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Educational leadership and management in an international school context.

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Educational leadership
and management in an
international school
context
Mark Atkinson
It is evident that schools require effective leaders and
managers if they are to achieve success and provide a world
class education for their learners. As addressed by The
Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam (MOET,
2012) ‘the system of education and finance management is
still weak. There is a shortage of primary education
managers and they lack high qualification...’This study
aims to provide empirical evidence by critically analysing
University of Derby leadership models and styles that are most likely to achieve
the best outcomes and to which leadership can be
Faculty of Education understood in an international school context. Senior and
Middle leadership members were interviewed and
Kedleston Road, Derby observed; qualitative data was then triangulated to ensure
validity and reliability. Data suggests that the institution
DE22 1GB operates most successfully under a transformational vision
built on values and beliefs, supported by a strong
participative and collaborative leadership style.
Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 2

1.1 What is educational leadership? Page 3
1.2 Values and leadership Page 3
1.3 Vision – A product of values Page 6
1.4 Distinguishing educational leadership and management Page 7
Chapter 2 Decentralisation, self-management and management Page 9
systems
2.1 Decentralisation and self-management Page 9
2.2 Analysing educational systems Page 11
2.3 Systems models Page 12
Chapter 3 Theories of educational leadership and management Page 15
3.1 The nature of theory Page 15
3.2 Theories of practice Page 16
Transformational leadership Page 16
Participative leadership Page 19
Distributed leadership Page 20
Chapter 4 Methodology Page 22
4.1 Aim Page 22
4.2 Participants Page 22
4.3 Measures Page 22
4.4 Procedure Page 23
4.5 Interview data Page 23
4.6 Research plan Page 24
Chapter 5 Results and analysis Page 25
Chapter 6 Discussion and further work Page 30
6.1 Re-statement of aim Page 30
6.2 Achieving the vision Page 30
6.3 Curriculum management Page 32
6.4 Delegated roles and staff motivation Page 33
6.5 Leaders and personality Page 34
6.6 Strategic focus Page 34
6.7 Further work Page 39
References Page 40
Appendix 1 Page 46
Appendix 2 Page 48
1
Chapter 1 - Introduction

According to Bush (2010) there is great interest in educational leadership because of the belief that

the quality of leadership makes a significant difference to school and student outcomes.

It is evident that schools require effective leaders and managers if they are to achieve success and

provide a world class education for their learners.

Due to the increase in commercialism and an injection of wealth, there is a new demand to meet a

western style of education, particularly in Asia. Asian and Middle Eastern countries are seeking to

find an answer to successful leadership and management in education.

Because of such growing demands for a British or Western style education, developing countries in

South East Asia, such as Vietnam, are aiming to match their neighbouring counterparts, such as

Japan and South Korea in their rise to the top 5 best education systems in the world.

As addressed by The Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam (MOET, 2012) ‘the system of

education and finance management is still weak. There is a shortage of primary education managers

and they lack high qualification...’

This study aims to provide empirical evidence by critically analysing leadership models and styles

that are most likely to achieve the best outcomes.

This study will also aim to provide a clear framework to which leadership can be understood within

the international school context, based on the authors own experience as a British International

school, in Vietnam and will be referred to as the institution. Linking their traditional philosophies as

a clear vision, this study aims to analyse appropriate leadership strategies within the institution in a

bid to raise the standard of education and educational outcomes around the whole of Vietnam.

2
 1.1 - What is Educational Leadership?

Leadership in schools is the most important factor in achieving improvements in school

performance. Leaders make a significant difference in any organisation. There is no single way to

lead which can guarantee success, leadership in situated and contextual, involving issues such as

diversity, inclusion and equity and embracing change to embed social justice. Yukl (2002, pp. 4-5)

argues that the definition of leadership is arbitrary and very subjective. Given that there is more

than one way to lead, perhaps a combination of many and what may be good in some contexts may

not be in others. In order to achieve success a school requires trained and committed teachers but in

return they need the leadership of a highly effective principal.

“Most definitions of leadership reflect the assumption that it involves a social influence

process whereby intentional influence is exerted by one person [or group] over other people

[or groups] to structure the activities and relationships in a group or organisations.”

(Yukl, 2002, p.3)

Cuban (1988) also claims that the influence process is beneficial in that it is intended to lead in

order to gain specific outcomes and results, bringing out the best in peers such as, in an educational

institute. ‘Leadership then refers to people who bend the motivations and actions of others to

achieve certain goals; it implies taking initiatives and risks’.

1.2 - Values and Leadership

Wasserberg (2002, p.158) states that the primary role of any leader is the unification of people

around key values, expressed in personal values, self-awareness and emotional or moral capability.

3
Greenfield and Ribbins (1993) add that leadership begins with character of leaders, expressed in

terms of personal values, self-awareness and emotional and moral capabilities. This is clear that the

ultimate goal or aim of the leader in question will be reflected by peers and the school as a whole.

Nurture, work ethic and work proficiency are prime examples at the institution, of ensuring

traditions are kept with a bilingual education. This work of Greenfield and Ribbins (1993) can be

linked strongly to leadership characteristics, or more specifically, mannerisms or skills related to

leadership that enables a leader to lead effectively.

Many leadership characteristics are evident in the work of Stodgill (1974) (see Appendix 1). A

successful leader must be very adaptable to any situation and remain knowledgeable to current

policies and alert to external factors. An effective leader is cooperative with all members of staff

and all pupils which in turn earn them a lot of respect. A successful leader is decisive, persistent and

risk taking which contributes to the continuous progress of a school.

Many of the traits and skills identified by Stodgill (1974) are generic and could be found in

numerous personality questionnaires or studies, but there are traits/skills which can be deemed as

significant in particular practices or institutions, they are ‘dominant’ and ‘persuasive’, a desire to

influence others. It is these factors which help the school achieve its ultimate objective…success.

There are factors which transcend on to other members of staff and students within the school. An

effective leader should always be willing to go the extra mile, such as social events for example, or

leading and taking part in extra-curricular activities where some heads wouldn’t leave their office.

Most traits are common in lots of people but what makes a difference is being able to implement

traits and skills, which is where theory and strategy become affective, particularly ‘interpersonal

leadership’. It may be that a leader doesn’t possess any or many of Stodgill’s traits or skills but may

be able to implement leadership theories successfully, perhaps by delegating work elsewhere. It is

4
important to acknowledge that a leader should not be required to possess universal traits; the

leadership traits possessed should be specific to their institute.

It is worth noting that there is currently little work that identifies any relationship between

leadership traits and a successful school or positive school climate without the appropriate

implementation of leadership in practice.

McCall and Lombardo (1983) developed the ideas of Stodgill in researching both success and

failure. They identified four primary traits by which leaders could succeed or alternatively ‘de-rail’.

The four traits are;

• Emotional stability and composure; Being calm, confident and predictable, particularly

when under stress.

• Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up.

• Good interpersonal skills: Being able to communicate and persuade others without resorting

to negative or coercive tactics.

• Intellectual breadth: Being able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a

narrow (narrow minded) area of expertise.

In addition to some of the traits, skills and characteristics, Davies (2008) highlights key factors

driven by passion. Passionate leaders are driven by the centrality of social justice and moral

purpose. Passionate leaders also have a passion for transformation of learning outcomes and

creating a ‘sense of place’ for learning. The strong link to visions, values and transformational

leadership will be discussed in Chapter 2.

5
 1.3. – Vision…A product of Values?

Vision is increasingly regarded an essential component of effective leadership, in sync with clear

goals of where the school, as a whole, are aiming to be [or achieve]. Beare, Caldwell and Millikan

(1989) draw on previous works of leadership and its relativity directly to vision:

• Outstanding leaders have a vision for their organisation.

• Visions must be communicated in a way in which secures commitment among other

members of the organisation, at all levels.

• Communication of vision requires communication of meaning.

• Attention should be given to institutionalising vision if leadership is to be successful.

Dempster and Logan’s (1998) study shows the expectations people have of their principal in

relation to motivation and drive, achieving their vision and how to strategically plan to achieve the

vision. On the other hand some writers are critical of the visionary leaders, Fullan (1992, p.83) adds

that vision building is a highly sophisticated dynamic process which few organisations can sustain.

What is the alternative to vision building or can vision building be sustainable.

Despite some criticism of leadership and vision, a study by Greenfield, Licata and Johnson (1992)

states, using a large sample of 1769 in 62 schools, demonstrates that there was strong support for a

clear vision and that it was articulated well. Teachers in this sample seemed to agree that their

principles had a vision of what the school ought to be and that it was in the best interest of their

students. They also viewed their principals as being relatively effective in advancing the vision. The

articulation of a clear vision has the potential to develop schools.

Primarily, being able to distinguish between leadership and management is very important. Are

leadership and management the same or is one more effective than the other? By distinguishing

6
leadership and management, this study will then lead to the analysis of various leadership or

management strategies.

1.4 - Distinguishing educational leadership and management

Dimmock (1999) differentiates stating:

‘School leaders experience tensions between competing elements of leadership, management and

administration. Irrespective of how these terms are defined, school leaders experience difficulty in

deciding the balance between higher order tasks designed to improve staff, students and school

performance [leadership], routine maintenance of present operations [management] and lower order

duties [administration].

Cuban (1988) provides a clear distinction between leadership and management. Cuban defines a

leader as being able to influence others’ actions in achieving desirable ends. Leaders are those who

shape goals, motivations and actions of others, initialising change to reach existing and new goals.

Managing is maintaining efficiently and effectively current organisational arrangements, while

managing well often exhibits leadership skills. Day, Harris and Hadfield (2001) suggest that

management is linked to system and ‘paper’ and leadership is perceived to be about the

development of people.

This being said, leadership and management need to be given equal prominence if schools and

colleges are to operate effectively and achieve their objectives. While a clear vision may be

essential to establish the nature and direction of change, it is equally important to ensure that

innovations are implemented efficiently and that the schools functions are carried out effectively.

7
Such a theory would appear to be irrelevant with an appropriate strategic approach to educational

leadership.

It is of equal important to identify the differences between educational leadership and that of a

regular business. Of course, there are some similarities, however, in education there is one vital

output, that being the children. Educational leadership has to be centrally concerned with the

purpose or aims of education, including different outputs such as the community, parent

satisfaction, a wealthy competition pool and obviously educational outcomes. These goals, as

described by Bush (2008), provide the crucial sense of direction to underpin school management,

particularly their vision and setting the vision for all to follow.

A successful leader possesses excellent man management skills, regardless of being in an education

institute or elsewhere. However there are other necessities to be a successful leader in an education

institute:

• The difficulty of setting and measuring educational objectives.

• The presence of children and young people as the outputs or clients of educational

institutions, considering need for nurture and safety and enjoyment.

• The need for educational professionals to have a high degree of autonomy in the classroom.

• The fact that many senior or middle managers, particularly in primary schools, have little or

no time for the managerial aspect.

The overriding purpose of schools and colleges is to promote effective teaching and learning. Does

an effective leader have the qualities to go the extra mile and ensure child safety or well-being of

staff, or simply take care of the management and administration, leaving the rest to teachers.

Leadership qualities need to be specific to an educational institute or issues rather than the generic

tasks of managing staff, finance and marketing. (Bush, 1998).

8
Chapter 2 - Decentralisation, self-management and management systems

2.1 - De-centralisation and self-management

Educational institutes operate within a legislative framework and set down national government

bodies with effective policies. A ‘centralised’ system is the bureaucratic system in which schools

have very little freedom. Bureaucratic centralism implies concentrating on central authority decision

making on a wide range of matters, leaving only tightly programmed routines implemented to lower

levels in the education system.

English systems increasingly require schools to adhere to government prescription, affecting aims,

curriculum content and pedagogy as well as values, although there is a large sense of autonomy due

to the high number of private institutions.

Decentralised is the opposite, democratic system in which educational institutions have a large

opportunity for self-management, particularly as an international institution using a British

curriculum.

As a private organisation with a British education system operating in Vietnam, the institution can

create a clear vision and goals based on morality, knowledge, good health and more importantly,

remaining loyal to the idea of national independence and socialism (MOET, 2012). At the same

time, the institution can avoid some of the educational issues that remain in Vietnam particularly

related to the insufficient quantity and quality of secondary education, including low teacher to

student ratio’s (MOET, 2012).

Despite operating mainly as a closed system, the institution maintain to ‘push the process of

universalisation of education’ and ‘to define responsibilities and rights attained by ministries,

agencies and authorities at all levels in the administration of education’. The introduction of private

schools like the institution has helped raise the standard of education. Primary education is now
9
universalised throughout the whole country. The increase in such private schools will continue to

reduce the rate of teachers who are not yet qualified, which is currently at 15%. Some provinces

such as North West and Tay Nguyen this rate amounts up to 30-40% (MOET, 2012).

In more recent years, according to OECD (1994), there has been a shift from a centralised

leadership system to a more democratic self-managed system, creating a more autonomous

institute[s].

“Greater autonomy in schools…leads to greater effectiveness through greater flexibility In

and therefore better use of resources; to professional development selected at schools level;

to move knowledgeable, effective teachers and parents, so to better financial decisions to

whole school planning and implementation with priorities set on the basis of specified data

about the students [outcomes] and needs.”

(Thomas and Martin, 1996: P.28)

Autonomous schools and colleges are regarded as more efficient and effective but much depends on

the quality of internal management if these benefits are to be realised. This is evident at the

institution. Although the school may be autonomous to a certain extent, the institute is still largely

dependent on an appropriate and effective leadership strategy which will be discussed in chapter

three.

Dellar’s (1998) study of 30 schools in Australia, shows that site based management was most

successful where there was a positive school climate and the involvement of staff and stakeholders

in decision making. By linking this to leadership theories in chapter three, it is evident that a

10
democratic, community based approach can be very effective when guiding an educational institute

to achieve its objective, which is ultimately, success.

A study by De Vijlder (2008) identifies some similar benefits within the Dutch education system.

Such a high level of autonomy and competition among providers suggest that these conditions have

led to a more innovative system. 70% of schools in the Netherlands were administered and

governed by private schools boards, embracing freedom and ‘freedom of education’. Such high

levels of autonomy were also identified as key factors in the recent table of the best education

systems in the world, produced by Pearson’s. High levels of autonomy were evident in South

Korea, Hong Kong, UK and the Netherlands, currently 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th respectively. However,

there is no correlation to that of the leading education system in the world, Finland. Finland

demonstrates a low level of autonomy; instead, the most significant link is the ‘underlying moral

purpose’ and the belief in the importance of education.

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-20498356)

2.2 - Analysing educational systems

There is an increasing emphasis on goals, objectives and improvement of the institution. Blum &

Butler, (1989) and Cheng (2002. P.51) suggests that goal orientation is one of only two common

factors within educational leadership. Theories differ in that some emphasise organisational aims

and others focus on individual purposes, causing much discussion, including the meaning and

validity of structure; an emphasis on structure leads to the notions of individual organisations being

defined by their roles.

The relationship between the institution and its external environment is a key factor within a self-

managing organisation. Self-managing schools or colleges increase the significance of relationships

11
that staff and governors must have with a wide range of groups and people. There remains to be

political and governmental conflict between the institution and external agencies.

2.3 - Systems Models

Systems theories emphasize the unity and integrity of the organisations and focus on the

interactions between its components parts and their external environment. Within the institution,

this applies to the relationship and link to the curriculum provided by QCA and the link to

Vietnamese programmes of study, more specifically the Vietnamese ministry of Education and

Training (discussed previously in Chapter 1). It is important to stress the coherence and integrity as

a prime institution in such a situation.

Systems models distinguish the organisations from its external environment. The organisational has

an ultimate objective(s). The institution is thought to develop policies in pursuit of these objectives

and assess the effectiveness of such policies. However, it is the environment that provides raw

materials to an organisation and receives the organisations outputs. A study by Becaj (1994: p.11)

identifies a one of the main flaws of an organisation operating in an open system in Slovenia;

“Head’s know that parents and children are important but in fact they have been used to

accepting superior institutions and authorities as the real powerful customer on which they

are really dependent.”

There are also closed systems as previously discussed. Closed systems tend to minimise

transactions with the environment and take little account of external opinion in determining the

purposes and activities of the organisation.

12
A closed systems approach consists of pursuing fairly explicit goals, like those of the institution. A

closed systems approach means it is possible to operate rationally with high degrees of certainty,

predictability and efficiency. Many organisations around the world operating under the respective

governments are highly dependent on the environment and remain continually vulnerable to

external influences.

The institution must remain adaptable to changing external conditions to be effective and survive in

the long term. As the institution aims to provide a British education, they must be able to adapt to

changing reforms, particularly when UK governments are so prone to change. The institution does

have many ranging links with external environments but as an organisation, is able to influence its

own environment and is not simply responding to external demands like a government school

would. As an organisation, it is essential for the institution to remain a sense of openness,

particularly in relation to the British education system, thus to ensure the school and its values

remain attractive to potential stakeholder, including parents and being responsive to their

requirements. Although many other private institutions could be portrayed as bureaucratic, the

leadership within the organisation helps the smooth operation in achieving a sense of community.

It is worth noting that schools and colleges with a self-managing system are increasingly adopting a

more ‘open’ stance, conscious of the need for a good reputation, including aspects such as media

coverage for example. Few educational institutes justify the label ‘closed’ in the 21st century.

As previously discussed, there are benefits to self-management including independent financial

support, but does this encourage tardiness or a decrease in standards, without watchdog

organisations like OFSTED.

Boyd (1999) discusses some key features identifies in US education systems, suggesting a closed

systems approach was inadequate for understanding or dealing with the most pressing problems of

school administration. A closed systems approach has been abandoned as too many schools were

13
‘out of the loop’. Open systems ensure an interactive two-way relationship between schools and

their environment.

As Boyd suggests, open systems do have huge benefits that some closed system organisation may

miss out on, they can be strongly linked to a Formal model and the work of Everand & Morris

(1990). Everand and Morris (1990 .p.149) state that all organisations should be actively managed by

higher powers, not only would active management provide a sense of direction but markers by

which we can be assessed. Organisations like the institution may benefit from forging links with

particular agencies such as COBIS or FOBISSEA. Sporting initiatives are a prime example and a

highly effective tool for raising standards.

14
Chapter 3 – Theories of educational leadership and management

3.1 – The nature of theory.

Like leadership traits, there is no single all-embracing theory of educational management, reflecting

the vast diverse range of educational institutions around the world, ranging from small rural primary

schools and colleges which require different approaches and solutions.

Different theories of educational leadership and management reflect very different ways of

understanding and interpreting events and behaviour in school and colleges. Educational leadership

can be seen as different ways of portraying different views or visions, due to the complexity of

leadership within a school complex, with the added complexity of EYFS and post compulsory at the

institution. The following statement by Bush supports this;

“… Our understanding of knowledge utilisation processes is concerned not so much as a set

of facts, findings or generalizations but rather as distinct perspectives which combine facts

values and presuppositions.”

(Bush, 2003)

In addition, Griffiths (1997: p.372) suggests that the basic idea in relation to the nature of

educational leadership theory, is that all problems cannot be studied ‘fruitfully’ using a single

theory. Some problems are large and complex and no single theory is capable of encompassing

them, while others may appear to be simple can be better understood through the use of numerous

theories.

15
 3.2 – Theories in practice

Creating a high performance workforce has become increasingly important and to do so, business

leaders must be able to inspire organisational members to go beyond their task requirements.

(www.managementstudyguide.com)

As with many leadership theories, their effectiveness changes when related to education. This is

mainly due to a change in output, such as learners/children, parents, external

environment/governing bodies, the community and stakeholders. Due to these high demands

associated with education, particularly in an international school context like the institution, the

demand for high performance and a transformational leader has never been more required.

Transformation leadership

Transformational leaders may be found at all levels of the organisation. Such leaders are visionary,

inspiring, daring, risk taking and thoughtful. Transformational leaders have charismatic appeal, also

commonly associated with Trait Theory; reinforcing that no one theory alone is enough to

overcome multiple educational situations. Leaders must be able to put theory into practice in order

to bring out the best qualities in organisational members and achieve the ultimate goal of the

institution.

Transformational leadership is characterised by an explicit focus on role of the leaders in the

development of followers;

“Transformational leadership takes place when leaders interact with followers in ways that

enhance their creativity and motivation in the organisation.”

(Burns, 1978).

16
Transformational leaders engage with followers, focusing on their intrinsic motivation and

confidence. Leaders at the institution are able to bring out the best qualities in members of the

institution, helping members of staff to feel good about themselves on a regular basis.

Transformational leaders manage to motivate others to achieve more than originally planned or

intended; they create a supportive organisational climate where individual needs and differences are

acknowledged and respected.

The building of trust and respect also motivates followers to work for the accomplishment of shared

goals, meaning that transformational leaders are able to motivate followers to focus on the common

good, through commitment to the mission and vision of the organisation.

Transformational leadership is based on values and what is morally right, thus assuring directional

dedication towards professionalism and activating the higher order needs of organisational

members.

Like with the interpersonal theory, the transformational theory has a large emphasis on building

relations to build trust, mutual respect and inspirational bonds.

According to Bass’ transformational model, organisational members focus on team or

organisational goals first rather than their own interests. With this platform, organisational members

are more likely to contribute more effectively towards participative, democratic decision making

without conflict or selfishly with-holding ideas.

Research by Koh, Steers and Terborg (1995) aimed to investigate the effects of transformational

leadership on teacher attitudes and student performance in Singapore. Data were collected from

school teachers and principals using instruments such as the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.

When compared to transactional leadership, transformational leadership was found to be associated

with additional positive effects in predicting organisational commitment, organisational citizenship

behaviour and teacher satisfaction.

17
Another study by Leithwood et al, showed that transformational leadership had a positive effect on

school conditions. School conditions included: organisational culture; planning; instructional

services; policies and procedure.

However, there are some criticisms to Transformational leadership that contribute to how a leader

may approach their role. Transformational leadership is very difficult to be trained or taught

because it is a combination of many leadership theories. However, this complexity is why it is so

effective in an educational context. Because of its difficulty to be taught, transformational

leadership can only be advised relying heavily on trait theory characteristics and interpersonal

qualities to build relationships.

According to critics, the model places too much emphasis on the transformational qualities of the

leader, thereby reinforcing the notion that the principal is the sole source of leadership at the school.

However, according to Leithwood and Jantzi (2000), their transformational leadership model does

not assume that the principal will be the only source of leadership in the organisation and is

consistent with the sharing of leadership with teachers and other stakeholders. The work of

Leithwood and Jantzi (2000) support the requirement of a collaborative leadership theory, which is

evident at the institution. Although Transformational leadership is a strong theory on its own, it

would not be as effective without the support of participative and distributed theories, which will be

discussed later in this chapter.

They also criticise the use of quantitative methodology by Leithwood and Bass, which they

consider to be inappropriate because of the unpredictability of transformational leadership as

different types of leadership will emerge in different situations and/or points in time. In general, the

literature points to several methodological issues, which include more specific measurement

concerns linked to the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.

18
Their most important finding concerned the fact that the transformational leadership behaviour of

vision/inspiration was negatively associated with student learning culture. Barnett et al. (2001)

suggested that visionary/inspirational principals may direct teachers’ efforts to wider school

initiatives, thereby distracting them from their teaching and learning goals. If correct, this

interpretation has negative implications for the transformational leadership model in relation to its

presumed effects on student outcomes. This could be true of some organisation members at the

institution, as a new school requiring new initiatives, there are some members who strive to succeed

for them and lose focus of the development of learners. This begs the question…Are teachers

looking to enhance their own careers over that of their learners? In which case, they may be in the

wrong business.

In summary, it appears that several limitations can be identified in the theory and research

associated with transformational leadership models. However, as noted by Bass (1999), more basic

research is necessary on the topic.

Participative leadership

Another theory evident at the institution is participative theory. Participative theories suggest that

the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage

participation and contribution from group members and help group members feel more relevant and

committed to the decision making process. With participative leadership, however, the leader

retains the right to allow the input of others.

The belief that leadership is best considered a group quality has gradually gained widespread

acceptance in the field of education. Harris, Leithwood, Day, Sammons and Hopkins (2007)

describe participative/distributed leadership as “the leadership idea of the moment”.

19
Participative leadership takes the view that because essential knowledge is held by many

individuals, it makes sense to distribute leadership responsibilities. However, this is assuming that

organisation members have a high level of expertise in their field; therefore it is essential that such

leadership is managed correctly.

Generally with participative leadership; staff, resources and the school’s structure are interwoven in

pursuit of a common vision that has meaningful and attainable goals and shared values. This builds

staff commitment and cooperation and strengthens the collective identity, strongly associated with

transformational leadership.

More attention can be paid to more aspects of the schools organisation, because people specialise in

what they do best.

However, as with all theories, there are some flaws. There are still elements of hierarchy and

bureaucracy. A participative approach is very reliant of other members of staff who may not

perform or may have conflicting visions to that of the school.

Spillane (2004) claims that when groups come together people lose sense of the ultimate vision and

goal and begin to act around or try to dominate the group for selfish reasons. People seem to

compete for airspace whether they believe they have a good idea or not.

Distributed leadership

Similar to participative leadership, a distributed leadership theory recognises that there are multiple

leaders (Spillane et al., 2004) and that leadership activity is widely shared within and between

organisations.

20
In relation to leadership at the institution, distributed leadership focuses on the interactions, rather

than the actions of those in formal and informal roles. According to Harris (2004) the model of the

singular, heroic leader is at last being replaced with leadership that is focused upon teams rather

than individuals and places a greater emphasis upon teacher, support staff and students as leaders.

As discussed in Chapter 2, the sense of community and all-round input as a private organisation

adds to the demand for distributed leadership as there are so many factors contributing to the overall

success and growth at the institution. It represents the alternative approaches to leadership that have

arisen because of increased external demands, including parents, stakeholders, owners, learners and

the community.

The significant work of Harris & Spillane (2008) identifies the increasingly complex world of

international education, stating that leadership now requires diverse types of expertise and forms of

leadership flexible enough to meet changing challenges and new demands.

If implemented accordingly and successfully, distributed leadership practice is likely to lead to

improved organisational performance and outcomes (Leithwood et al., 2004)

As discussed earlier in this chapter, Leithwood et al (2004: p.59) have noted that the concept of

distributed leadership overlaps substantially with shared collaborative and participative leadership

concepts. However, where participative leadership is the increased participation of all

organisational members, distributed leadership implies a social distribution of leadership function,

stretched over the work of a number of individuals where the leadership task is accomplished

through the interaction of multiple leaders (Spillane et al., 2001). For example, A senior

management team including a Principal, Head of Primary and Head of Secondary and/or a Middle

Management Team of Key Stage Co-ordinators etc.

21
Chapter 4 - Methodology

4.1 - Aim

The present study aims to assess the effectiveness of current leadership and management within a

private international school setting by analysing the leadership styles and strategy of selected

Middle and Senior Leadership members. Views and observation of Middle and Senior Leadership

Members across various departments provided qualitative data which was analysed and

triangulated.

4.2 - Participants

The participants consisted of three Middle Leadership Members and three Senior Leadership

Members, from various curriculum departments across primary and secondary including a wide

range of international leadership experience.

Prior to participation, participants provided full consent. Participant confidentiality was essential

and honoured by everyone who had or has access to this study. Participants were treated in an

appropriate professional manner.

4.3 - Measures

Qualitative Data was obtained in interviews and triangulated with observation of practice and

information obtained in the review of literature (Chapters 2 and 3). Data was triangulated to ensure

material is valid and reliable.

22
 4.4 - Procedure

Permission from any related organising committees, co-operation of stakeholders and consent from

directors, management and staff were obtained prior to the data collection.

Full ethical approval and proof that the study was effectively administered was also required from

owners and any other concerned parties.

4.5 - Interview Data

Interview questions (Appendix 2) were based on Fidler’s (2002) notion, that to move forward we

need to have a very clear idea of where we are. All questions were designed to be open and higher

order to give all participants more freedom. If data is to be valid and reliable it needs to be based on

existing practice and that of the future, particularly in a newly founded school. All data needs to be

well informed and any judgments about the present state of the school need to be as accurate as

possible. All data collected will be used to advise any strategic planning and implementation. All

data will be based on Fidler’s (2002) theory and understanding, the initial stage of strategy

formation is to take stock of the present. Such an analysis might include the evaluation of the

working of a previous strategy or, if there was no explicit previous strategy, identifying the strategy

in retrospect could be a starting point.

Advantages of interviews

Allows exploration of issues in depth in a face-to-face encounter and allows for additional probing /

elaboration.

Interviews are specific to middle and senior management in in international school context and

have been tailored to specific respondents and/or circumstances.

23
 Disadvantages of interviews

Requires considerably more time than questionnaires and fewer subjects can be contacted for the

same cost.

4.6 - Research Plan – Gantt chart

November December January February March April

Initial
Research
Period

Interview
Period

Observation
Period

Result
analysis and
discussion

24
Chapter 5 - Results and Analysis

Data Analysis

Individual responses to each interview question were analysed and triangulated with supporting

observation evidence and categorised into appropriate areas of educational leadership and

management to identify common consensus.

Findings and results were collated and categorised into appropriate sections and subsections, related

directly to the review of literature (Chapter 2 and 3).

25
Table 1 - A table to show the interview and observation data obtained from senior leadership team

members.

Interview Data Observation Data

Curriculum area A tiered system of centrally co- Team-working and developing
leadership ordinated activities in which all others energy, determination and
staff have a part to play, albeit of work-rate.
different levels of
responsibilities. Keeping up with UK policy and
Vietnamese policy exists
however; there is limited
information and currently no
international company such as
FOBISSEA or COBIS.

Review and develop Conflict with commercial and Team-working and developing
the aims and corporate responsibilities. others energy, determination and
objectives of work-rate.
Institute A tiered system of centrally co-
ordinated activities in which all Keeping up with UK policy and
staff have a part to play, albeit of Vietnamese policy exists
different levels of however; there is limited
responsibilities. information and currently no
international company such as
FOBISSEA or COBIS.

Conflict with commercial and

corporate responsibilities.

Review, develop and A tiered system of centrally co- Team-working and developing
implement teaching ordinated activities in which all others energy, determination and
and learning staff have a part to play, albeit of work-rate.
strategies. different levels of
responsibilities.

Identify / develop Delegation of resources etc. and Team-working and developing

and allocate resources management. others energy, determination and
learning resources work-rate, evident in primary
which create / school.
support the
necessary learning Delegation to subordinates with
environment regular communication evident in
primary.
Review and develop Team-working and developing
suitable methods of others energy, determination and
assessing student work-rate.
learning outcomes
26
Administrative Conflict with commercial and Conflict with commercial and
duties corporate responsibilities. corporate responsibilities

A tiered system of centrally co-

ordinated activities in which all
staff have a part to play, albeit of
different levels of
responsibilities.

27
Table 2 - A table to show the interview and observation data obtained from middle leadership team

members.

Interview Data Observation Data

Curriculum area Design and develop programmes Keeping up with UK policy and
leadership of learning which meet the aims
Vietnamese policy exists
of Institute. however; there is limited
information and currently no
Meeting deadlines/commitments international company such as
creativity. FOBISSEA or COBIS, this
information is mainly covered by
Problem-solving and decision- SLT, not MLT.
making.

Leadership and integrity.

Adaptability, flexibility, and

mobility.

Review and develop Problem-solving and decision- Lack of team-working and

the aims and making. developing others energy,
objectives of determination and work-rate.
Institute Leadership and integrity.
More autocracy.
Adaptability, flexibility, and
mobility.

Review, develop and Teaching content that we strive Monitor and evaluate the delivery
implement teaching to fulfil to achieve student and effectiveness of learning
and learning success. programmes, regular
strategies. communication with SLT and
Develop syllabuses / training overseen fully by SLT. MLT
objectives to meet the aims of used as a middle man.
learning programmes.

Monitor and evaluate the

delivery and effectiveness of
learning programmes.

Implementation of teaching
practice.

Identify / develop Delegation to teachers. Team-working and developing

28
and allocate others energy, determination and
learning resources Problem-solving and decision- work-rate.
which create / making.
support the
necessary learning Discuss resources etc. and
environment resources management.

Review and develop Problem-solving and decision- Lack of team-working and

suitable methods of making. developing others energy,
assessing student determination and work-rate.
learning outcomes

Administrative Management, planning, Lack of team-working and

duties budgeting, reporting and admin. developing others energy,
determination and work-rate.
Meeting deadlines/commitments
creativity.

Leadership and integrity.

Adaptability, flexibility, and

mobility.

29
Chapter 6 – Discussion and Further Work

6.1 - Re-statement of aim

By critically analysing leadership and management data in Chapter 5, this chapter aims to provide

further clarity in relation to professional development programmes, leadership development and

strategic leadership. This chapter will aim to identify the many roles of a leader and will critique

several leadership models, by providing a solid platform by which a leadership strategy can be built.

6.2 - Achieving the vision

The Institution aims to educate the whole child and produce rounded individuals who are well

prepared to take their place in society. To this end The institution has a strong focus on developing

children’s social skills and manners, as well as thinking about the six core values and attributes in

their Aide Memoire – integrity, respect, caring, enquiry, reflection and perseverance.

The institution seeks to provide an outstanding education through dual language instruction in

English and Vietnamese. All students will become independent learners by means of enquiry,

reflection and perseverance. We act with integrity and treat one another with respect, learning

together as responsible global and Vietnamese citizens.

In the primary school, it is evident that the institution achieves its mission by nurturing Vietnamese

language proficiency in formative years; ensuring the early acquisition of English; protecting and

celebrating Vietnamese cultural customs and traditions and nurturing independent learners.

Teachers are autonomous in their practice; however the institution is able to achieve its mission as a

result of highly effective shared common practice. The primary department adopts a participative

and collaborative approach including an electronic area for shared resources, weekly team training,
30
weekly meetings and regular communication. The primary department is very much like a

community and has incorporated the input of parents in ‘coffee morning’ events, termly productions

and Key Stage Sports Days. The primary department also has strong links outside of mainstream

education, including strong and efficient Learning Support and EAL provisions in which middle

and senior leaders are regularly supporting the monitoring, investigating, action research and

analysis used to identify potentially weak areas among children.

Although a participative style is overseen and successfully managed by senior leaders, the material,

ideas and practice is that generated by leaders and teachers as a collective whole. Some areas which

tend to be managed more by senior and middle leaders include ensuring responsibility is delegated;

resources are allocated accordingly; time scales are specified and success criteria are identified,

including the introduction of appropriate assessment and standardizing.

There are other factors which are key features of the institutions mission statement. They appear to

be managed and maintained by senior leadership and administered by all members of the institution

including directors, management, teachers, teaching assistants and parents. The key features include

ensuring a sense of Vietnamese place and history within the school; fostering universal values such

as personal integrity, respect for others and care for community and global issue and achieving true

bilingual proficiency upon graduation.

A large difference between primary and secondary schools appears to be that in the primary school,

the needs and requirements of ‘the team’ as a whole are identified and training needs, such as AFL

or EAL in the mainstream classroom are considered and provided for. In the secondary school, the

needs of the individual only are identified. Due to the degree of autonomy, there is a lack of shared

common practice. EAL and learning support provisions are in place but because of the lack of

31
regular communication, it is not as efficient or beneficial as it should be. Subject areas are

independent and relationships with other subject areas are none existent.

Some departments such as Physical Education and Art are self-managed and such autonomy has led

to tardiness within those department, including a lack of planning, blasé assessment methods and

poor training or development opportunities. There is no structure in way of observations and

appropriate feedback; there is perhaps too much autonomy in the wrong areas. Whereas in other

non-specialist, mainstream classes or key stages The Head of Primary still has a strong and over-

riding influence and there is little autonomy in those areas.

6.3 - Curriculum Management

Members of staff from the primary school and EYFS appear to have clear and well prioritized

curriculum management activities. Their scope of curriculum management is however more

widespread and overlaps easily with other curriculum section. This may indicate that the EYFS,

Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 have a clear working relationship based upon co-operation and a clear

understanding of curriculum management roles. The primary department is a fully collaborative

quality process. However, increased participative process can occasionally result in staff becoming

unhappy, particularly when their ideas aren’t selected.

Effective curriculum management is essential in all areas of an educational institution. As the

secondary school is built on outcomes rather than processes, it is good to compare the teaching

practice process of the primary curriculum and the secondary curriculum areas by also comparing

the overall success.

32
In addition, the senior leader in the secondary department’s role in curriculum management is

minimal. The senior leader appears to focus mainly on marketing, administration and management,

by focusing solely on the administration and management, other areas like curriculum management

and management of individual subject areas are cast aside, leaving staff demotivated, thus leading

to tardiness or subordinates taking shortcuts.

6.4 - Delegated roles and staff motivation

Throughout the institution a lot of duty is delegated; it is interesting to observe the performance

levels of staff in relation to how they are man-managed or have roles delegated unto them. In the

successful primary department, roles are given to staff that make them feel appreciated. Members of

staff feel they have a key part to play in the successful operation of the institution. Roles include,

leading INSET, coordinating key events and productions such as House Sports or Dramatics.

Members of staff are given a lot of ownership and are given more autonomy. With this approach,

there is still regular communication and progress updates which coincide with appropriate time

related deadlines, all of which are effectively monitored by the senior leader.

In the secondary department, delegated duties include being given an extra lunch time duty, and

although it was previously mentioned that departments do have autonomy and important duties are

at times delegated, such duties are only delegated to a small number of staff and important roles are

not inclusive of everyone.

In the secondary school, Micro-politics (Lofthouse 1994, p134) also have some effect and several

members of staff feel strongly that the actions of one or two powerful individuals have prevented or

delayed several of their initiatives. There are several individuals who are not managed

appropriately. There are some members of middle management staff that are a hindrance, or

counterproductive, which poses the question; is this related to personality alone?

33
 6.5 - Leaders and personality

Current research in the field of educational leadership and management appears to be centered on

leadership styles and how leaders actually lead their staff. Only little current research by McCall

and Lombardo (1983) has been done in relation to the personalities of leaders in an educational

workplace. One observation that has been made of staff within the current institution is the need to

remain steady under pressure, an observation made of some members of the middle leadership

team. Being able to handle the job requirements at difficult periods such as meeting deadlines or

managing hostile situations is a personality trait that has yet to be covered in great detail. Any flaws

or weaknesses of leaders could have a domino effect and lead to tardiness, stress and further

hostility among staff.

6.6 - Strategic Focus

It is essential to maintain a highly successful strategically-focused EYFS, primary and secondary

school to ascertain the critical factors in schools that contribute to a strategic approach.

As a new school, the institution are effectively managing their current provision and are

simultaneously developing and enhancing educational provision for their children in the future. As a

school aiming to expand the institution needs an appropriate strategy. Strategy is a process of both

looking forward to a new way of operating for the school and of developing the means of planning a

journey to get there.

The below figure, Davies and Davies, (2005) shows a flow chart in which strategy deployment and

extensive operational activities are built on the school’s values and visions, showing how strategy

has been developed from a transformational model, previously discussed in Chapters 2 and 3.

34
Figure 1 – Strategy deployment

The moral purpose that informs why we actually do the things that we do is visionary thinking,

which can be define as being long-term and idealistic, that’s where we would like to head for

strategic, which is more medium-term realistic steps towards that vision school development

planning, which is fairly short-term operation for specific events and activities;

“It is important to remember that strategy is a neutral delivery vehicle. If you have a poor

vision and a dubious moral purpose then a good strategic process and approach may

effectively deliver it…The significance of this is that strategy does not exist in a vacuum; it

needs to be part of a wider process of values-led leadership and futures visioning.”

(Davies and Davies, 2005)

The view of strategy is very much direction-setting and part of strategic planning. Strategy is about

broader and fundamental elements of the school. It should address the core and significant issues

that the school will encounter and seek to deploy approaches that will meet those challenges,

particularly those encountered by the secondary school of the institution. It should not be seeking to

replicate the short-term detailed plans but with an extra year or two of detail.

35
Strategy development should be a way of the whole school community focusing on the key issues

that are fundamental for successful future development. Where this is evident in the primary school,

it is not matched by their secondary counterpart resulting in a lower all-round academic

achievement, a degree of poor practice and certain hostility between peers, although the latter point

could be a direct result of individual personalities. It should also enable the school to separate out

the strategic activities and the operational activities in a coherent way. Any strategic plans should

successful and sustainable in both the short term and long term.

Strategy can usefully be considered as a way to think about the future of an institution. Garratt

(2003: 2-3) gives an excellent definition of strategic thinking:

‘Strategic Thinking’ is the process by which an organisation’s direction-givers can rise

above the daily managerial processes and crises to gain different perspectives …. Such

perspectives should be both future-oriented and historically understood. Strategic thinkers

must have the skills of looking ... forwards ...while knowing where their organisation is now,

so that wise risks can be taken while avoiding having to repeat the mistakes of the past.

Recent observations suggest that middle leadership roles have been distributed based on the current

practice and situation of the institution. There appears to have been little thought about the future in

relation to school expansion, student growth, the addition of IGCSE’s and A-Level and staff

contracts;

“A strategically-focused school is one that is educationally effective in the short term but

has a clear framework and processes to translate core moral purpose and vision into

36
 excellent educational provision that is challenging and sustainable in the medium to long

term.”

(Davies and Davies, 2005)

The institution aim to expand and grow effectively and efficiently using an appropriate strategic

plan based on an example of good practice in a primary school as shown in a case study by Davies

and Davies, (2005).

The principles aim to allow time for focusing on the strategic and operational dimensions and to

allow a wide range of staff and governors to engage in discussion, rather than limiting involvement

to those in senior positions. This increases understanding but is also a powerful motivator for less

experienced staff. This is evident in the primary department and should be deployed across all Key

Stages and subject areas.

The school is driven by three strategic groups which form a strategic framework and planning

process. Communication and strategy reviews with governors (chair and subcommittee chairs) and

the school leadership team (head teacher, deputy head teacher, Foundation Stage leader, KS1

leader, KS2 leader and KS3 leader. In September there will be the addition of KS4&5 leaders and

SENCO). The senior leadership team meets regularly to discuss development and ideas and plans

are evident, yet the delivery and means of driving those plans forward are inexistent across the

whole school. These three groups feed into the overall strategic and operational framework of the

school. The operational part of the school’s planning framework is seen in three further groups. The

normal cycle of governors’ meetings and sub-committees, the weekly leadership team meetings and

the weekly staff meetings. This framework is designed to link strategic and operational planning so

that the school can drive the short-term improvement in standards while developing the long-term

37
capacity of the school, demonstrating a hierarchical system in which senior leaders drive the

improvements that are delivered and administered by subordinates including teachers and middle

management.

The school development plan is one outcome of this process. It is a document that encapsulates the

school's aims for itself and the route it plans to take to achieve those aims.

The main processes and elements of an SDP can be summarised as follows:

• The process of producing the plan should involve as many stakeholders as possible

• It should be used as a means of checking progress, informing decisions, securing resources

and motivating staff

• It should combine both short term goals with a longer 3-5 year overall perspective and

context

• It should encourage and require both bottom up and top down communication, so that it is

informed by people's individual needs and aspirations and well as inspiring them about the

needs and aspirations of the school as a whole

• Priorities for resources, finance, building development, staff development, curriculum

development should all be negotiated and agreed within the planning process.

• It should evolve as part of a cycle of review, planning and implementation.

The sources of impressionistic material lie in a number of places but particularly with learners,

parents, stakeholders, teaching staff, non- teaching staff and governors.

(Davies and Davies, 2005)

38
 6.7 - Further work

Further work should link educational leadership and management directly to academic achievement

and positive school climate, similar to the work of Dellar’s (1998) study identified in chapter 2.

Another factor to be considered should be the social hierarchy that exists in education; it would be

good to compare leadership in a private British school context with leadership in state/government

education, over a sustained period of time to ensure validity and reliability.

Geographic location should also be considered and further work should compare the private

international schools to their equivalents around the remainder of Vietnam or perhaps the whole of

South East Asia.

39
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Appendix 1 – Stodgill’s trait theory (1974)

46
47
Appendix 2 – Interview questions and topics of discussion

48
 What do you consider to be your main roles and responsibilities?

What do you consider to be your most important aims and tasks in the next year?

What is your vision for your department and the school? Do you feel you are fulfilling that vision?

What do you consider to be your greatest achievement since the school was founded in 2012?

What areas could be improved within your department (in relation to achieving the vision of the

institution?

What actions could be taken to improve practice among staff?

What do you consider to be the key elements of a successful department?

What do you consider to be your main qualities as a leader?

49

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