Kiln Heat and Mass Balance September 2010

CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING VADE-MECUM
CHAPTER 3-1 – KILN HEAT & MASS BALANCE
3-1. Kiln Heat & Mass

Balance
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. KILN HEAT & MASS BALANCE – Page 1/20
INTERNAL USE ONLY Version September 2010
Table of Contents
1. Kiln / Preheater Exit Gas Calculation ........................................................2

1.1 Calculation of neutral waste gas out of fuel elemental analysis (as fired
basis) .............................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Calculation of CO2 and H2O from material and water spraying .................... 2
1.3 Calculation of Excess Air and Kiln Exit Gas ................................................... 3
1.4 Typical exit gas for different kiln types............................................................ 3
2. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone ..........................................................4

3. Cooler Efficiency .........................................................................................5
3.1 Cooler Parameters ......................................................................................... 5
3.2 Recuperation Efficiency (ρ): ........................................................................... 7
3.3 Recovery Factor (k) ........................................................................................ 7
4. Wall Losses .................................................................................................8

4.1 General Formula............................................................................................. 8
4.2 Radiation Losses ............................................................................................ 8
4.3 Convection Losses ....................................................................................... 10
5. Kiln Audit Basics.......................................................................................10

5.1 Defining the Balance Envelope .................................................................... 10
5.2 Measurements .............................................................................................. 12
6. Kiln Heat Balance Example: .....................................................................14

7. Kiln Audit Results – Preheater / Calciner Kilns......................................15
8. Kiln Simulated Optimum Parameters ......................................................16
9. References .................................................................................................18
1. Kiln / Preheater Exit Gas Calculation
1.1 Calculation of neutral waste gas out of fuel elemental analysis (as fired
basis)
Neutral Combustion Air (NCA):
Nm 3 ⎛ %C %H %S %O ⎞ 22.414
=⎜ + + − ⎟*
kgfuel ⎝ 12.001 4.032 32.064 32 ⎠ %OXYair
Neutral Combustion (Waste) Gas:
Nm 3 ⎛ %C % N ⎞ 22.414 %OXYair ⎞
+ (1 −
% H % H 2O %S
=⎜ + + + + ⎟* ⎟ * N .C. A
kgfuel ⎝ 12.001 2.016 18.015 32.064 28.01 ⎠ 100 100 ⎠
Definition:
o Neutral Combustion (Waste) Gas:
Combustion gas of a fuel or fuel mix under stoechiometric condition (0% Oxygen in the waste
gas).
o Neutral Combustion Air: Air required for complete stoechiometric combustion of the fuel.
Sulphur is typically not remaining as SO2 in the waste gas as calculated in the formula above.
All or most of it is trapped in the kiln system and finally present in clinker as SO3. For final exit
gas calculation this effect is considered in the division heat balance tool.
1.2 Calculation of CO2 and H2O from material and water spraying
CO2 from Calcination H2O from Feed or Slurry Moisture

0.786 * CaO + 1.092 * MgO SM
CO 2 = kg / kgdryRM H 2O = kg / kgdryRM
100 100 − SM
• •
0.786 * CaO + 1.092 * MgO 100 SM 100
= * kg / kgkk * kg / kgkk
100 100 − LOI 100 − SM 100 − LOI
• Typical value: 0.53 kg/kgkk • Typical value for wet lines:
0.35 kg/kg RM 0.865 kg/kgkk
1.08 Nm³/kg kk
0.27 Nm3/kgkk
An exact calculation of the material related CO2 and H2O in
exit gas requires a mass balance, crystal water analysis,
CO2 analysis of kiln feed and dust(s), especially when using
already decarbonated raw materials (fly ash, slag...). This H2O from Water Spray
calculation is done in the division heat balance tool. • WS liters/kgkk = WS kg/kgkk
In calciner and preheater kilns only a part of CO2 is present in the kiln exit; most of it is
released in the calciner / preheater.
1.3 Calculation of Excess Air and Kiln Exit Gas
Excess Air
KEGN * OXYki ln
• EA =
OXYair − OXYki ln
KEGN: Neutral Kiln Exit Gas including material CO2 and H2O [Nm³/kg]
OXYkiln: Oxygen reading kiln exit, wet
OXYair: Oxygen content in air
Definition:
o Excess Air Kiln:
Amount of air in addition to neutral combustion air kiln to achieve the Oxygen at kiln inlet (for
benchmark the defined analyzer position is inside kiln = kiln inlet seal false air excluded!).
o Total Combustion Air Kiln:
Neutral Combustion Air Kiln + Excess Air Kiln.
o Excess Air Kiln Line (preheater / calciner kilns):
Amount of air in addition to neutral combustion air kiln line to achieve the Oxygen at preheater
exit.
o Total Combustion Air Kiln Line (preheater / calciner kilns):
Neutral Combustion Air Kiln Line + Excess Air Kiln Line.
Kiln and Preheater exit (waste) gas is the sum of neutral combustion gas from fuel, CO2 and H2O from
raw material, H2O out of water spraying and the excess air.
Further impacts like a gas bypass, CO in exit gas and combustibles in raw material are considered in the
division heat balance tool.
In case of preheater / calciner kilns the calculation is done separately for kiln exit gas and preheater exit
gas.
1.4 Typical exit gas for different kiln types
KILN TYPE Nm³/kg %CO2 %H2O %N2 %O2

Wet – kiln exit 3.20 16.9 35.4 45.3 2.3
Long Dry – kiln exit 1.67 27.9 5.6 63.1 3.3
Lepol – Lepol exit 2.33 19.2 16.9 57.3 6.7
4 stage preheater – PH exit 1.54 28.8 5.9 61.6 3.8
4 stage calciner – PH exit 1.47 30.2 6.1 60.8 2.8
5 stage calciner – PH exit 1.43 30.6 6.2 60.4 2.8
Kiln exit gas for wet and long dry is considered inside kiln, without false air at settling chamber
and without water injection.
Values are with 100% petcoke firing under optimized conditions (see chapter kiln simulated
optimum parameters)..
2. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone
Example Preheater Kiln

Between 100° and 400°C
• H2O (l) → H2O (g), ΔH = - 2488 kJ/kg
Between 400ºC and 800ºC

• Clay loses its crystal water (dehydroxylation):
2 SiO2. Al 2 O3 . 2 H 2 O → 2SiO2 . Al 2 O3 + 2 H 2 O( g ) , ΔH ~ - 5600 kJ/kg crystal water
Required evaporation energy varies with type of clay.
• Decomposition of Magnesium carbonates:

MgCO3 → MgO + CO2 (g), ΔH = - 2932 kJ/kg MgO
• Vaporization and oxidation of organic Carbon and Sulfides:

4 FeS 2 + 11 O2 → 2 Fe2 O3 + 8SO2 , ΔH = + 13120 kJ/kg S
C + O2 → CO2 , ΔH = + 33830 kJ/kg C
(Fly ash Carbon has a higher temperature window compared to natural TOC-Carbon in clay or marl)
Between 750°C and 950ºC

• Decomposition of Calcium carbonates:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 , ΔH = - 3175 kJ/kg CaO

• Free lime reacts in solid phase with oxides to intermediate phases like:
2CaO + SiO2 → 2CaO . SiO 2 ,
2CaO + Al 2 O3 → 2CaO . Al 2 O3 ,
2CaO + Fe 2 O3 → 2CaO . Fe 2 O3
And finally Belite (C2S), C3A and C4AF start to form.
The reaction is exothermic.

• C 3 A and C4 AF liquefy and constitute the flux.
Belite ( C 2 S ) combines with free CaO to form Alite ( C 3 S ) in the presence of flux, forming nodules.
The reaction is exothermic.
Alite and Belite are not pure, they contain impurities (Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3, Alkali,…).
Rietveld or microscopy results show higher Alite compared to Bogue C3S calculation.
Evaporation of volatiles overlaps the exothermic reaction in the sintering zone and transfer heat to colder
areas.
The final exothermic reaction of the clinker phases is estimated on clinker Bogue results:
3CaO + SiO2 Alite (C3S) ΔH = + 494 kJ/kg C3S

2CaO + SiO2 Belite (C2S) ΔH = + 699 kJ/kg C2S
3CaO + Al2O2 Aluminate (C3A) ΔH = - 75 kJ/kg C3A
4CaO + Al2O2 + Fe2O3 Ferrite (C4AF) ΔH = + 67 kJ/kg C4AF
Alkalisulphates need to be considered as well:

K2O + SO3 K2SO4 ΔH = + 9690 kJ/kg K2SO4
3. Cooler Efficiency
3.1 Cooler Parameters

• Basic operating principles:
Maintain a constant air to clinker ratio
Maintain a constant bed depth
Remove all excess cooling (vent) air
• Design Criteria:
Grate Loading < 45 tpd/m²
Total specific cooling air > 2.1 Nm³/kg cl
Target: clinker temperature 70°C + ambient ; k- factor > 1.6
• Blowing Density:
Expressed in Nm³/m²/s. Calculate the blowing density for every compartment using the effective
area (covered by clinker) and the cooling air blown in the compartment. Take care to consider
the grate area covered by horse shoe.
Rule of thumb for blowing density of the static grate or first chamber:
1.6 – 1.8 Nm³/m²/s for conventional grate cooler and old Fuller cooler
1.5 for IKN fixed inlet (some plants will need up to 2)
1.3-1,4 for FLS ABC inlet
Higher airflow might be required to avoid static areas of clinker that could result in snowman
formation. The objective of a fixed inlet is to ensure a good distribution of clinker on the moving
grate. The blowing density of the following chambers should show a constant decrease. Use the
Lafarge cooling air distribution spread sheet for a first assessment.
• Cooling Air:
Expressed in Nm³/kg cl. While optimizing the air in the recuperation zone often requires an
increase at the first fans, the total cooling air should be minimized to reduce power cost. Decide
on a clinker target temperature required for cement quality but do not go below this temperature.
An optimized cooler can achieve low clinker temperature with low total cooling air.
Typical figures: 1.8 to 2.2 Nm³/kg cl, old grate coolers without fixed inlet up to 2.4 Nm³/kg cl.
• Clinker Bed Height

Maximize the bed height to increase the heat exchange. Typical limit is the fan’ maximum static
pressure and the need to keep reserves to act in case of a kiln push. New conventional coolers
can maintain a bed of 500 – 700 mm. Track the bed height by measuring or set marks to
observe from inspection windows.
3.2 Recuperation Efficiency (ρ):
• heat gained by recovered gases hsa + hta

ρ= =
total usable heat input m + mta
hck ,in + hca sa
mca
Where:
hsa is the enthalpy of secondary air in kJ/kg ck, including enthalpy of clinker dust in secondary
air.
hta is the enthalpy of tertiary air in kJ/kg ck, including enthalpy of dust in tertiary air.
hca is the enthalpy of cooling air in kJ/kg ck
hck in is the enthalpy of the hot clinker from the kiln in kJ/kg ck, increased in mass flow due to dust
return.
msa=mass of secundary air in kg/h
mta=mass of tertiary air in kg/h
mca=mass of cooling air in kg/h
The calculation in the division heat balance tool is considering the exact enthalpy of the cooling air in the
recuperation zone, which is typically higher compared to the average enthalpy of the cooling air.
• This efficiency depends highly on the quantity of secondary and tertiary air. It is higher for wet kilns
(∼85%) than for dry kilns (∼70%).
3.3 Recovery Factor (k)

ln (1 − ρ )
• k=
m sa + mta
k < 0.9 ⇒ bad cooler
0.9 < k < 1.1 ⇒ poor cooler
1.1 < k < 1.3 ⇒ mediocre cooler
1.3 < k < 1.5 ⇒ good cooler
k > 1.5 ⇒ excellent cooler
The k-factor is the main indicator for cooler performance benchmark. The k-factor is independent from
the amount of secondary and tertiary air and therefore shows cooler performance independent from the
kiln system or fuel used.
Cooling Efficiency
heat lost by clinker hck,in - hck,out

• η= =
heat input in clinker hck,in
Cooler Loss
• Cooler loss = all heat not recovered by combustion air.
Cooler loss = heat content of clinker leaving cooler ( hck ,out ) + heat content of vent air including
dust + heat content of any mid air extraction including dust + cooler wall losses
4. Wall Losses
4.1 General Formula
The total heat loss from a surface is the sum of both the radiation and convection losses
QTotal = Qradiation + Qconvection
It is recommended to use the Division calculaltion tool to calculate Wall Losses, it can be found on the
Cement Portal.
4.2 Radiation Losses
Radiation losses are given by the following equation:

Qradiation= α x x σ x A x ( Tshell4 – Tsurroundings4)
Qradiation is radiation loss in W

α is the view factor, can be assumed =1 if the shell is a long distance from surrounding
surfaces
is the emissivity of the surface

σ is the Stefan Boltzmann Constant 5.6703x10-8 (W/m2.K4)
A is the surface area in (m2)
Tshell is the shell temperature in (Kelvin)
Tsurroundings can be assumed as the ambient temperature when the surroundings are a long
distance from the shell (Kelvin)
A surface in close proximity to the shell can reflect the thermal radiation back to the shell and reduce the
heat transferred. This will depend upon the size, shape, emissivity and temperature of the surface. The
size, shape and distance of the surface from the shell will affect the view factor. The view factor is the
proportion of the surface that can be “seen” by the shell. Calculation of the view factor becomes quite
complex, even for relatively simple shapes, hence assumptions have to be made to simplify the
calculation (done in the division tool).
The emissivity is a property of the material and its surface condition (see below).
Emissivity e:
Material Emissivity ∈
Bricks 0.8
Steel 0.95
Oxidized steel ∈ =0.996-2.88*10-4.(tp-100)
Dusty kiln shell ∈ =0.96-5.2*10-4.(tp-100)
Silica bricks ∈ =0.81-6.08*10-4.(tp-200)
Other data Tp ∈ tp ∈
Iron oxide 500C 0.78 Steel oxidised 40C 0.94
Zinc galvanized sheet bright 28C 0.23 Steel oxidised 370C 0.97
Iron polished 425C 0.144 Steel polished 770C 0.52
Steel dense shiny oxide layer 25C 0.82 Steel pipe 200 0.8
It is important to take care to use the correct value since an incorrect emissivity value will create a
significant error in the “measured temperature” and hence the calculated heat loss, see example.
Emissivity can be checked on static surfaces by first measuring the temperature with a contact pyrometer
and then pointing the infra-red pyrometer at the same point and adjusting the emissivity until the
temperature reads the same as that measured by the contact thermometer.
Example: Measurement Error with Incorrect Emissivity

Read temperature=65C, emissivity chosen: 1 instead of actual: 0.4
ambient temp 20°C
True temperature= t = ( 273 + 65 ).4 1 / 0.4 = 425 K = 152C

Loss calculated with read temperature = 322 W/m2
Loss with true temperature = 573 W/m2
4.3 Convection Losses
The individual formula for convection losses are too numerous depending on the flow type to be
presented here. The general formula is :
Qconvection= h x A x ( Tshell – Tambient)
Tshell is the shell temperature (°C)

Tambient is the ambient temperature (°C)
A is the surface area (m2)
h is the coefficient of heat transfer (W/m2.°C)
The convection losses are influenced by:

o The movement of air around the surfaces. The speed of the wind, kiln speed, blowing
fan change the convection losses from natural to forced convection and from laminar to
turbulent movement.
o The orientation and the form of the surface: ducts, vertical or horizontal area…
e
With h = hnat * (1+0.57 v)
hnat is the natural convection coefficient which depend of the surface orientation, and the type
of flow : laminar or turbulent For calculating hnat you need a characteristic dimension of the surface
considered: for Duct = the Diameter,
Vertical plane shell = the height,
Horizontal plane shell = the length
For example for a horizontal pipe and laminar flow:
hnat =1.18* (( Tshell – Tambient)/D)0.25
v is the speed of the air surrounding the surface (including wind, kiln speed, fans…) (m/s)
e is the exponent reflecting the impact of wind (varying from 0.5 to 0.8)
5. Kiln Audit Basics
5.1 Defining the Balance Envelope

• A kiln heat balance is a powerful tool to evaluate the actual performance of the burning line as well
as to define improvement actions. To get reliable data a kiln audit is required.
• In a kiln audit a Mass and Heat Balance is carried out for at least 24 hours reasonable stable
operation.
Σ heatin = Σ heatout
Σ massin = Σ massout
• A clear definition of the balance border around the pyro line is essential, all mass and energy flows
passing this envelope need to be considered.
A typical balance border and Heat In - Output Table of a calciner line is shown below:
gas analysor
A
new
CY07 CY09 CY11 CY13
314TC0
5 CY19 CY21
CY23 CY25
ID fan CA3
CY27 CY31
3
oil oil
burner burner
gas gas
burner burner
gas analysor
• Heat Inputs
o Kiln feed (sensible + latent)
o Fuel main burner (sensible + latent)
o Fuel calciner (sensible + latent)
o Primary air and transport air main burner
o Primary air and transport air calciner
o Cooling air
o False air
o Exothermic Heat of clinkerization
• Heat Outputs
o Clinker
o Preheater exit gas
o Preheater exit dust
o Cooler exhaust gas and dust
o Endothermic Heat of clinkerization including decarbonatization
o Heat of Water vaporization
o Wall losses
• Additional to the over all heat balance of the pyro line a sub balance is carried out for the cooler and
other areas of interest (conditioning tower, bypass,…).
5.2 Measurements
• A 24 hour truck weighing is recommended for clinker.
• To determine the preheater exit dust, truck weighing of the kiln filter dust is recommended. The raw
mill needs to be stopped one hour before and during the weighing. Coal mill should be stopped in
parallel or the amount of preheater exit gas and dust towards coal mill needs to be estimated. Any
dust source (example gas conditioning tower) should be covered by truck weighing.
• Further truck weighing is recommended for fuel if dosing is not reliable or cannot be calibrated
properly.
• The table below shows typical recommended process measurements and their frequency:
MATERIAL / ANALYZE FREQUENCY COMMENTS

LOCATION
Ambient p absolute ; T ; relative 3 / day
humidity
Kiln Feed T 2 / day
Kiln Feed Airlift flow ; T ; p 1 / audit Optional blower data
Preheater Exhaust flow ; T ; p ; O2 ; CO ; 2-3 / day Parallel stack flow + O2
Gas NO ; CO2 ; SO2 measurement recommended ;
Dust content if no truck
weighing possible
Preheater Radiation Surface T ; wind speed 1 / audit Follow how to measure wall
; ambient T losses
Preheater stages T ; p ; O2 ; CO 1 / audit Every stage exit
Primary air back end Flow ; T ; p 1 / day
/ calciner
Transport air back Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Optional blower data
end / calciner
Cooling air Preheater Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Example SNCR nozzles,…
Calciner T ; p ; gas 1 / audit Mapping or spot at main areas
Tertiary Air T ; p ; radiation 3 / day T and p at both ends
Calciner Exit Gas T ; p ; O2 ; CO ; NO ; 3 / day
CO2
Kiln Exit Gas T ; p ; O2 ; CO ; NO ; 3 / day Use water cooled lance for gas
CO2 analyze
Kiln Radiation Surface T ; wind speed 1 / audit Mark operating shell cooling
; ambient T fans – use for crosschecking
Scanner data
Hot Clinker T 5 / day Calorimeter
Temperature
Primary Airs main Flow ; T ; p 2 / day
burner
Transport air main Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Optional blower data

burner
Cooling Air Kiln Hood Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Camera,…
Cooler fans Flow ; T before and 3 / day Cross check with on line
after fan ; p before and measurement (IP21)
after fan
Cooler Exhaust Gas Flow ; T after cooler 2 / day T directly after cooler: mapping
and on flow recommended ;
measurement point ; p
Cold Clinker T 5 / day Insulated basket
Cooler Take off gas T ; p ; flow 3 / day
Cooler Radiation Surface T ; wind speed 1 / day
; ambient T
Bypass Flow, T , p of quench 1 / audit Separate heat and mass
air(s) and filter exit gas balance
; wall losses
• Typical sampling frequency is shown in the next table for materials and fuels. Standard analysis like
XRF should be carried out on every hourly sample in the plant.
The recommended additional analysis to be carried out in the TC lab like CO2, H, S2-, TOC in kiln
feed, ultimate fuel analyse, fuel ash analyse, ect are described in the kiln audit analyse template
(Pyro 2 / Kiln Audit training).
• Material Sampling:
Filter DUST (mill
Material: KILN FEED HOT MEAL (dry) HOT MEAL (wet) CLINKER BYPASS DUST
stopped)
2 samples during
Recommended sampling frequency once per hour twice per shift twice per shift once per hour once per shift
mill stopped
1 to 3 typical 1 to 6 typical
1 average sample 1 average sample average sample
sample (dry sample - same
Sample to TC: out of all hourly out of all hourly averge sample out of all audit
sampling, no air time as dry
audit samples audit samples samples
contact) sampling
• Fuel Sampling
solid shredded
Material: coal or coke liquid fuel solid biomass fuel
waste (plastic,…)
Recommended sampling
twice per shift twice per shift twice per shift twice per shift
frequency
1 average 1 average sample 1 average sample 1 average sample
Sample to TC lab: sample out of all out of all audit out of all audit out of all audit
audit samples samples samples samples
6. Kiln Heat Balance Example
The example below shows the kiln audit result of Volos kiln 5, a 4 stage calciner line. The
division heat balance tool is used for calculation.
KILN AUDIT HEAT BALANCE TOOL - COOLER BALANCE AND PERFORMANCE SHEET
Cooler input Cooler output
kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck % kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck %
Cooling fans 350100 27 2,14 73,86 4,1 Secondary air 73329 999 0,45 632,58 34,8
Hot Clinker 127000 1445 1605,06 88,4 Tertiary air 66303 999 0,41 572,21 31,5
Exhaust air water injection 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0 Mill take off #1 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
False air 0 0,00 0,00 0,0 Mill take off #2 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
Clinker Dust return (SA) 5684 1445 71,84 4,0 Exhaust air 210468 245 1,29 414,13 22,8
Clinker Dust return (TA) 5140 1445 64,96 3,6 Cold clinker 122105 101,5 76,92 4,2
Wall losses 27,39 1,5
Vap. Heat 0,00 0,0
Dust secondary air 5684 999 44,36 2,4
Dust tertiary air 5140 999 40,11 2,2
Dust exhaust air 4895 245 8,01 0,4
Dust Mill take off 1 0 0 0,00 0,0
Dust MIll take off 2 0 0 0,00 0,0
Air leakage 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
Total 487924 2,14 1815,72 100 Total 487924 4587 2,14 1815,72 100
Out - In 0 0,00 0,00
Cooler Load, tday/m2 37,6
Recovery Efficiency, ρ 72,65% Air Load, Nm3/kgck 2,14
Cooling Efficiency, η 95,21% Average Blowing Density, Nm3/s/m2 0,93
Recovery Factor, k 1,52 excellent cooler Cooler Loss, kJ/kgck 526,45
0,45 Nm3/kgck 0,41 Nm3/kgck 0,00 Nm3/kgck 0,00 Nm3/kgck

999 °C 999 °C 0 °C 0 °C BLOWING DENSITY OF THE COOLER
Secondary air
Tertiary air 2,00
Mill take off #1 1,80
Blowing Density, Nm3/s/m2
Mill take off #2

1,60
Hot Clinker Exhaust air 1,40

1,20
127000 kg/h 1,29 Nm3/kgck 1,00
1445 °C 245 °C 0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
Cold 0,00
Cooling fans Clinker 0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 80,00 90,00
2,14 Nm3/kgck 122105 kg/h Cumulative Surface Area, m2

27 °C 101,5 °C
KILN AUDIT HEAT BALANCE TOOL - KILN SYSTEM HEAT BALANCE
System In System Out

kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck heat% content kg/h T°C Nm3/kgck kJ/kgck heat %
Kiln Feed 201746 62 80,34 2,2 Preheater Exit Gas 287276 395 1,58 938,47 26,1
H2O 811 62 1,66 0,0 Gas Composition
Total Fuel 13654 0,97 3523,64 CO2 27,75% 109218 334,43 9,3
Sensible Heat 13379 11,52 0,3 H2O 4,88% 7861 47,56 1,3
Combustion 13379 0,95 3459,34 93,6 SO2 (ppm) 70 40 0,09 0,0
H2O 53 0,00 0,18 0,0 N2 63,02% 157904 519,10 14,4
TOC Combustion 182 62 0,01 48,42 1,3 O2 4,28% 12252 36,76 1,0
S-2 Combustion 40 62 0,00 4,17 0,1 CO 0,06% 156 0,52 0,0

Total False Air 44920 12 0,27 4,29 0,1 Heat Loss CO Preheater Exit 156 12,43 0,3
Total Primary Air 22759 74 0,14 13,32 0,4 Cooler Exhaust Air 210468 245 1,29 414,13 11,5
Total Cooling Air of Cooler 350100 27 2,14 73,86 2,0 Cooler Exhaust Inj. Water Vap. 0,00 0,0
Total Water Injection 0 0,00 0,00 0,0 Cooler Mill Take Off #1 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
SNCR 0 20 0,00 0,00 0,0 Cooler Mill Take Off #2 0 0 0 0 0,0
Clinker-Cooler Exit 122105 101,5 76,92 2,1
Clinker Dust - Tertiary Air Dedusting 0 999 0,00 0,0
Clinker Dust - Exhaust Gas 4895 245 8,01 0,2
Clinker Dust . Cooler Mill take off 1 + 2 0 0,00 0,0
Clinker Formation Heat 1697,80 47,2
Preheater Dust 8250 395 25,49 0,7
By-Pass Gas 0 0 0,00 0,00 0,0
By-Pass Dust 0 0 0,00 0,0
Heat Consumption (fuels only, no TOC,S2-): 3459 kJ/kgck By-Pass Decarbonisation Heat 0,00 0,0
Water Vaporization SNCR 0 0,00 0,0
Heat Consumption including TOC and S2- 3512 kJ/kg Water Vaporization Preheater Injection 0 0,00 0,0
Water Vaporization Feed Moisture 811 15,89 0,4
Wall Losses 404,85
Tertiary Air Duct 50,00 1,4
Preheater 168,00 4,7
Kiln 159,46 4,4
Cooler 27,39 0,8
Total Heat In 3697
Total Heat Out 3594
Difference -103
% Deviation -2,87%
7. Kiln Audit Results – Preheater / Calciner Kilns

The data below are the summary results of preheater and calciner kiln audits carried out since 2006,
using the division tool with integrated database input sheet. The audits had been validated by TC before
entering to the database. Present number of audits entered: 14 (preheater and calciner kilns, with grate
cooler)
The complete and actualized database is available on the portal – pyroprocessing domain for benchmark.
The overview below will be updated yearly.
KILN AUDIT CALCINER CALCINER

DATABASE AND KILNS
PREHEATER
STATUS 03-2010 KILNS
Number of kilns 14 7
General Unit Average Min Max Average
Spec. Heat kJ/kg 3416 2820 3804 3304
consumption (fuel)
Spec. Heat input kiln kJ/kg 87 0 482 105
feed TOC
Production t/d 3060 1390 4260 3450
AF firing % 13 0 60 7
Preheater Exit Gas Nm³/kg 1.65 1.41 1.85 1.59
Flow
Preheater Exit Gas °C 385 333 434 398
Temperature (n=13) (n=13) (n=13) (n=6)
(4 stage only)
Top Cyclone Efficiency % 91.5 87.0 96.0 91.1
False Air Preheater / % 11.1 5.5 17.8 10.2
Calciner
Thermal Load MW/m² 4.8 3.6 5.9 4.4
CO2 (total) kg/kg 0.85 0.79 0.90 0.83
Heat Loss
Distribution
Heat of Clinker kJ/kg (%) 1776 1668 1988 1789
Formation (47.9) (44.7) (54.4) (49.0)
Kiln / PreheaterExit kJ/kg (%) 946 775 1186 941
Gas (25.4) (21.7) (30.1) (25.7)
Cooler Exhaust Air and kJ/kg (%) 405 335 499 416
Mill Take Off (11.0) (8.9) (13.8) (11.4)
Wall Loss kJ/kg (%) 362 240 508 301
(9.8) (6.4) (14.0) (8.3)
Kiln / Preheater Exit kJ/kg (%) 55 26 93 60
Dust Loss (1.5) (0.7) (2.6) (1.6)
Clinker after Cooler kJ/kg (%) 104 54 143 106
(2.8) (1.5) (3.9) (2.9)
Cooler
Secondary Air + Nm³/ 0.91 0.75 1.09 0.87

Tertiary Air Volume kg
Secondary Air °C 923 827 1110 964
Temperature
Tertiary Air Volume Nm³/kg 0.45 0.20 0.58 0.45
(calciner only) (n=7) (n=7) (n=7)
Tertiary Air °C 930 832 999 930
Temperature (n=7) (n=7) (n=7)
Cold Clinker °C 133 70 178 102
Temperature
Hot Clinker °C 1427 1390 1468 1429
Temperature
Cooling Air Nm³/kg 2.1 1.6 2.5 2.1
Recovery Efficiency % 70.5 66.0 77.1 70.4
K Factor 1.37 1.22 1.60 1.42
8. Kiln Simulated Optimum Parameters

The values below are with 100% medium sulphur coke firing and typical raw mix burnability. Operation
conditions are optimized (low false air, Oxygen on target, etc.). The cooler is a modern conventional
cooler with k factor 1.5 and tertiary air take off from kiln hood.
Specific heat consumption is not considering additional heat input at the raw mill shop (example Lepol
kilns).
PROCESS WET LONG LEPOL 4 STAGE 4 STAGE 5 STAGE

TYPE DRY PREHEATER CALCINER CALCINER
General Unit
Spec. Heat kJ/kg 5400 3900 3400 3300 3300 3200
consumption
Output t/d 1000 1000 1000 3000 3000 3000
Kiln Exit Gas Nm³/k 3.2 1.67 1.35 1.26 0.49 0.49
Flow g
Kiln Exit Gas °C 200 475 (before 1000 1000 1100 1100
Temperature water
spray)
Lepol / Nm³/k - - 2.33 1.54 1.47 1.43
Preheater Exit g
Gas Flow
Lepol / °C - - 110 350 360 310
Preheater Exit
Gas
Temperature
Kiln Length / 37 33 15 16 15 14
Diameter
Kiln Speed rpm 1 1.4 1.4 2.5 3 3.5
Feed Moisture % 35 0.5 14 0.5 0.5 0.5
Heat Loss
Distribution
Heat of Clinker kJ/kg 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800
Formation (%) (32) (44) (51) (51) (51) (54)
Kiln / kJ/kg 940 1220 360 810 800 675
PreheaterExit (%) (17) (30) (10) (23) (23) (21)
Gas
Cooler Exhaust kJ/kg 110 240 316 295 350 370
Air (%) (2) (6) (9) (9) (10) (11)
Wall Loss kJ/kg 700 470 300 340 250 275
(%) (12) (12) (9) (10) (7) (8)
Vaporization kJ/kg 2050 20 630 20 20 20
Feed Moisture (%) (36) (0.5) (18) (0.6) (0.6) (0.6)
Kiln / Preheater kJ/kg 20 250 20 35 35 25
Exit Dust Loss (%) (0.4) (6.2) (0.6) (1.0) (1.0) (0.8)
Clinker after kJ/kg 70 80 70 90 90 90
Cooler (%) (1.1) (1.9) (2.0) (2.7) (2.7) (2.7)
Cooler
Secondary Air Nm³/k 1.49 1.13 0.99 0.99 0.38 0.38
Volume g
Secondary Air °C 716 832 913 916 965 980
Temperature
Tertiary Air Nm³/k - - - - 0.53 0.50
Volume g
Tertiary Air °C - - - - 965 980
Temperature
Exhaust Air Nm³/k 0.61 0.97 1.11 1.11 1.17 1.21
Volume g
Exhaust Air °C 141 188 217 204 224 233
Temperature
Cold Clinker °C 90 100 90 120 120 120
Temperature
Hot Clinker °C 1390 1400 1435 1435 1450 1450
Temperature
Cooling Air Nm³/k 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
g
Recovery % 89 82 77 77 75 73
Efficiency
K Factor 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
The next graphic shows the impact of different fuel, bypass and kiln size. Baseline is the optimized 3000
tpd 5 stage calciner line shown above – last column.
3600
kJ / kg
clinker
Influcence on specific heat consumption
3500
3430 1.500 t/d

3400
3380 5% bypass 3380 3.000 t/d
100% SSW no bypass 3330 5.000 t/d

3300 3320 3320
3.000 t/d
5 stage calciner
100% medium S coke
modern cooler
3200
3200
3100
3080 100% coal
3000
Baseline
1 Fuel Impact
2 Bypass
3 Kiln 4Size
+ 120 kJ / kg + 60 kJ / kg + 50 kJ / kg
- 120 kJ / kg - 50 kJ / kg
9. References
Cement Portal
• How to Perform a Kiln Audit
• How to Optimise a Clinker Cooler
• Lafarge Cooler Air Distribution Calculation Tool
• Calciner / Preheater Heat Balance Tool
• Wet and Lond Dry Heat Balance Tool
• Pyro-Process I & II Division Training
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Kiln Heat and Mass Balance September 2010

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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING VADE-MECUM

CHAPTER 3-1 – KILN HEAT & MASS BALANCE

3-1. Kiln Heat & Mass

1. Kiln / Preheater Exit Gas Calculation ........................................................2

2. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone ..........................................................4

4. Wall Losses .................................................................................................8

5. Kiln Audit Basics.......................................................................................10

6. Kiln Heat Balance Example: .....................................................................14

1. Kiln / Preheater Exit Gas Calculation

Neutral Combustion Air (NCA):

Neutral Combustion (Waste) Gas:

CO2 from Calcination H2O from Feed or Slurry Moisture

1.3 Calculation of Excess Air and Kiln Exit Gas

OXYkiln: Oxygen reading kiln exit, wet

OXYair: Oxygen content in air

1.4 Typical exit gas for different kiln types

KILN TYPE Nm³/kg %CO2 %H2O %N2 %O2

2. Pyroprocessing Reactions by Zone

Example Preheater Kiln

Between 400ºC and 800ºC

• Decomposition of Magnesium carbonates:

• Vaporization and oxidation of organic Carbon and Sulfides:

Between 750°C and 950ºC

Between 800°C and 1250ºC

Between 1250°C and 1450ºC

3CaO + SiO2 Alite (C3S) ΔH = + 494 kJ/kg C3S

Alkalisulphates need to be considered as well:

3.1 Cooler Parameters

• Clinker Bed Height

3.2 Recuperation Efficiency (ρ):

• heat gained by recovered gases hsa + hta

3.3 Recovery Factor (k)

heat lost by clinker hck,in - hck,out

4.1 General Formula

4.2 Radiation Losses

Radiation losses are given by the following equation:

Qradiation is radiation loss in W

is the emissivity of the surface

Example: Measurement Error with Incorrect Emissivity

True temperature= t = ( 273 + 65 ).4 1 / 0.4 = 425 K = 152C

4.3 Convection Losses

Tshell is the shell temperature (°C)

The convection losses are influenced by:

hnat =1.18* (( Tshell – Tambient)/D)0.25

5. Kiln Audit Basics

5.1 Defining the Balance Envelope

CY07 CY09 CY11 CY13

MATERIAL / ANALYZE FREQUENCY COMMENTS

Transport air main Flow ; T ; p 1 / day Optional blower data

6. Kiln Heat Balance Example

0,45 Nm3/kgck 0,41 Nm3/kgck 0,00 Nm3/kgck 0,00 Nm3/kgck

Mill take off #2

Hot Clinker Exhaust air 1,40

2,14 Nm3/kgck 122105 kg/h Cumulative Surface Area, m2

KILN AUDIT HEAT BALANCE TOOL - KILN SYSTEM HEAT BALANCE

System In System Out

S-2 Combustion 40 62 0,00 4,17 0,1 CO 0,06% 156 0,52 0,0

7. Kiln Audit Results – Preheater / Calciner Kilns

KILN AUDIT CALCINER CALCINER