prob. No. 05

If the velocity off flow in a 75-mm diameter fire hose is 0.5 m/s, what is the velocity in a 25 mm
diamter jet issuing from a nozzle attached at the end of the pipe? Compute also the power available
in the jet.

ENERGY AND HEAD

Kinetic Energy

The ability of fluid mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. (momentum pinciple)

Potential Energy (Elevation Energy)

 56

The energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect to a
given datum.

Potential Energy (Pressure Energy)

The energy possessed by a fluid by virtue of the pressure

Total Energy (E)

The sum of the kinetic and potential energy

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 + 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔

Total Energy Head:

POWER (P)

Power is the rate which work is done

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 06

A turbine is rated at 600 hp when the flow of water through it is 0.61 m3/s. Assuming efficiency of
87%, what is the head acting on the turbine?
 57

Prob. No. 07

A standpipe 5 m in diameter and 10 m high is filled with water. Calculate the potential energy of the
water if the elevation datum is taken 2 m below the base of the standpipe.

Prob. No. 08

Determine the Kinetic Energy flux of 0.02m 3/s of oil (s=0.85) discharging through a 50mm diameter
nozzle.

Prob. No. 09

Neglecting air resistance, determine to what height a vertical jet of water could rise if projected
with a velocity of 20 m/s.

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

Bernoulli Principle (Principle of Conservation of Energy)

In physics, Bernoulli’s principle states that as the speed of a moving fluid increases, the
pressure wiithin that fluid decreases. It also states that the total energy in a steadily flowing fluid
system is constant along the flow path. An increase in speed must therefore be matched by a
decrease in its pressure.

Energy Equation without Head lost

Energy Equation with Head lost

 58

Prob. No. 10

A pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.877

changes in size from 150 mm at section 1 and 450
mm at section 2. Section 1 is 3.6 m below section 2
and the pressures are 90 kPa and 60 kPa
respectively. If the discharge is 150 lit/sec,
determine the head lost and the direction of flow.

Prob. No. 11

The pump shown draws water from reservoir A at elevation 10 m and lifts it to reservoir B at
elevation 60 m. The loss of head from A to 1 is two times the velocity head in the 200 mm diameter
pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is ten times the velocity head in the 150 mm diameter pipe.
Determine the rated horsepower of the pump and the pressure heads at 1 and 2 in meters when the
discharge is 0.03 m3/sec.

Prob. No. 12

Water enters a motor through a 600 mm diameter pipe under a pressure of 14 kPa. It leaves
through a 900 mm diameter exhaust pipe with a pressure of 4 kPa. A vertical distance of 2.5 m
separates the centers of the two pipes at the sections where the pressures are measured. If 500
liters of water pass the motor each second, compute the power supplied to the motor.
 59

Prob. No. 13

A fire pump delivers water through a 300 mm diameter main hydrant to which is connected a
cotton rubber-lined fire hose 100 mm in diamter terminating to a 25 mm diameter nozzle. The
nozzle is 2.5 m above the hydrant and 16 m above the pump. Assuming frictional losses of 3 m from
the pump to the hydrant, 2 m in the hydrant, 10 m from the hydrant to the base of the nozzle, and
the loss in the nozzle of 4% of the velocity head in the jet, to what verticalheight can the jet be
thrown of the gage pressure right after the pump is 550 kPa?

Prob. No. 14

A nozzle inclined at an angle of 60o with the horizontal issues a 50 mm diameter water jet at the
rate of 10 m/s. Neglecting air resistance, what is the area of the jet at the highest point of the
projectile?

Prob. No. 15

A 50 mm diameter siphon discharges oil (s=0.82) from a reservoir (EL. 20m) into ope air (EL. 15m).
The head loss from the reservoir (point 1) to the summit (point 2, EL. 22m) is 1.5m and from the
summit to the discharge end is 2.4 m. Determine the flow rate in the pipe in lit/sec and the absolute
pressure at the summit assuming atmospheric pressure to be 101.3 kPa.
 60

FLOW MEASUREMENT ORIFICE

There are numerous number of devices used to measure the flow of fluids. In any of
these devices, the Bernouli’s Energy Theorem is greatly utilized and additional knowledge of the
characteristics and coefficients of each device is important.

DEVICE COEFFICIENTS

Coefficient of Discharge, C

The ratio of the actual discharge through the device to the ideal or theroetical dischrage
which would occur without losses.

Coefficeint of Velocity, Cv

The ratio of the actual mean velocity to the ideal or theoretical velocity which would occur
without any losses.

Coefficeint of Contraction, Cc

The ratio of the actual area of the contracted section of the stream or jet to the area of
opening through which the flui flows.

Relationship between Coefficients

C = Cv x Cc

Head Lost

If the orifice takes off directly from a tank where A1 is very much greater than A2, the velocity of
approach is negligible.

ORIFICE

Orifice is an opening (usually circular) with closed perimeter through which fluid flows.
It is used primarily to measure or to control flow if fluid. The upstream of an orifice may be
rounded or sharp.
 61

Orifice under Low Heads

When the head on a vertical orifice is

small in comparison with the height of the
orifice, there is an appreciable difference
between discharges using the previous
analysis.

Unsteady Flow

When the head on an opening is variable

 62

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Prob. No. 01

A volumetric tank 1.20 m in diameter and 1.50 m high was filled with oil in 16 minutes and 32.4
seconds. What is the average discharge?

Prob. No. 02

A weigh tank receives 7.65 kg of liquid having specific gravity of 0.86 in 14.9 sec. What is the flow
rate in liters per minute?

Prob. No. 03

Calculate the discharge in liters per second through a 100 mm orifice under a head of 5.5 m of
water. Assume Cc=0.61 and Cv=0.98.

Prob. No. 04
 63

An orifice has a coefficient discharge of 0.62 and a coefficient of contraction of 0.63. Determine the
coefficient of velocity for the orifice.

Prob. No. 05

Calculate the discharge through the 140 mm diameter of orifice shown. Assume C = 0.62.

Prob. No. 06

An open cylindrical tank, 2.4 m in diameter and 5 m tall has 1 m of glycerin (Sg = 1.5), 2.5 m of
water, and 1.5 m of oil (So = 0.82). Determine the discherge throughout the 125 mm diamter located
at the bottom of the tank. Assume C = 0.65

Prob. No. 07

A calibration test of a 12.5 mm diamter circular sharp-edged orifice in a vertical side of a large tank
showed a discharge of 590 N of water in 81 seconds at a constant head of 4.70 m. Measurement of
 64

the jet showed that it traveled 2.35 m horizontally while dropping 300 mm. Compute the three
orifice coefficients.

Prob. No. 08

Water flows through an orifice at the vertical side of a large tank under constant head of 2.4 m. How
far horizontally from the vena contracta will the jet strike the ground 1.5 m below the orifice?

Prob. No. 09

A large closed cylindrical steel tank 4 m high with its botom on a level ground contains two layers of
liquid. The bottom layer is water 2 meters deep. The top layer is occupied by a liquid whose specific
gravity is not known, to a depth of 1 m. The air space at the top is pressurized to 16 kPa above
atmosphere. A 50 mm diameter orifice with a coefficient of velocity of 0.98 is situated one meter
from the bottom of the tank. The jet from the orifice hits the ground 3.5 m horizontally away from
the vena contracta. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid at the top layer.
 65

Prob. No. 10

The initial head on an orifice was 9 m and when the flow was terminated, the head was measured at
4 m. Under what constant head H would the same orifice discharge the same volume of water in the
same interval of time?

Prob. No. 11

An open cylindrical tank 4 m in diameter and 10 m high contains 6 m of water and 4 m of oil
(sp.gr.=0.8). Find the time to empty the tank through a 100-mm diameter orifice at the bottom.
Assume CC=0.9 and Cv=0.98.
 66

Prob. No. 12

A composite non-prismateic 5 m high cylindrical tank shown has a frustum

of a come at the bottom with upper base diamter 2.5 m, 1.25 m diameter at
the bottom, and 2 m high. The bottom contains 100 mm diameter sharp
edged orifice with coefficient of discharge of 0.60. If fully filled to the top,
determine the time to empty the tank in minutes.
 67

Prob. No. 13

A tank in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone 1.50 m in diameter and the bottom, 3 m
diameter at the top, and 3.5 m high, is full of water. A sharp-edged orifice with C = 0.62 is located at
the bottom of the tank. What diameter of the orifice is needed to empty the tank in eight minutes?
 68

VENTURI METER AND PITOT TUBE

Venturi meter is an instrument used in

measuring the discharge through pipes.

Venturi principle: the increase in kinetic

energy is equal to the decrease in potential
energy

The theoretical or ideal discharge “Qt” can be found once v1 or v2 is known. The actual
discharge “Q” is computed by multiplying the theoretical value by the coefficient of discharge or
meter coefficient “C”.

Q = C x Qt
Note: If we neglect the head lost in our energy equation, the values we get are known as theoretical
or ideal values (theoretical velocity and theoretical discharge). Considering head lost, we get the
actual values (actual velocity and actual discharge).

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Prob. No. 01

A horizontal 150 mm diameter pipe gradually reduces its section to 50 mm diameter, subsequently
enlarging into 150 mm section. The pressure in the 150 mm pipe at a point just before entering the
reducing section is 140 kPa and in the 50 mm section at the end of the reducer, the pressure is 70
kPa. If 600 mm of head is lost between the points where the pressures are known, compute the rate
of flow of water through the pipe.

Prob. No. 02

A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water main. The
deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the inlet to the throat is 375
mm.

(a) Determine the discharge neglecting head lost.

(b) Compute the discharge if the head lost from the inlet to the throat is 300 mm of water, and

(c) What is the meter coefficient?

 69

Prob. No. 03

A vertical Venturi meter, 150 mm in diameter is connected to a 300

mm diameter pipe. The vertical distance from the inlet to the throat
being 750 mm. If the deflection of mercury in the differential
manometer connected from the inlet to the throat is 360 mm,
determine the flow of water through the meter if the meter
coefficient is 0.68. Determine also the head lost from the inlet to the
throat.

Pitot Tube

Named after the French physicist and engineer Henri Pitot, Pitot tube is bent (L-shaoed or
U-shaped) tube with both ends open and is used to measure the velocity of fluid flow or velocity of
air flow as used in airplane speedometer.

When the tube is placed in a moving stream with open end oriented into the direction of
flow, the liquid enters the opening at point 2 until the surface in the tube rises a distance h above
the stream surface. An equilibrium condition is then established, and the quantity of liquid in the
tube remains unchanged as the flow remains steady. Point 2 at the face of the tube facing the stream
is called the stagnation point.

Consider a particle at point 1 to moving with a velocity of v. As the particel approaches point
2, its velocity is gradually retarded to 0 at point 2. Writing the enrgy equation between 1 and 2
neglecting friction:
 70

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Prob. No. 01

A glass tube with a 900 bend is open at both ends. It is

inserted into a flowing stream of oil (sp.gr.=0.90) so that
one of the opening is directed upstream and the other is
directed upward. If the oil inside the tube is 50 mm
higher than the surface outside, determine the velocity
measured by the tube.

Prob. No. 02

A Pitot-static tube (C=1.0) is used to

measure air speeds. With water in the
differential manometer, and a gage
difference of 75 mm, calculate the air
speed using ρair = 1.16 kg/m3.
 71

Prob. No. 03

A Pitot tube in the pipe in which air is

flowing is connected to a manometer
containing water as shown in the figure. If
the difference in water levels in the
manometer is 87.5 mm, what is the velocity
of flow in the pipe, assuming a tube
coefficient, Cp=0.99?
 72

REFERENCES

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, Revised Ed. By Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania

Hydraulics, Reference Text, SI Ed. , By Ruben A. De La Fuente, Ma. Trinidad E. De La Rosa, and Pedro
T. Templo Jr.

Fluid Mechanics for Engineers by M.L. Albertson, J.R. Barton, and D. B. Simons