SSESL - June Modulus

MODULUS
MODULUS | June| June

2020 2020
Vol. 30 | No.No.
Vol.30 02 02 EDITOR’S MESSAGE
EDITOR’S MESSAGE
EDITOR’S MESSAGE Throughout time, the primary objective of

publishing Modulus was to create a global stage for
structural engineers to share their hard work and technical
Life After Coronavirus Outbreak know-how within and among them. It also acts as a gateway
to transfer the knowledge from one generation to the other
as documentary evidences. I’m immensely thankful for the
Life after Covid-19 outbreak has created many authors of this edition for their dedicated support and invite
challenges in general and led every person to be a survivalist all the engineers to contribute towards the success of future
in particular. As people around the world face the realities of editions. The continuous commitment of our Executive
self-isolation, it is certainly a blessing to light up our Committee is highly appreciated.
thoughts into words which was although kept aside due to
the busy schedules as professionals. The Modulus June 2020
Edition is thus an agglomeration of the self-findings on Engineered inputs are vital in facing up to the
sound theoretical principals brought up by our own challenges that mankind has faced over centuries. The
engineers stressing up the fact that practical innovations are wealth of knowledge generated from diverse engineering
only possible if it blends with the fundamentals. The achievements in the country need to be actively shared and
magazine includes the insights on ‘Structural Audit on reviewed in local scientific research platforms in order for
Buildings’ which deliberates the importance of periodical productive contribution to private and public sectors and
inspection and structural health assessment of high rises so thereby the civil society at large; which will thus pave the
that the authorities/owners can take timely actions to ensure way for the sustainable development of our nation.
integrity of the structure and safety of the occupants. The
article on ‘An alternative approach to test the fire behaviour
of construction elements’ is another outcome of our
colleagues which is on developing a research method to Eng. S.S.A.Kalugaldeniya,
predict the fire performance of building materials. The end B.Sc.Eng (Hons), M. Sc. (TUT-
pages are covered by the topic on ‘Wind Design of Slender Japan), C. Eng, MIE(SL), MSSE(SL)
Tall Buildings in Sri Lankan Context, a study that intends to
present the importance of selecting suitable wind design Editor,
approaches to predict dynamic wind effects on tall buildings Society of Structural Engineers,
during the preliminary design stages overcoming the Sri Lanka.
limitations of existing design provisions. Email : editor.sse.sl@gmail.com
This June Issue of Modulus has a considerable

focus on designing of high rise buildings concerning the
health and fire safety aspects and withstanding stresses due
to natural phenomenon such as earthquake or wind force. ACKNOLEGMENT
High-rise buildings were designed to accommodate as many
people as possible under one roof. Unfortunately, health and The Editor wishes to thank authors of the research
hygiene were not given due consideration. Yet in times of articles, Eng. N.Abeysuriya, President of SSESL, Eng.
pandemic, people realized that it is necessary to reduce N.A. Amarasinghe, Ms. Nimesha Katuwala and the
contact with the entirety that is equipped in multi-story Associate Member Chapter for their contribution in
buildings such as the elevator, elevator buttons, door preparing the Modulus.
handles, surfaces and above all, the colleague next to you or The statements made or opinions expressed in the
neighbours around you, in short, a structure that can Modulus do not necessarily reflect the views of the
effectively provide social isolation. These trending topics Society of Structural Engineers, Sri Lanka
should be further conversed in future publications.
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS SRI LANKA 1

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS SRI LANKA
01
MODULUS
MODULUS | June| 2020
June 2020 MODULUS | June 2020 COVER STORY
Vol. 30 | No. 02
Vol.30 No. 02 COVER
COVERSTORY
STORYAND
ANDEVENT
EVENTCALENDAR
CALENDAR Vol. 30 | No. 02 COVER STORY
The Backstory The Structure

CONTENT COVER STORY
The development was started on an already existing The development which was only on the ground
Event Calendar 02
structure. This structure was converted to accommodate the space of towers 1 and 2 was further expanded to facilitate
Cover Story 02-06 new development brought in by the client. The original two additional towers - 3 and 4. These two towers were
building planned for the land was changed when AVIC hotel conceptualized from the beginning and the common podium
Society News Corporation stepped in, as they wanted to explore the option basements were connected to the existing towers 1 and 2
a.) Question Time Sessions via Zoom 07 of using the investment already made on the existing basements by casting at a high level and joining by filling as
structure while converting the scale of the project into a shown in the image overleaf (figure 08). The basement
b.) Design Course conducted by SSESL 07 viable investment for the firm, enhancing the project excavation was retained using a contiguous bored pile
development plan. retaining wall. The substructure analysis which included the
Engineers’ Forum pile caps was conducted using the FEM software CSI SAFE.
a.) Structural Audit on Buildings- 09 - 13 Rectification measures (as shown in figure 07 overleaf).
Process Viewed by Doctor/Patient
Analogy The basement slabs had been constructed and 52
D.L.T.R. Peiris columns of grade 50 concrete had been cast to the ground
The Superstructure
level. As the first step to the process an in-depth load re-
b.) An Alternative Approach to Test the Fire 14 - 27 evaluation was carried out and was determined that the
Behaviour of Construction Elements basement slab and the pile caps under it should be further The basic structural system as the building goes up
P. Weerasinghe, S. Dananjaya, strengthened. For this purpose, the slab was cut open in is a reinforced concrete beam-slab system which converts
K.Nguyen, A. Filkov, P. Mendis places (shown in figures 3 and 4) and additional steel was into a flat slab system supported on shear walls from the
anchored into the pile caps in order to bare the additional typical apartment floor upwards. Vertical loads were
c.) Wind Design of Slender Tall Buildings in 28 - 35 Astoria-Residential Development, loading on the proposed building. The columns were transferred to the foundation through columns and walls.
Sri Lankan Context Colombo 03, Sri Lanka strength -tested. Some were further strengthened by Figure 10 shows the cross section of the final development
B. Kiriparan, B Waduge, W.J.B.S. anchoring more reinforcement, and for a few columns showing Tower 3 and 4.
Fernando, P. Mendis Colombo is rapidly transforming into a modern day (figure 6) steel was jacketed to enhance the structural
metropolis and Astoria located at the heart of it stands capacity. The diagram below shows the plan for the
proudly amidst all the flourish. Developed by the Aviation demolition of walls and columns and images of the
Industry Corporation of China, Astoria was built by China demolition.
State Construction Engineering Corporation Limited.
Astoria is ideally located at the heart of the commercial
capital in Colombo 3, where living, shopping and recreation
EVENT CALENDAR OF SSESL – 2020 can merge together as colourfully as the island’s seaside,
lakeside and cityscape views. Astoria is constructed on an
Some of the events scheduled for year 2020 had to expanse of 140,000m² and consists of four towers (Tower 1-
be cancelled due to the prevailing pandemic situation of the 41 stories, Tower 2- 40 stories, Tower 3- 16 stories, Tower
country. However, following events have been programmed 4-34 stories) connected by a common podium, 466 fully air
by the Society for the rest of the year 2020. conditioned luxury apartments, 4 exclusive rooftop
duplexes, a 2,200m² shopping complex and a 900m² Figure 2
luxurious clubhouse. It also hosts leisure amenities including
Month Event Date a recreational landscape garden and a swimming pool. The
August Annual Sessions 25th total project value was approximately 2.8 billion LKR. The
basement contains vehicle parking, and other building
First Webinar on “Bridge
services like the water sump and the pump rooms while the
September Engineering” organized by 5th
ground floor is allocated for retail areas in addition to vehicle
Associate Member Chapter
parking. Level 01 contains the power distribution system and
Refresher Course on “ Structural the backup generators and this level upto Level 03 contains
Engineering with particular more retail space. The towers separate from Level 04
To be upwards where the apartment levels commence. The
reference to the Chartered
September finalized penthouses are located on Level 40 of Tower 01 and Tower
Membership Examination of Figure 3 Figure 4
Institute of Structural 02 and the height of the two buildings is 150 meters. Tower
Engineering UK (IStructE) 04 contains lower-end apartments, while Tower 03 is
considered as the office tower which also contains a refuge
October Seminar – Topic to be decided 27th terrace on Level 15. The structural work of Towers 1 & 2
Second Webinar on “Designing was completed in November 2017, while the finishing work
and Construction of “Post was completed by August 2018 after which the defect
November 7th closeout stage came into place prior to handover. The towers
Tensioned Structures” organized
by Associate Member Chapter 3 and 4 were completed fully by December 2019 and handed
over to the Client, while remaining in its defect liability
December Annual General Meeting 08th
period.
Figure 5 Figure 6
2 SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS SRI LANKA SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS SRI LANKA 3
02
MODULUS | June 2020 MODULUS | June 2020
Vol. 30 | No. 02
COVER
COVERSTORY
STORY Vol. 30 | No. 02 COVER STORY
COVER STORY
planned drainage system being put in place after which the
Figure 7 area was waterproofed. Landscape area was filled with 1.65
meters of soil fill. Later on the landscaping was done on top
of this. Figure 21 shows the finished garden space.
Figure 18
Figure 8
Wind and Earthquake Analysis Figure 17

The Structural Transfers
Figure 19
The main transfer floor of towers 1, 2 and 4 was A basic wind speed of 38 m/s with a return period Figure 10
located at level 4 podium level where it accommodates the of 50 years was used for strength design of the structure for
discontinuity of columns and walls in between parking floors wind loading. Wind induced accelerations for both along Formwork/Scaffoldings
and apartment levels. It was designed with a hybrid system wind and cross wind cases and deflections were calculated
of 750mm & 1500mm thick slabs and 2500/3000mm deep based on Australian Standards (AS 1170-2:2011). Aluminum system form work was used for towers 1, 2 and
beams. In Tower 1 & 2 the next transfer is designed at level Anticipated wind induced accelerations for 5 year and 10- 4, traditional timber formwork was used for tower 3 during
21 to accommodate different apartment layouts for upper year return periods were compared with acceptable criteria construction. The self-climbing scaffolding system was used
floors. It was a 1m thick transfer plate that supports more given as per Irwin, 1984. The slender towers are all for the first time in Sri Lanka on this project. This uses a
than 20 storeys above it. Furthermore in Tower 1 next controlled by cross wind effects due to vortex shedding. hydraulic jacking technology and moves the external
transfer is designed at level 40 for duplex apartment levels Wind induced deflections were obtained from the Finite formwork to the next floor with ease and with almost no
where it transfers loads from apartments, roof level and Element Model and maximum top deflection was limited to labour involvement. Shown in Figure 20 is a part of the
water tank level while in Tower 2, a 600mm thick transfer Height/500. Dynamic response spectrum analysis is mechanism.
slab is introduced at level 39, which transfers loads from its conducted using the response spectra for return periods of
own duplex levels and roof levels. Figure 11 shows the 50, 500 and 2500 years for an earthquake that could occur at
exterior of the transfer floor. an epicentre 30 km away from Colombo (Dananjaya, S.,
2016) to evaluate the earthquake induced structural demand.
In addition to dynamic analysis, parallel static analysis also
carried out following Australian standard AS1170.4: 2007.
A hazard factor of 0.08 was used in evaluating earthquake
loads. Under Earthquake analysis, base shear & inter storey Figure 20
drifts were calculated for both static and dynamic cases and Figure 11 Figure 12
inter storey drift ratio was compared with acceptable
performance criteria developed by the Structural Engineers
Association of California (SEAOC). Diagrams obtained in
relation to one Tower are below.
Steel-Concrete Composite Column system
In order to enhance the strength capacity of existing

columns to satisfy the latest structural loads as per new
concept, a steel-concrete composite column system was
introduced. In this case the already cast concrete columns Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16
were subjected to steel jacketing in order to meet the
increased level of axial force demand (in some columns upto The Senses Garden
30% extra of the original). In contrast to the full interaction
between steel and concrete considered in usual composite
Figure 9 At level 4, the podium deck mainly provides public and
design approaches, here mechanical shear connectors were
provided to meet the interface shear demand. Figure 17 and commercial facilities for users. It mainly consists of large
19 show the site pictures of this while figure 18 shows the extents of landscape areas, swimming pools and commercial
design. spaces. The landscape system was followed by a well
MODULUS | June 2020 MODULUS
MODULUS | June| June
2020 2020
Vol. 30 | No. 02 COVER
COVER STORY
STORY Vol. 30 | No.No.
Vol.30 02 02 SOCIETY NEWS
SOCIETY NEWS
Computational Fluid Dynamic Analysis Project Summary SOCIETY NEWS Annual Session 2020
The code based calculation for the evaluation of wind loads Architect: The Design Group Five International (Pvt) Ltd. Question Time Sessions via Zoom The Annual session of SSESL is to be held as
will not be valid due to the integration of the four towers, virtual sessions on 25th August 2020. Sixteen technical
thus wind loads on cladding elements were evaluated by a Structural Engineer: Civil and Structural Engineering papers from the industry as well as academia will be
Question Time (QT) for the month May was
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis determining Consultants (Pvt) Ltd. presented on research areas as behavior of steel structures
conducted through the Zoom online presentation platform
peak cladding pressures around the building for an for the first time due to the Covid-19 pandemic situation. and elements under various loading conditions; design and
economical façade design. Results are extracted with the Mechanical/Electrical/Plumbing Engineers: The Design experimental investigations of concrete; numerical
The presentation was themed as “Introduction of MEP
focus of deriving the velocities and façade pressure on Group Five International (Pvt) Ltd. modeling and simulation of structures, elements and tall
Services for Tall Buildings in Sri Lanka” and presented by
external walls of each tower, comprising north, south, east Eng. Tahir Khurram- Principal MEP Engineer of Building buildings etc. All papers have been reviewed by subject
west and top elevation of the building. Figure 22 shows the Contractor: China State Construction Engineering specialists and will be published in the proceedings of the
Services Engineering Consultants (BSEC). The first zoom
wind pressure contours. Corporation Limited. Annual sessions.
presentation was very well accepted by the audience and
the session was concluded with a great success.
Supervising Consultant: Central Engineering Consultancy
Bureau (For Towers 1 & 2)
The fourth QT session was also conducted via
Lotus Construction Management Consultants Pvt. Ltd. (For
Zoom on the topic of “Circular Economy - Opportunity
Design Course Conducted by SSESL
Towers 3 & 4)
versus Challenge” by Prof. Hiroshan Hettiarachchi who is a
The "Structural Design of Multi-Storied
renowned Geotechnical Engineering Professor from
Defect Close-out Consultant: Lotus Construction Buildings” Course, organized by the Society of Structural
Michigan, USA. His work covers multiple topics as
Management Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Engineers Sri Lanka commenced on Saturday 11th July
sustainability, circular economy, waste management and
2020. The course has been planned to be conducted as
resource management in addition to geotechnical and geo
classroom style sessions at the SLIDA Auditorium, with a
environmental engineering. The presentation mainly
maximum of 25 participants. The option to participate
focused on day to day activities and engineering
online has also been made available.
Figure 21 applications that could be re-invented in terms of lean
management and less wastage.
The course will be conducted for six consecutive
The July Question Time session was conducted at Saturdays featuring on the appraisal of architectural
the Wimalasurendra Auditorium of the IESL restricting the drawings, basis for structural designs, structural systems
number of participants to 75, due to the prevailing health and selection of structural materials, static and dynamic
standards maintained in the country. The presentation was loads, design of foundations and basements, introduction to
also broadcasted via zoom. The topic highlighted structural analysis software, development of structural
“Innovations in Concrete Industry” presented by the drawings and introduction to MEP design requirements for
Director of the FDN Group, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: structural engineers.
Mr. Dil Tirimanna. The presentation elaborated on many
new aspects as Ultra High-Performance Concrete, Floating The guidance to the design course will be
Structures and Printing of Concrete Bridges due to lack of provided by the most renowned and well experienced
labor in European countries. practicing engineers in the industry.
Figure 22 Figure 23
04
SCHEDULE OF SSESL ANNUAL SESSIONS - 2020
08:15 - 08:25 Registration (virtual) 10:20 - 10:45 Discussion of Papers 14:00 - 14:10 Numerical Approaches for Modeling
08:30 - 08:40 Lighting of oil Lamp (virtual) Nonlinear Behavior of Masonry Structures
10:45 - 11:15 Mid Morning Tea Break
Eng. C.S. Bandara, Dr. J. A. S. C. Jayasinghe,
08:40 - 08:45 Welcome Address Morning Session(2) Chair - Eng. A.S.B. Edirisinghe Eng. M.A.C.J.P. Samarasekara and
Eng. Nandana Abeysuriya, President SSESL
Eng. S. U. Sathya
08:45 - 09:25 Key Note Address 11:20 - 11:30 Semi-Automated Crack Detection Using
Computer Vision 14:10 - 14:20 Estimation of Natural Frequency and
TECHNOLOGIES IN DESIGN OF STEEL BRIDGES
Eng. N. Sujeeka, Eng. S. Lowhikan and Damping Ratio of Sri Lankan Tall Buildings
Adapting to Environment and Extending Span Using Ambient Vibration Data
Dr. H. M. Y. C. Mallikarachchi
Length Eng. K. Raakulan, Eng. K. Branavan,
11:30 - 11:40 Partial Safety Factors for Design of
Harukazu OHASHI, Dr., PE Dr. H.A.D.S. Buddika and Eng. N.A.N. Lakmal
Reinforced Concrete Structures in Sri Lanka:
Chief, Oriental Consultants Global, Japan Calibration using Reliability Analysis 14:20 - 14:30 Nonlinear Numerical Simulation of the
Team Leader for New Kelani Bridge Project Eng. W.M.A.M. Wickramasekara, Seismic Response of Kotmale Dam
Advisor for Colombo LRT Project Eng. S. Vidurshan and Dr. J.A. Thamboo Eng. B.H.M.M. Herath, Dr. K.K. Wijesundara and
Eng. A.R.M.H.B. Amunugama
Morning Session(1) Chair - Dr.(Mrs.) M.T.P. Hettiarachchi 11:40 - 11:50 Experimental Investigation on Torsional
Behaviour of Carbon Fibre Reinforced 14:30 - 14:40 Ductility Demand Evaluation of Tall
09:30 - 09:40 Ultra-Low Cycle Fatigue Behaviour of Steel Polymer Strengthened Concrete Beams Buildings in Sri Lanka - A Case Study
Concentrically Braced Frames Under Curved in a Horizontal Plane Eng. S. Thilakarathna, Eng. W.J.B.S. Fernando,
Extreme Seismic Loads Eng. K. A. B. Weerasinghe, Eng. R. Sajinthan Dr. P. Thanthirige and Prof. P. Mendis
Eng. E.M.S.D. Jayasooriya, Dr. C.S. Bandara, and Dr.(Mrs.) J.C.P.H. Gamage 14:40 - 15:10 Discussion of Papers
Dr. J.A.S.C. Jayasinghe and Dr. K.K. Wijesundara 11:50 - 12:00 Analysis of Constraints to Design Wall Type 15.10 Vote of Thanks - Eng.(Mrs.) T.J. Jayasundara
09:40 - 09:50 Lateral Distortional Buckling Behavior of Abutments with Pile Foundation for Hony Secretary - SSESL
Build-up Cold-Formed Steel Hollow Flange Concrete Girder Bridges
Channel Beams Eng. W.K.B.L. Kurukulasooriya, Participation
Eng. P. Mathuranthakan, Eng. M.B.H.M. Perera and Eng. J.G.T. Nanjitha
Dr. K.S. Wanniarachchi and Eng. P. Keerthan Members of all categories of the Society of Structural
12:00 - 12:10 Challenges and Implications of Use of Engineers – Sri Lanka, other professionals and the general
09:50 - 10:00 Web Crippling Behavior of Flange Fastened Manufactured Sand in Concrete Mixes
public are invited to participate virtually in the ninth Annual
Stainless Steel Lipped Channel Beams with Eng. M.S.B. Haadi, Eng. W.J.B.S. Fernando and
Sessions which will be held on virtual conference platform
Non - Circular Web Opening Prof. P. Mendis
due to COVID -19 pandemic. This annual event is organized
Eng. D.C.K. Dodangoda,
12:10 - 12:35 Discussion of Papers to provide the Structural Engineers an opportunity to
Dr. K.S. Wanniarachchi and Eng. P. Keerthan
12:35 - 13:35 Lunch Break disseminate their knowledge and share experiences on a
10:00 - 10:10 Prediction of Axial Load Carrying Capacity variety of subjects relevant to Structural Engineering with
of RC Columns Retrofitted with Steel Evening Session Chair - Dr. A.L.M. Mauroof
the broad aim to create a research and innovative culture
Jacketing
13:40 - 13:50 Nonlinear Material Modelling and Design among Structural Engineers.
Eng. K.C.S. Gunarathna, Eng. B. Kiriparan and
Using Statistical Learning
Dr. D.D.T.K. Kulathunga
Dr. S. Herath All papers have been reviewed by subject specialists in the
10:10 - 10:20 Prediction of Drag Force Coefficient for industry and academia and will be published in the
Single Column Supported Billboard 13:50 - 14:00 Effect of Infill Walls for Seismic Analysis of
Buildings in Sri Lanka Proceedings of the Annual Sessions. The Presentations will
Structures
Eng. W.A.H.A Abayawardena and be streamed via ZOOM online platform to all the registered
Eng. W.A.C. Weerasinghe,
Dr.(Mrs.) S.R. Herath participants and the soft copy of the Proceedings will be
Eng. B.C.S.S.W. Rodrigo and
provided to all at the time of joining the virtual sessions.
Dr. H. A. D. S. Buddika
check-ups
and healthier.
technical personal.
Vol. 30 | No. 02
and
MODULUS | June 2020

1. Introduction
engineers
Consultancy Bureau, thusiropeiris@gmail.com

Structural Renovations/ SD3, Central Engineering
doctor-patient analogy seems to be very effective for
1 D.L.T.R. Peiris, Specialist Engineer (Structural Designs),

factors by analysing signs and data at early stages so
years for adults over 18 years until age 40 and in
doctor-patient analogy. On the other hand, this

buildings/structures at Structural Audits. This paper
way how doctors examine their patients at health
measures can be advised to make one’s life longer
periodical health assessment is to identify the risk
health check-ups are recommended in every five
doctors. As health risks increase with age, periodic
examine
It is interesting to see the similarity between the
that treatments can be prescribed or preventive
Periodical health check-ups or more precisely
is aimed at presenting Structural Audit, its

every one year thereafter. The main objective of
importance and adopted methodology in terms of

‘Periodical health assessments’ are recommended by
Key words: Structural audit, buildings, doctor-patient analogy
Abstract
D.L.T.R. Peiris 1
buildings.
effects and degree of maintenance.

ENGINEERS’
Structural Audit of Buildings Process Viewed in Doctor/Patient Analogy
2. What is Structural Audit of a building

examining clinical history and general visual examination followed by basic laboratory tests such as fasting blood
to identify the risk factors by analysing signs and data gathered at early stages so that treatments can be prescribed
the importance of periodical inspections of buildings and timely repairs of defects. Structural Audit covers this
‘Periodical health assessments’ are recommended by doctors. The main objective of periodical health assessment is
buildings also undergo various over stresses,

need to be checked under more advanced tests such as CT/Ultra sound scanning etc. Similar approach is adopted by
sugar/cholesterol checks etc. Depending on the findings in preliminary tests, doctors decide whether the patient
an overall health/performance check-up of a structure carried out by a structural engineer, like a patient is
structural engineers in Structural Audits to assess the structural health condition or to identify possible root causes
managers on the long term economic benefits and
factors such as quality of construction, environmental

durability issues etc. during its life span. Like people
safety assurance given by Structural Audit of
important role of periodical inspection and structural health assessment so that the authorities/owners can take
buildings. Deliverables in Structural Audit generally

Structural Audit can be described as an overall
supposed to have certain life expectancy, buildings
Under this analogy, structural engineer sees the
out by a structural engineer, like a patient is

examined by a doctor. There have been many incidents in the world, and recently in Sri Lanka as well, that highlight
or preventive measures can be advised to make one’s life longer and healthier. Structural Audit can be described as
width/strain gauges, tell-tale glasses, binoculars/

timely actions to ensure integrity of the structure and safety of the occupants. Doctors start check-up patient with
magnifying glasses, in-situ/non-destructive tests

of defects. Structural Audit is not much talked in Sri Lanka until recently. It is found that the doctor-patient analogy
engineers also use equipment and tests such as crack

examined by a doctor. As doctors use various
from illnesses, disorders and age-related problems,
building/structure as a human. As human suffers
It is interesting to see the similarity between the way how doctors examine their patient at health check-ups and
health/performance check-up of a structure carried

engineers examine buildings/structures at Structural Audits. Periodical health check-ups or more precisely
instruments and tests in check-ups, structural

also have a design life, which depends on various
is an effective way to communicate the concept of structural audit among all stakeholders, especially with the non-
structural engineers to convince non-technical
(NDT), laboratory tests etc. in Structural Audit of
9
ENGINEERS' FORUM
FORUM
Vol. 30 | No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM Vol. 30 | No. 02 ENGINEERS’ FORUM
consists of an audit report that may contain following blood sugar/cholesterol checks etc. Depending on the With information in past records, visual
information. findings in preliminary tests, doctors decide whether inspections and test results, condition of the structure
the patient needs to be checked under more advanced can be assessed. Root cause analysis of defect may
i. Visual inspection record/list of defects. tests such as CT/Ultra sound scanning etc. Similar also be performed with above data.
ii. NDT/Laboratory test results and approach is adopted by structural engineers in
interpretation. Structural Audits to assess the structural health Finally all findings and recommendations will be
iii. Root cause analysis of defects. condition or to identify possible root causes of submitted to the owners/authorities to take actions.
iv. Structural analysis results/findings. defects. Generally the Structural Engineers begin the
v. Recommendations. Structural Audit with visual inspections and studying
vi. Repair/strengthening/retrofitting 5. In situ tests
past records, similar to the doctors who start check-
proposals/remedial actions. up with examining the patient and his clinical Generally there are two main types of tests
vii. Tentative cost estimate for repairs. records. Engineers can gather important information namely the strength tests and the durability tests
such as age of the building, design strength of depending on aspects expected from test results.
3. Why is Structural Audit important material, defect notification/rectification at
construction stage, layout changes, level of Figure 3: Performance of cover meter test
Structures are designed and hence they are maintenance etc. by referring to documents such as Table 1: Strength tests on concrete
supposed to safely withstand expected loading and as-built drawings, QA/QC reports, defect
environmental effects during its design life span. Test Test Damage Remarks
notifications, building maintenance records etc. method
However in course of time, various changes such as However, in most of the time, especially in the case
additions/alterations in layout plans, change of of old buildings, these records are unavailable with Cores BS 1881: moderate Min. core dia.
occupancy etc. can happen and they may have the building owners. Part 120 100mm
structural effects like element overstressing.
Similarly, factors like inferior quality of construction, Visual inspection is one of the key step in Pull-off BS 1881: minor In measuring
change of exposure conditions and ageing of material Structural Audit and the visual inspection should Part 207 bond strength
also can cause durability problems in buildings. If always be carried out by an experienced, qualified
unattended, both structural and durability issues of a person. In visual inspections, basically the signs of Ultrasonic BS 1881: none Only to be
building can be life threatening for the occupants. defects such as cracks, spall of concretes, pulse Part 203 used after
There have been many incidents in the world, and corrosion/pitting, honey combing, discolouration, velocity calibration
recently in Sri Lanka as well, that highlight the surface dampness, vibrations etc. will be identified with core tests
importance of periodical inspections of buildings and and recorded. Sometimes it is very useful to carryout Rebound BS 1881: none/slight as per EN Figure 4: Performance of core cutting and
timely repairs of defects. Structural Audit covers this crack mapping, because crack pattern may provide hammer Part 202 13791 carbonation check
important role of periodical inspection and structural preliminary indications of its causes, especially in
health assessment so that the authorities/owners can case of defects due to material deterioration.
take timely actions to ensure integrity of the structure Table 2: Durability tests on concrete
and safety of the occupants. Further, if periodic
investigations and remedial actions are carried out, Test Test Damage Remarks
life span of a building could be extended beyond the method
initial design life as explained in following figure. (In Cover BS 1881: none Depth of cover
the figure, B indicates fully deteriorated state and meter Part 204 and bar
repairs to be done before the building deterioration diameter
curve reaches B). measurement
Years
(a) R/f corrosion cracks (b) Plastic shrinkage cracks Carbonation Spraying minor Depth of
with carbonation Figure 5: Collection of concrete dust sample for
Figure 2: Typical crack patterns due to reinforcement indicator front chloride content check
corrosion and plastic shrinkage
Half-cell ASTM minor Probability of
potential C876 corrosion risk
According to the data obtained in visual 6. Brief overview of Structural Audit of
Figure 1: General model of remedial process inspection, suitable test programme can be prepared Absorption BS 1881: moderate Assessing
if the structural engineer decides to have testing done. Part 122 water buildings conducted in Sri Lanka
Most important parts in testing are sample collection absorption
4. How to perform Structural Audit Different levels of deterioration found under the
and test result interpretation. The engineer and the Chloride BS 1881: minor Corrosion risk first structural audit of some buildings are reviewed
Doctors start check-up patient with examining laboratory technician need to have a good content Part 124 assessment to get a general overview on areas to be concerned in
clinical history and general visual examination understanding of reliability, limitations and factors Structural Audits of buildings. Information about
followed by basic laboratory tests such as fasting affecting the results of all tests in the test programme.
structural type, year of construction and age of the building up to full depth carbonation and severe # Building Year Age at Structural References
building at 1st Structural Audit are listed in Table 3. spall/ corrosion in 80 years old building. As seen by of built 1st type
doctor-patient analogy, frequency of structural audit Audit [1] ACI committee 210., Guide for conducting a
Following findings will be useful for the of a building has to increase similar to frequency of visual inspection of concrete in service,
engineers who conduct Structural Audits. 8 Central Bank 1964 54 RC
check-up increased when a person gets old. Head office, columns,
American Concrete Institute, U.S.A., 1988.
i. As per the set of buildings concerned, RC framed Rehabilitated encased
It is prudent to impose regulations to make [2] ACI committee 228, In-place methods to
system is the most popular structural form of the buildings, steel 'pre
Structural Audit compulsory for buildings more than Colombo flex' beams,
estimate concrete strength, American Concrete
buildings in Sri Lanka after 1970s. 15 years old. There should be a dialogue among Institute, U.S.A., 2003.
RC Slab.
ii. During 1920s to 1960s, steel frame encased in regulatory bodies to arrive at and agree upon suitable
frequency of Structural Audits for buildings in Sri 9 Jaffna railway 1961 52 Encased [3] Bungey, J.H. & Millard, S.G., Testing of
concrete were used along with load bearing brick station steel frame, concrete in structures, 3rd ed., Chapman & Hall,
supports and lightly reinforced RC slabs. Lankan context. Audit frequency will depend on
factors such as affordability of building owners to RC slab 1996
iii. Prior to 1900s load bearing brick walls and timber pay for Audits, age of the building etc. 10 Tea tasting No 40* RC frame [4] Mahadik, A.B., & Jaiswal, M.H., “Structural
floors had been used. Sometimes steel tubes building, records Audit of Buildings”, International Journal of
connected to timber beams have been used to Colombo civil engineering research, Volume 5, No. 04,
control the deflections in timber beams. 8. Acknowledgement 2014, pp. 411-416.
11 BOC 1980 37 Shear walls
iv. In buildings around 15 years old, mainly the The author wishes to thank General Manager and headquarters, [5] Dias, W.P.S., “Factors influencing the service
waterproofing problems in roof slabs, toilets, Additional General Manager-Designs 1 of CECB for Colombo
life of buildings”, Engineer, Vol. XXXXVI,
balconies and basement wall areas have been giving opportunity to involve in Structural Audit of No.04, 2013, pp. 1-7.
12 Central Bank 2001 17 Shear walls
found. Only minimal defects have been observed building structures. Head office and RC
in those buildings. (Extension) frames [6] Chafekar, B.H., Kadam, O.S., Kale, K.B.,
Table 3: Information on Structurally Audited Mohite, S.R., Shinde, P.A., Koyle., V.P.,
v. However, at the age of 30-40 years after buildings * Approximate value based on structural and architectural “Structural Audit”, UCSER, Vol. 1, No. 01,
construction, some significant spalling areas have form. October 2014, pp 42-46.
been observed in RC framed structures, especially # Building Year Age at Structural
in the structures closer to the coastal belt. of built 1st type
Audit
vi. In 50-80 years old buildings, RC slab was the
1 Colombo 1877 136 Masonry,
most affected element. Often, slabs are
Museum timber
carbonated to full depth and durability floors
requirements such as concrete cover and 2 Building No. No 100*
maximum spacing of reinforcements are not 11 (Adjacent to records
compatible to the current codes. Foreign
Ministry)
vii. In more than 100 years old buildings,
deterioration of timber and bricks in wet areas are 3 Colombo 1927 87 Encased
the most evident durability issues. Timber Racecourse steel frame,
Mini-pavilion Masonry,
elements have been found in good condition
RC slab.
where the areas are in dry condition. 4 Colombo 1938 81
Airport
Therefore, under these observations, it is Terminal 1,
advisable that the 1st Structural Audit of a building to Ratmalana
be started between 15-25 years after construction.
5 Sambuddha 1956- 63 RC arch,
Jayanthi 1980 RC frame
7. Conclusion Chaitya, and shell
Colombo Fort
Structural Audit was not much talked in Sri
Lanka until recently. It is found that the doctor- 6 Colombo 1958 61 Encased steel
patient analogy is an effective way to communicate Airport frame,
Terminal 2, Masonry, RC
the concept of structural audit among all Ratmalana slab.
stakeholders, especially with non-technical
personnel. 7 STF No 60*
Headquarters, records
As experienced, concrete deterioration may vary Colombo
from limited dampness problems in 15 years old
An Alternative Approach to Test the Fire Behaviour of Construction Wickström and Göransson [10] and Quintiere [11] Thus, the key aim of this research is to analyse
utilized cone calorimeter tests to attempt to predict and compare the results of small- and large-scale fire
Elements room/corner large-scale testing using models. In recent test methods on engineered timber products to develop
times, Leung and Chow [12] examined and compared an intermediary test that accurately represents a large-
P. Weerasinghea, S. Dananjayaa, K. Nguyenb, A. Filkovc, P. Mendisa
four different fire tests: ASTM E1321 [13] & BS476: scale test. The three test methods are based on small-
Part 7 [14] which are bench/small-scale tests, ASTM scale radiant panel test (modified AS1530.3), large-
E84 [15] which is considered a relatively large test. scale furnace test (AS1530.4 [1], section 3) and
Abstract Each of these tests was applied on a variety of control joint test (AS1530.4 [1], section 10). The
materials and components with the review encom- uniqueness of our proposed research arises from the
Recent fires in buildings such as the Lacrosse Building (Australia, 2014) and Grenfell Tower (UK, 2017) has raised
passing comparisons of the test conditions, provided specific analysis and comparison of the custom made
the challenge to the construction industry over fire safety. The fire resistance level of building elements is assessed
heat source and testing apparatus. The outcome of this Variable Heat Flux Apparatus (VHFlux test hereafter)
through large scale test in accordance with standards such as AS 1530.4. Unfortunately, due to the complexity and
experiment found that it was possible to combine the and AS1530.4 [1] tests (Furnace test hereafter).
the size of the specimen, these tests are considered rigorous, expensive and time-consuming. The current study is
results of the ASTM E1321[13] and the cone calori-
focused on developing a research method to predict the fire performance of building materials before the full-scale
meter test to produce data that could represent full
wall test AS 1530.4. The experiment at small scale was conducted using a custom-made Variable Heat Flux
scale burning tests and potentially predict behaviour in
Apparatus (VHFlux). The wall systems were subjected to a dynamic heat flux generated by a radiant panel which is
of the size 400x400 mm. A pilot test using the VHFlux were carried and compared with results from the AS 1530.4
real fire conditions. 2. Material and Methods
test. Results showed that small-scale tests conducted using the VHFlux replicate well the behaviour of the timber Comparisons between small-scale and large-scale
panels when subjected to full-scale test AS 1530.4 and can be used as a preliminary foundation for the development fire tests have also been used to determine safe design 2.1 Samples
of a cheap and reliable intermediary fire test method to test the fire performance of building walls. guidelines for timber products in construction and in Two wall systems of the size 500(W)x
particular, the concept of self-extinction. Emberley et 600(H)x160(D) mm (Fig. 1) with and without control
Keywords: radiative heat flux, dynamic fire exposure, facade, large-scale fire test.
al. [16] performed a large-scale fire test with a joints were subjected to a dynamic heat flux generated
compartment constructed from Cross Laminated by a radiant panel which is of the size 400x400 mm.
Timber (CLT) and measured incident heat fluxes, gas- To compare with the small-scale fire test, two wall
1. Introduction phase temperature and in-depth temperature. It was systems were tested according to AS 1530.4 (Fig. 1).
found that once steady state burning was achieved, The first system comprised of two 592(W)x
The construction industry is highly challenged In Australia, AS1530.4 [1] is being used to assess self-extinction of the fire occurred without
the fire performance of structural elements. In order to 1200(H)x160(D) mm sections separated by a 10 mm
with the constant pressure on cost, time and space. The intervention once the fuel load had decayed. wide vertical control joint (Control joint test
profession is, therefore, has been forced toward gain compliance against the AS1530.4 test method, an Additionally to this study, a small-scale fire test was
engineered timber product must achieve a specified hereafter). The second one comprised a 3000(W)x
advanced technologies such as modular construction also conducted parallel to the large-scale test so that 3000(H)x160(D) mm load-bearing panel wall (Wall
and lean construction with a requirement for fire resistance level (FRL). The National Construction the self-extinction behaviour could be compared. It
Code (NCC) [4,5] has specified such FRL test hereafter).
alternative materials of higher performance. One such was found that self-extinction occurred with the large-
material is engineered timber or Cross Laminated requirements related to the building type and timber scale specimen within the range of critical heat fluxes All samples in our tests had similar cross-section
Timber (CLT). application. obtained from the small scale fire test [16]. configuration (Figure 2).
The higher weight to strength ratio of timber [2] NCC calls for 1530.3 [6] to test flame spread of
and the low carbon embodied energy of panellised linings. In this standard, the specimen is exposed to a
timber frames [3] have made engineered timber to quasi-dynamic heat flux. The specimen will then be
become more prevalent in the construction industry. moved in definite intervals at specific steps as per the
The charring layer created after the timber is exposed guidelines towards the fire source (a radiative panel).
to fire, have highlighted the fact that although timber One contradiction of this test is that the specimen is
is combustible, the charring layer is acting as a exposed for a particular time interval and then moved
protective layer for the timber. Nevertheless, the to increase the heat flux received, whereas in actual
importance of standards to ensure the serviceability conditions it would be a dynamic heat flux applied.
under fire loading remains at large. This has been addressed in 1530.4[1] where a time-
varying heat flux (the standard fire time-temperature
curve) will be applied on the specimen even though
the specimen size is much larger. In the current work,
the authors would like to explore the pathway of
P. Weerasinghea, S. Dananjayaa, K. Nguyenb, A. Filkovc,
assessing the fire performance of engineering timber
P. Mendisa by modifying the AS1530.3 [6] with a dynamic heat
aUniversity of Melbourne, Department of Infrastructure flux.
Engineering, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia. (a) VHFlux test (b) Control joint test (c) Wall test
bRMIT University, School of Engineering, 124 La Trobe The concept of predicting the behaviour of a
Street, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia. large-scale test through a small-scale repeatable test
Figure 1: Test Samples
cUniversity of Melbourne, School of Ecosystem and Forest (cone calorimeter test) has been previously explored
Sciences, 4 Water St, Creswick, VIC, 3363, Australia. by various scholars [7-9]. Additionally, both
PC control system allows the operator to control the

experiment and set/change the conditions of the
qr
experiment.
Two BTM-4208SD dataloggers (Lutron Electro-
nic Enterprise Co., Ltd) with a frequency of 1 Hz were
used to measure the temperature profile of materials
under the study. Type K Inconel Sheath stainless steel
(a) Triboard, (b) Insulation, (c) Stud, thermocouples (TCs hereafter) with a diameter of 0.15
(d) Cement render board mm were used to measure temperatures inside samples
and on their surface. To measure heat flux, a water-
Figure 2: Cross section configuration of the samples cooled heat flux sensor SBG01-100 (Hukseflux
Thermal Sensors B.V.) was used. It was factory
calibrated for the heat flux of 100 kW/m 2 with
2.2 VHFlux test uncertainty ± 6.4 % and had response time < 0.25 s.
VHFlux apparatus (Fig.3) consists of: 1) an
Two cameras Canon EOS 600D and Canon EOS
exhaust system, 2) a shutter, 3) a linear stage
5D were used to film the experiment. One camera was
(Chengdu Fuyu Technology Co.), 4) a radiative panel positioned to film the whole domain of the
(Infralight Pty Ltd), 5) a PC control system, and 6) a Top view Front view
experiment, and the second one was used to film the
power control box.
area of the sample exposed to radiation. Both were
positioned close to each other at a distance of 1 m (a) Test A
from the sample and recorded a video with a
frequency of 30 Hz.
qr
Thermocouples arrangement; The experiment
was carried out for two wall systems without load
which represents certain portions of a timber façade.
The systems were assembled to a similar way as for
the Furnace test. Arrangements of thermocouple for
each test are presented in Fig. 4.
To prevent the heat loss along the edges of the
sample, 50mm thick calcium silica boards around the
perimeter of the specimen were used as insulation
1) Exhaust system, 2) Shutter, 3) Linear stage, (Fig. 1). The sample was fixed with clamps on the
4) Radiative panel, 5) PC control system and holders parallel to the radiative panel.
6) Power control box.
The wall systems were prepared in a way to
Figure 3: Variable Heat Flux Apparatus identify the critical locations of the façade so that the
performance from the small-scale test would be
beneficial to improve the behaviour of the wall system
The radiative panel with an emitting area of 0.4 x in fire. Top view Front view
0.4 m2 combines 12 infrared short wave quartz lamps
producing radiative heat flux. Each lamp has the Heating regime; Since the study was expected to (b) Test B
following characteristics: 2400 W power, peak predict the fire behaviour under AS 1530.4[1] we
wavelengths 1.2-1.4 µm, maximum surface power 150 applied standard heating conditions as an increasing
kW/m2 and filament temperature of 1800-2200°C. The heating regime in accordance with AS 1530.4[1]. The Figure 4: General arrangement of the wall systems: Test A - Control joint test, and Test B - Wall test. Red crosses
radiative panel was installed on a 1.5 m linear stage increasing regime was replicated with a time- on the figure show the locations of the thermocouples.
that allows the panel to move forward or backward, temperature rise curve using the following equation
simulating variable radiative heat flux. A program- [1]:
mable step motor controller PCL601USB (Anaheim
Automation, Inc.) was used to change moving speed (1) To simulate a calculated heating curve using the was covered with a protective cup to prevent heating
within the range of 0.001-0.3 m/s. A shutter protects where T is temperature (°C), t is time (min). to convert VHFlux apparatus, the following approach was used. before the experiment. During the experiment, the
the sample from radiation prior to the experiment. The temperatures (T) to energy radiated from a source (q) The heat flux sensor was located at a distance of 1.212 radiative panel was moving to the sensor with a speed
shutter has two positions, open and closed. A remote (W/m2), the Stefan-Boltzmann law was used with m from the lamps. The lamps were heated up for 20 of 1 cm/s. The calculated heat flux versus distance is
control operates the shutter and opens it within 1 s. A emissivity equal to 1. min before each measurement. The heat flux sensor given in Fig. 5a.
Distance, cm
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
100 80
90 70
80
60 qr
70
50 Standard heating conditions
q, kW/m2
q, kW/m2
60
Experiment
50 40
40 30
30
20
20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time, sec Time, min
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Radiative heat flux: a) heat flux versus time and distance from the sensor, b) comparison of calculated and
Top view
measured heat fluxes Front view
Test C
The maximum heat flux 73 kW/m2 was chosen to 2.3 AS 1530.4 test
exclude interference between lamps and samples. The The testing method outlined in this standard is Figure 6: General arrangement of the wall system (Control joint test). Red crosses on the figure show the locations
sample was heated up for 38 min after reaching the used to determine the fire resistance of various of the thermocouples
maximum heat flux to have similar to AS 1530.4 elements of construction when subject to standard fire
heating time of 60 min. exposure conditions. The tests are conducted by
placing a representative specimen of the construction The Test C assembly comprised of two 592(W)x is met when the average temperature as measured by a
To simulate the heating curve according to (1), element into a furnace whereby it is exposed to heat 1200(H)x163(D) mm sections separated by a 10 mm specific thermocouple on the unexposed surface
under controlled conditions. The temperature is wide vertical control joint. The wall system was exceeds the initial temperature by more than 140K or
specific speeds of the linear stage needs to be
identified. With this, heating curves were divided into operated to satisfy a time-temperature curve (1). restrained at all edges. More details can be found in when any thermocouple on the unexposed surface
small intervals, and the required speed for each of During the test, observations on the specimen are AS 1530.4[1] (section 10). exceeds the initial temperature by more than 180K.
them was identified. A code was written for the step made while the following parameters are measured: Radiation failure is determined when the heat flux at a
temperature, pressure, load (if applicable), axial 2.3.2 Wall test distance of 365 mm exceeds 10 kW/m2. The results
motor controller PCL601USB to replicate heating
conditions. To test the desired heating conditions, we deflection, heat flux, integrity and time. The final were reported as the time elapsed for each failure
result from this test is defined as the fire resistance To determine the fire resistance of samples, the
ran a code for the linear stage and measured the heat following procedure was used. In the case of timber method to be reached with the time for structural
flux. Fig. 5b shows a comparison of calculated (1) and level (FRL) of the material & is written in minutes adequacy, integrity and insulation forming the fire
under the following configuration: structural construction, prefabricated walls can be composed of
measured values. It shows that the maximum absolute wooden panels or timber can be used as the cladding resistance level. More details can be found in (section
adequacy/ integrity/ insulation. 3)
error of reference and measured heat fluxes do not material in a framed system. For a test specimen
exceed 1.8 kW/m2. Test according to AS 1530.4[1] was conducted by orientated in the vertical direction, the minimum
Exova (ExovaWarringtonefireAus Pty Ltd) at their dimensions of the specimen shall be 3000mm× The Test D assembly comprised of a 3000(W)x
facilities in Melbourne. Two wall systems were tested: 3000mm, with a minimum clearance of 200mm 3000(H) x163(D) mm load-bearing panel wall. The
The specimen was placed centered in front of the
Test C comprised of two sections separated by a 10 required between the specimen and the internal lining specimen was subjected to a total axial load of 75 kN
radiant panel and was kept covered by shutter for 20
mm wide vertical control joint (section 3 of AS of the furnace. for the duration of the test.
minutes until the radiant panel stabilizes its heat flux.
1530.4[1]); Test D comprised of a load-bearing panel
The heat flux in accordance with Figure 5b was Load-bearing walls were tested with the vertical
wall (section 10 of AS 1530.4[1]). Cross-section, front views and thermocouple
applied by moving the radiant panel towards the edges unrestrained while a non-load bearing wall only
specimen. Temperature measurements were taken arrangements are shown in Fig. 7.
2.3.1 Control joint test had one vertical edge restrained. This load-bearing
every 1s using the thermocouples located on the factor was also dictated where thermocouples are
surface and along the cross-section of the specimen The purpose of this test is to assess the effect of positioned. As defined in this section, the criteria of
(Fig. 4). Visual observations were noted during the the control joint on the integrity and insulation of the failure will be determined in regard to structural 3. Results
test. After 1 hour, the test was terminated. The radiant element. For control joints, the test assembly shall be adequacy, integrity, insulation or radiation.
heat panel was turned off, and the specimen was not less than 1 m × 1 m, and the length of the control 3.1 VHFlux test
covered with a fire blanket to prevent any further joint exposed to the furnace chamber shall be not less Structural adequacy was deemed to have failed
flaming. Cross-section of the specimen was taken to than 1 m. Cross-section, front views and thermocouple where limits for axial contraction, rate of axial Test A and Test B were conducted under dynamic
determine the depth of charring. arrangements are shown in Fig. 6. contraction, deflection or rate of deflection has been heating conditions (1). The time with the visible
exceeded. Integrity failure was tested by means of changes of the panel during the tests was noted down,
cotton pads, gap gauges or flaming. Insulation failure which are summarized in Table 1 as follows.
Table 1: Tests observations, min:sec It is important to note that for sample B, there was shown in Figure 9. The charring depth and condition
significant smoke observed during the first 10 mins. of each panel after the test were recorded to study the
Test # Smoke started Smoke increased Flaming ignition Flaming Test termination The sample caught fire after it and burnt continuously behaviour of each sample under the heat flux
increased in the flaming mode. The flames were present even exposure. It was found that the charring depth for Test
after the heat source was removed. Similar to test A, B was 20 mm. The charring of the stud for test A and
Test A 01:30 02:40 12:40 14:10 60:00 the triboard has been burnt through the middle, as B was similar, around 21% and 25% respectively.
Test B 03:00 03:30 15:10 48:00 60:00
800 A1 800 B1
A2 B2
700 A3 700 B3
A4 B4
600 600 B5
A5
A6 B6
500 500
A7 B7
T, C
T, C
400 A8 400
A9
qr 300 300
200 200
Front view
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time, min Time, min
(a) Test A (b) Test B
Figure 8: Temperature profiles during the Tests A and B. TC A3 was excluded due to malfunctioning
Top view Front view
Test D
Figure 7: General arrangement of the wall system (Wall test). Red crosses on the figure show the locations of the
thermocouples
It can be seen from Table 1 that all processes in Temperature profiles of Test B showed expected
Test A started earlier than in Test B. It can be assumed behaviour, higher temperatures were observed closer
that the control joint increases heat transfer into the to the exposed surface. Comparison between two tests
sample and accelerates combustion, respectively. In showed that having a joint accelerates in-depth
Test A, flaming combustion increased significantly combustion. For instance, the temperature in the
almost after 1 min from the time of ignition, while in middle of the triboard started to increase 5 min later
Test B it happened only 12 minutes before the end of (TC B4) in Test B compare to Test A (TC A1). It
the experiment.Fig. 8 shows temperature profiles for should be noted that at the end of the test temperatures
tests A and B at different locations. in test B were higher than in test A.
At the end of each test, flaming combustion was

Analysis of Fig. 8 shows that the temperature in observed until manually extinguished. Fig. 9 shows
the joint close to the exposed surface (TC A7) the specimen for each test during and at the end of the
increased significantly straight after the ignition. tests. At the end of the Test A triboard burned through
Although TC A1 (in the middle of the triboard) and in the middle of the sample with some material left at (i) During the test (ii) After the test (iii) Charring depth
A7 were at the same distance from the exposed surface the edges. This can be explained by the influence of
(18 mm), TC A1 showed increase of temperature only (a) Test A
the joint and heating area size. In our experiments, it
10 min later compare to TC A7. This confirms our was smaller than sample area, 400 x 400 mm 2 and
assumption that the joint serves as a heat bridge. faced at the centre of the sample.
600 D1
D2
4. Comparison
D3
500
D4
D5
To evaluate the applicability of the developed
400 small-scale test (VHFlux) to predict the fire
T, C
300
performance of building materials before the full-scale
façade test, we compared temperature profiles and
200
results of observations for Tests A-D.
100
0
4.1 Control joint test
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time, min Fig. 14 and Table 4 show a comparison of
temperatures between Test A and Test C and
Figure 12: Temperature profiles during summarize temperatures of relevant thermocouples
Test D every 20 minutes.
It can be seen that the temperatures increased The comparison shows relatively good agreement
slowly until the combustion front reached the TCs D1, between two tests up to 40th minute, except of TC A5.
D2, D5 (45th minute). After that, they increased This discrepancy could be due to the fact that the
(i) During the test (ii) After the test (iii) Charring depth exponentially with the highest temperature in the temperature inside the furnace is maintained in a way
middle of the specimen (TC D5). Due to the specific which behaves as per the standard heating curve (1)
(a) Test B of the test, it was not possible to tell the exact time while in the VHFlux test it is converted into the heat
when the flaming ignition occurred. However, the start flux. Another reason as we mentioned before, the
Figure 9: Photographs of the specimens time of combustion of the unexposed surface of the control joint significantly influences the heat transfer
triboard can be estimated based on the temperature into the sample. This could be affecting the higher
values. It can be assumed that it happened after 52 nd temperatures registered by TC A5 in Test A. We
minute. Figure 13 shows that the triboard burned assumed that similar reasons resulted in differences
3.2 Control joint test between TC A4 and TC C2, TC C4.
through with some material left at the bottom.
Fig.10 shows temperature profiles for Test C at
different locations. It can be seen that all temperatures
have values below 110 °C. The highest values were
observed on the unexposed surface of the triboard (TC
C1, C5 and C6). Figure 11 shows specimen after the
test and the specimen did not burn through the triboard
in contrast to Test A.
100 C1
C2
90
C3
80 C4
C5
70 C6
T, C
60
50
40 (a) Exposed side (b) Unexposed side

30
20
Figure 11: Control joint specimen after Test C
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 (a) Exposed side (b) Unexposed side
Time, min
3.3 Wall test Figure 13: Load-bearing wall panel after the test
Figure 10: Temperature profiles during the Tests C.

Temperature distributions during the Test D are
TC C4 malfunctioned from 32nd minute presented on Fig. 12.
Vol. 30 | No. 02 ENGINEER’S FORUM Vol. 30 | No. 02 ENGINEER’S FORUM
It should be noted that Test С passed the test, Comparison between small scale (Test B) and full
while Test A did not. It is not possible to explain such scale (Test D) samples showed very good agreement.
low temperatures in Test C without having visual The relative error for all thermocouples was lower
observations of the exposed surface during the test than 10%, except of the last 10 minutes of the
and.additional temperature measurements. However, experiment. The main difference for this interval was 800
the obtained results show the feasibility of the observed for the TC B3, B5 and matching them B3
B5
proposed approach. thermocouples. Analysis of their positions showed that 700
B7
TC B3 was located further from the vertical centerline 600 D1
D2
then TC D5. It can be seen from Fig. 10 and Fig. 13 500 D3
Table 4: Comparison of temperatures between Test A that centre of the samples had the highest fire impact.
T, C
D4
and Test C. This confirms the higher temperature of TC D5 (590.2
400
D5
°C) compare to TC B3 (448.2 °С). A similar situation

300
Test A Test С (Control was observed between TC B5 and TC D1, D2. TC B5 200
Time, (VHFlux) joint)
δ, % was closer to the centre, and that resulted in higher 100
min
temperatures.
TC # TA, °C TC # TC, °C 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time, min
C1 56.9 0.1 Table 5: Comparison of temperatures between Test B
A2 57.2 and Test D.
C6 64.2 2.1
Test B (VHFlux) Test D (Wall
20 C2 17.1 1.9 Time, system)
A4 11.7 δ, %
min TC # TB, °C TC # TD, °C
C4 19.8 2.8
Figure 14: Comparison of temperatures in the Tests B and D. Colour represents similar locations of
A5 79.6 C5 31 13.8 B3 26.6 D5 26.3 0.1 the thermocouples and the type of line represents test
C1 75.6 5.8
A2 96.9 D1 29.2 6.6 Test D, which is the AS 1530.4[1] test, was subjected After that, the difference in temperatures became
C6 87 2.7 20 B5 50.7
D2 27.2 7.3 to a total axial load of 75 kN during the test where test significant. Additional research required to find out
40 C2 19.5 3 B did not have any axial loading arrangement. Since what was the reason for it. Comparison between Test
D3 15.8 1.3 there is a reduction of compressive strength and B and Test D showed a good agreement. Some
A4 28.5 B7 12.2
C4 - - stiffness for up to 75% and 60% respectively when discrepancies of temperatures at the end of the
D4 15.8 1.3 timber reaches 100 °C[17], the behaviour of the timber experiment can be resulted by not optimum location of
A5 317.1 C5 58.4 43.8 panel could have been different if there was a loading thermocouples. It should be mentioned that Control
B3 68.8 D5 77.1 2.4
arrangement used for Test B especially after 40 mins joint Test С in the furnace did not burn though in
C1 103.4 55.4 D1 99.9 3.4 of the test. contrast to Test В in the furnace (Wall test). It could
A2 570.5 B5 87.8 be indirect confirmation that design and scale could
C6 98.6 55.9 40 D2 96.9 2.5 It would be interesting to compare the start of effect on the thermal degradation of the specimen in
pyrolysis and flaming ignition between tests. the Furnace.
60 C2 24 11 D3 17.2 0.7 Unfortunately, the design of the large-scale test did not
A4 60.6 B7 15.1 allow to obtain those values Regarding the results derived from the Furnace
C4 - - D4 16.5 0.5 test, structural and integrity failure results cannot be
compared, as they are not defined nor measured in the
A5 381.3 C5 91.4 44.3 B3 448.2 D5 590.2 19.7 results provided for the VHFlux tests; therefore, the
5. Conclusion key parameter for comparison is insulation failure.
δ is a relative error, 100%∙|(TA-TC)/TA|. TA and TC D1 484.4 30.3 This research aimed to provide the basis for the Referring to Table 5, the average change in
were used in Kelvin scale due tohaving a true B5 814.4
development of an intermediary test capable of more temperature for Test B was less than 30 °C. Therefore,
meaningful zero. 60 D2 210 55.6 in terms of insulation failure, the results indicate that
accurately predicting the fire behaviour of timber
specimens in AS1530.4 [1]. In order to achieve this VHFlux test demonstrated similar results to the
D3 51.6 6.1 Furnace test for estimation of the fire performance.
B7 32.8 aim, comparison of VHFlux tests (small scale) and
4.2 Load-bearing wall test D4 38.6 1.9 two forms of Furnace test (medium and full scale) Agreement between VHFlux test and Furnace test
were undertaken. showed that dynamic heating is an important
Fig. 15 and Table 5 show a comparison of δ is a relative error, 100%∙|(TB-TD)/TB|. TB and TD were component of materials testing. Thus, to improve the
temperatures between Test B and Test D and used in Kelvin scale due to having a true meaningful Analysis of the results showed that there was a
disconnect between Test A and Test C. Both tests had accuracy of the AS 1530.3[6] test and develop time
summarize temperatures of relevant thermocouples zero.
a good agreement in temperatures till 42nd minute. temperature variations, it is recommended that the
every 20 minutes.
distance between the specimen and the radiant panel in growth and continued progression of the engineered [9] U. Wickström and U. Göransson, "Prediction of [13] E.ASTM, "1321: Standard Test Method for
AS1530.3 be varied truly dynamically during the test. timber product industry. heat release rates of surface materials in large- Determining Material Ignition and Flame Spread
The variation of the distance between the radiant panel scale fire tests based on cone calorimeter results," Properties," American Society for Testing and
and the specimen would accurately predicting the fire Journal of testing and evaluation, vol. 15, no. 6, Materials: Philadelphia, PA, 1993.
performance. pp. 364-370, 1987.
6. Acknowledgements [14] B.British Standard, "476 Part 7, Fire tests on
The location of thermocouples plays a crucial role building materials and structures-Method of test
[10] U. Wickström and U. Göransson, "Full‐scale/ to determine the classification of the surface
in obtaining relevant to Furnace test values. For This work was supported by Australian Research
bench‐scale correlations of wall and ceiling spread of flame of products," British Standards
instance, their positioning close to the edges of the Council (ITRP-IC150100023 and DE190100217) and
linings," Fire and materials, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. Institution, London, UK, 1997.
sample can result in inaccurate measurements. To the Bushfire and Natural Hazards Cooperative
15-22, 1992.
determine the proper location of thermocouples for Research Centre ‘Determining threshold conditions for [15] ASTM E84-19b: Standard Test Method for
small scale tests require to conduct additional tests and extreme fire behaviour’ project. The authors would [11] J. G. Quintiere, "A simulation model for fire Surface Burning Characteristics of Building
to use a scaling approach. Direct replication of the like to acknowledge Timber Building System and growth on materials subject to a room-corner test, Materials, 2019.
same distances for thermocouples in Furnace test is ExovaWarringtonfire for the support in conducting " Fire Safety Journal, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 313-339,
tests. [16] R. Emberley et al., "Description of small and
not applicable. 1993. large-scale cross laminated timber fire tests," Fire
To reduce the amount of heat lost to the [12] C.Leung and W. Chow, "Review on four standard Safety Journal, vol. 91, pp. 327-335, 2017.
environment, with the intention of replicating in-situ References tests on flame spreading," International Journal on [17] F. Wiesner et al., "Structural capacity in fire of
fire conditions, the sample should be insulated. To Engineering Performance-Based Fire Codes, vol. laminated timber elements in compartments with
satisfy this requirement, a calcium silicate material 3, no. 2, pp. 67-86, 2001. exposed timber surfaces," Engineering Structures,
was used (as shown in Fig. 1). However, calcium [1] Standards Australia, AS1530.4:2014 - Methods vol. 179, pp. 284-295, 2019.
silicate may instead be retaining too much or too little for fire tests on building materials, components
heat, which may reduce or increase, respectively, the and structures. , Sixth ed. Sydney: SAI Global
fire performance of the prototype. Therefore, it is Limited, 2014. [Online]. Available.
important to identify and measure the effect of
insulation. [2] M. H. Ramage et al., "The wood from the trees:
The use of timber in construction," Renewable
It is important to mention the influence of the heat and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 68, pp.
source as well. In Furnace test, gas burners are used to 333-359, 2017.
raise the temperature in the furnace following the
time-temperature dependence (1). To simulate similar [3] Monahan, J. Monahan, and J. C. Powell, "An
condition for VHFlux test, a conversion of embodied carbon and energy analysis of modern
temperature to heat flux was made using Stefan- methods of construction in housing: A case study
Boltzmann law. Presumably, this assumption is too using a lifecycle assessment framework," Energy
simplistic. To avoid this a direct measurement of heat and buildings, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 179-188, 2011.
flux during Furnace test required with consequent
[4] Australian Building Codes Board, National
replication of it for VHFlux tests.
Construction Code: Volume Two 2016 Class 1 &
As we mentioned earlier structural adequacy and Class 10 Buildings, 2016. [Online]. Available.
failure under thermal loading conditions are not
[5] Australian Building Codes Board, National
included in VHFlux test but are considered in the
Construction Code: Volume One 2016 Class 2 to
larger scale test conducted under AS1530.4[1].
Class 9 Buildings, 2016. [Online]. Available.
Therefore, observations of the deflection
characteristics during testing and structural loading, [6] Standards Australia, AS1530.3:1999-R2016 -
utilizing beams and/or jacks, should be added into Methods for fire tests on building materials,
future VHFlux tests. components and structures, Sixth ed. Sydney: SAI
Conducted research provides a preliminary Global Limited, 2016. [Online]. Available.
foundation for the development of an intermediary fire [7] B. A. L. Ostman & R. M. Nussbaum, "Correlation
test method. The continuation of this research, and the between small-scale rate of heat release and full-
ultimate development of an improved intermediary scale room flashover for surface linings," Fire
fire test, will significantly reduce the cost to Safety Science, vol. 2, pp. 823-832, 1989.
manufacturers in the design and compliance phase of
engineered timber products. A direct outcome of the [8] B. A. L. Östman & L. D. Tsantaridis, "Correlation
optimisation of these processes is the reduction of the between cone calorimeter data and time to
overall cost of the material. Therefore, the flashover in the room fire test," Fire and
continuation of this research is pivotal to ensure future Materials, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 205-209, 1994.
Wind Design of Slender Tall Buildings in Sri Lankan Context Precise estimation of wind responses of a tall due to its random nature of wind loading [(Boggs &
building is vital to arrive at a safe and optimum design Dragovich, 2006)]. Generally mean wind velocities
B. Kiriparan 1*, B. Waduge1, W. J. B. S. Fernando1 and P. Mendis 2 since mostly lateral wind loads govern the design of fluctuate with three types of averaging times (3-
tall buildings. Wind tunnel testing is the most reliable seconds, 10-minutes and 1-hour) are adopted in
tool to investigate wind effects on slender tall different international wind codes.
Abstract buildings. However, due to the associated cost and
time, performing a wind tunnel test in the preliminary In practice, each code provides only one out of
Lateral forces due to wind and earthquake loading are two important phenomenon in design of tall buildings. In the design stages may not be always viable. In such above three kinds of averaging time as summarized in
recent decades due to the development of various technologies, tall buildings are becoming more slender, flexible, instances existing codal provisions of wind design Table 1. A return period of 50 years and 100 years are
light weight and irregular in shape. Though flexible and lightweight structures are preferred to minimize the effect of standards are utilized in the preliminary design and considered for the basic wind speeds among different
earthquake loading, they becoming more susceptible under wind loading. Wind tunnel testing is adopted as most verified through the wind tunnel testing during the international standards.
precise tool to determine the performance of such slender structures under wind loading. Determining the final design stage.
performance of the proposed structural system quite precisely during the preliminary design stage is essential to
obtain an efficient, safe and economical design. Due to the associated cost and time performing a wind tunnel test in In Sri Lanka BS 6399-2, BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 Table 1: Basic wind speed consideration
the preliminary design stages may not be always viable. In such instances preliminary design is carried-out and AS/NZS1170.2:2011 standards are generally
extrapolating the design provisions available. In Sri Lanka BS 6399-2:1997, BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, adopted in wind design of structures. After withdrawal Standard Reference Averaging Return No. of
AS/NZS1170.2:2011 standards are generally adopted in wind design of structures. After withdrawal of British of British standards, European standards are being Height Time Period Terrain
standards, European standards are being adopted as primary design standards internationally including Sri Lanka. adopted as primary design standards internationally (m) (Years)
Due to the complex nature of the wind and its interaction with the dynamically sensitive slender structures scope of including Sri Lanka. Due to the complex nature of the
wind design codes to predict the wind effects on slender tall buildings are limited. This study intends to present the wind and its interaction with the structure significant BS 6399-
10 1-h 50 2
importance of selecting suitable wind design approaches to predict dynamic wind effects on tall buildings during the discrepancies are found between the international 2
preliminary design stages overcoming the limitations of existing design provisions. A case study authors involved standards in prediction of wind effects on slender tall BS EN
were presented with the validation of wind tunnel testing to elaborate the wind design of slender tall buildings in Sri buildings [(Holmes, et al., 2008), (Ge, et al.), (Holmes, 1991-1- 10 10-m 50 5
2009)]. 4:2005
Lankan context.
AS/NZS
Keywords: Slender tall buildings, Wind design, Wind tunnel test, Sri Lankan context. Thus selection of most suitable wind design 1170.2:2 10 3-s 50 4
standard, with understanding of its capabilities and 011
limitations is utmost important to obtain the most AIJ-
RLB- 10 10-m 100 5
sustainable structural scheme during the conceptual
1. Introduction 2004
design stage, for which predicted responses are
expected to correlate well during the wind tunnel
Tall building construction has been revolved over testing [(Mendis, et al., 2014)]. Various critical aspects Basic wind speeds for Colombo derived for
the time in most of the congested cities around the to be considered in the wind design of slender tall different return periods based on the climatic study
world to overcome the scarcity for land. Sri Lanka's buildings, capabilities and limitations of different conducted by wind tunnel testing laboratories are
commercial capital Colombo is one of such very international standards, selection of suitable wind tabulated in Table 2.
active metropolitan city in tall building development. design procedures during the preliminary design are
Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the trend of tall discussed in following sections.
building development around the world and in
Colombo. Table 2: Basic wind speed adopted for Colombo
2. Characteristics of Wind (Source: wind climacteric study reports)
In the recent past due to the factors such as
advancement of construction technology, vertical Wind is a complicated phenomenon due to the Return Wind Speed (m/s)
Figure1: Trend of number of Tall buildings Design
transportation, adoption of light weight partitions gusts and lulls which have a random distribution over Period 3-s 10-min Hourly
instead of traditional heavy masonry partitions and constructed per year around the world Criteria (Year)
a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes in both gust avg mean
development of parametric architectural design time and space [(Mendis, et al., 2007), (Boggs & 1 20 12 11
philosophies; tall buildings are becoming more Dragovich, 2006)]. Acceleration 5 28 16.5 15.5
slender, flexible, light weight and irregular in shape. 10 30 17.5 16.5
As a result contemporary tall buildings are more Among the three major types of wind, both Deflection 20 33 19.5 18
vulnerable for the dynamic wind effects [(Mendis, et prevailing and seasonal winds are considered Ultimate 50 38 22 21
al., 2007), (Nakai, et al., 2013)]. separately compared to local winds because those are
fluctuated over a period of several months. While the
variation in the mean velocity of prevailing and Dominant wind direction and relative orientation
B. Kiriparan B.
1*, Waduge1,
seasonal winds are referred to as fluctuations, it is of the building is an important factor which influences
W. J. B. S. Fernando1 and P. Mendis 2 mentioned as gusts for variations in local winds due to the wind loading on tall buildings. Wind rose plot of
1Civil and Structural Engineering Consultants (pvt) ltd, Sri occurrence over a very short period of time. Statistical wind climate observed at Bandaranaike International
Lanka. distributions of speeds and directions are considered in Airport presented in Figure 3 is referred in the wind
2University of Melbourne, Australia.
Figure 2: Trend of number of Tall buildings wind design of buildings rather than simple averages analysis of tall buildings in Colombo.
*kiriparan@csec.com.lk constructed per year in Sri Lanka
Vol. 30 | No. 02 GUEST LECTURE AT SSESL AGM Vol. 30 | No. 02 GUEST LECTURE AT SSESL AGM
4. Wind Design Codal Provisions Table 3: Applicability of different design codes
Many international design standards/ guidelines Criteria BS 6399 EN1991-1- AS/NZS AIJ2004
are developed for the prediction of wind response of 4:2005 1170.2:2011
tall buildings. Scope of most of the wind design codes No provisions for No provisions No provisions for No explicit limit
Height
are limited to regular-shaped structures and due to the h>300 m for h>200 m h>200 m specified
governance of dynamic responses again limitations are No provisions No provisions for No explicit limit
imposed either based on building height or natural Frequency
for f<0.2s f<0.2s specified
period. Nevertheless, for the buildings fall in the scope Geometry No provisions for buildings with complicated shapes
of the design codes inconsistences are found in the
results obtained from different design codes although Along wind
Geometrical and height restrictions in along wind load calculations Geometrical
they are developed based on the common theoretical loading
basis [(Holmes, et al., 2008), (Ge, et al.), (Holmes, Across wind No provisions are Geometrical and height restrictions in across wind load
2009)]. loading given calculations
No provisions are Detailed
Torsional loading Nominal eccentricities specified
Figure 3: Wind rose plot of wind climate observed at Hence, the wind design codes should be used with given provision
Bandaranaike International Airport considerations regarding the constraints. To Along wind No provisions are
Provisions are given
understand the key limitations behind the wind accelerations given
standards, four major international codes were Across wind No provisions are No provisions
analysed: British Standard (BS 6399-2:1997), Provisions are given
3. Wind Effect on Tall Buildings accelerations given are given
Australian Standard (AS/NZS1170.2:2011), Euro Torsional
Code (EN1991-1-4:2005), and Japanese Code (AIJ No provisions are given Provisions given
Large wind pressure fluctuations can occur on the accelerations
surface of a building due to distortion of mean flow, 2004). Nine important aspects, where the codes have
flow separation, formation of vortices, and limitations were identified and summarised in Table 3.
development of the wake. As a result, large finalization of conceptual design with optimum
All four standards considered set out provisions 5. Case Study
aerodynamic loads are imposed on the structural structural arrangement based on this comprehensive
for the prediction of along wind and cross wind
system and intense localised fluctuating forces act on In this section various important points in desk study, a wind tunnel testing was carried-out for
loading except BS 6399-2:1997, which only consist
the facade of such structures. Due to these fluctuating designing of high-rise buildings against wind loading the final design validation.
provisions for along wind loading calculations. Due to
forces, a building tends to vibrate in three modes as the complex nature of torsional wind loading it is is discussed through authors’ experience. Different
shown in Figure 4. specified as nominal eccentricities in few of the considerations to be made from the preliminary design Table 3: Geometric details and dynamic characteristics
international standards and most of other international to the construction level detailing are discussed. of the towers
codes are silent about torsional loads [(Nakai, et al., Importance of determining the wind loading to
2013)]. acceptable level of accuracy during the preliminary
Dimensions Frequency Directional Factors
design and subsequent verification through wind
The nominal eccentricities specified in different (bxdxh) /m (Hz) Ux Uy Rz
tunnel testing are emphasized.
standards are tabulated in Table 4 below. Only AIJ
0.180 0.819 0.166 0.016
code provides a detailed estimation for calculation of
torsional moments. The importance of further 5.1 Case study -1 Tower 1 0.197 0.178 0.803 0.019
development of these simplified provisions are well (27x30x172)
Wind design of a fifty storied twin tower 0.263 0.004 0.033 0.963
noted in many literature.
development located in Colombo is discussed in this 0.188 0.123 0.867 0.016
BS 6399-2:1997 does not provide any guide-lines section. Geometric details, dynamic characteristics of
for the calculation of wind induced acceleration the towers and the orientations are shown in Table 4 Tower 2 0.205 0.868 0.128 0.004
whereas only along wind acceleration calculations are and Figure 6 respectively. Due to the higher aspect (29x26x172)
presented in EN1991-1-4:2005. In most of the cases ratio (>6) and a first mode period exceeding 5 s these 0.280 0.019 0.006 0.975
cross wind vibrations induced due to the vortex slender towers are falling out of the scope of wind de-
shedding is more critical than the along wind sign codes such as BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 and AS/NZS
vibration. AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 provides guidelines 1170.2:2011. As these standards are to be adopted as Figure 5 shows the physical model of proposed
for the calculation of both along wind and cross wind primary design standards for the proposed project building at a scale of 1:350 in CPP’s wind tunnel with
accelerations. Torsional vibration is even critical and applicability of extrapolating the provisions of these surrounding buildings located within 500 m radius.
Figure 4: Wind effect on tall buildings more sensible in asymmetric structures. Guidance for standards are evaluated during the preliminary design. Aerodynamic loads are measured in the form of
calculation of torsional acceleration is only given in As a result, a comparative study on prediction of wind moments on a rigid model mounted on an
AIJ, 2004. Nevertheless, for the buildings fall in the effects are determined using four international instrumented balance known as High-frequency
scope of the design codes inconsistences are found in standards namely BS 6399-2:1997, BS EN 1991-1- balance (HFB). Dynamic response of the structure was
the results obtained from different design code 4:2005, AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 and AIJ: 2004. After then computed analytically.
perception criteria. It was noted that code predictions Table 4: Base reactions for critical load cases for Tower 2 – Code prediction
well related with the wind tunnel results and
optimization carried-out based on the codal provisions Tower Code/Method Fx (kN) Fy (kN) Mx (GNm) My (GNm) Mz (GNm)
during the preliminary design stages was validated. BS 6399-2 5.62 - - 0.689 -
BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 6.85 4.28 0.422 0.920 0.020
The proposed project is located in the vicinity of
Tower - 1 AS/NZS1170.2:2002 6.22 3.35 0.345 0.835 0.037
several other land mark tall buildings and surrounded
AIJ:2004 5.84 2.95 0.285 0.721 0.032
by an important road network. Thus a Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis was carried-out to Wind tunnel 6.64 3.02 0.415 0.873 0.035
study the alteration on wind flow pattern and BS 6399-2 5.84 - - 0.748 -
pedestrian comfort around the building. Intended wind BS EN 1991-1-4:2005 6.55 4.84 0.683 0.921 0.034
speeds in vulnerable areas such as ground floor Tower - 2 AS/NZS1170.2:2002 5.60 3.95 0.438 0.764 0.029
entrances, podium area around the pool, sky lounge AIJ:2004 5.45 2.85 0.425 0.725 0.031
Figure 5: Wind tunnel model viewed from north and public road network in the vicinity were predicted Wind tunnel 6.42 4.80 0.624 0.805 0.030
from the CFD simulation and probable comfort level
is evaluated. The areas identified as critical locations
Wind induced base reactions for both towers for were recommended to perform real time
selected cases are presented in Table 5 for comparison. Table 5: Base reactions for critical load cases for Tower 2 – Wind tunnel
measurements and further improvement.
Along wind predictions are observed to be well
matching with the code predictions whereas
significant variation can be noted in the prediction of 6. Conclusions
cross wind and torsional moments. Further wind
directionality, shielding and interference effects due to Important design considerations related to wind
adjacent buildings highly influenced the wind loading design of slender tall buildings were discussed.
on these towers. Considering all these factors, standard Limitations of current design codes in terms of
critical load cases were identified as shown in Figure 7 applying them to design for wind induced motion of
in order to determine the most suitable combinations slender tall buildings were also discussed. Four
of along wind, across wind and torsional effects. Base international wind design codes were studied and the
reactions derived for critical combinations and comparisons are given. Selection of suitable wind
relevant wind directions are shown in Table 5 and design procedure for slender tall buildings during
Figure 6 respectively. Peak base shear and over preliminary design stage to obtain an efficient, safe
turning moments determined for majority of these and economical structural design was emphasized.
critical cases are found to be within the code Importance of wind induced dynamic effects such as
prediction as shown in Figure 8 and 9. across wind and torsional effects were highlighted.
Predicted peak top story resultant accelerations Requirement of wind tunnel testing to address
using the AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 and that obtained from important factors such as interference effect, shielding,
wind tunnel test for different damping ratios are wind directionality and aerodynamic effects are
presented in Figure 10 along with the different addressed.
Figure 7: Comparison of base shear – Tower 1

Figure 8: Locations of the standard load cases
(black dots) within the Mx and My plane for Tower 2
Figure 6: Orientations of towers and different governing wind
[12] Kareem, A. (1982) 'Acrosswind Response of [15] Mendis, P., Ngo, T., Haritos, N., Hira, A., Samali,
Verification of pedestrian comfort within the site References
and in the vicinity is outlined. Finally, a case study Buildings', J. of Struct. Eng, ASCE, 108(ST4), pp. B. and Cheung, J. (2007) 'Wind loading on tall
summarizing the important design consideration of 869-887. buildings', EJSE: Loading on structures.
[1] American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).
slender tall buildings in Sri Lankan context is Minimum design loads for buildings and other [16] Nakai, M., Hirakawa, K., Yamanaka, M., Okuda,
presented. structures. Reston (VA): ASCE. (2010). [13] Kareem, A. (1985) 'Lateral-torsional motion of H. and Konishi, A. (2013 Sep) 'Performance-
tall buildings', J. Struct. Eng, 111(11), pp. 2479- based wind-resistant design for high-rise
[2] Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ). RLB 2496. structures in Japan', International Journal of High-
recommendations for loads on buildings. Tokyo rise Buildings, 2(3), pp. 271-283.
(Japan): Structural Standards Committee, [14] Mendis, P., Mohotti, D. and Ngo, T. (2014) 'Wind
Design of Tall Buildings, Problems, Mistakes and [17] National Research Council. National Building
Architectural Institute of Japan. (2004). Code of Canada. Canadian Commission on
Solutions', ICIFC.
[3] Boggs, D. and Dragovich, J. (2006) 'The Nature Building and Fire Codes. (1995) Canada.
of Wind Loads and Dynamic Response', Aci, SP
240, pp. 15-44.
[4] Bureau of Indian Standards. Indian Standard Code
of Practice for design loads (other than
earthquake) for buildings and structures. Part 3 –
Figure 9: Comparison of base moments – Tower 1 Wind loads. IS: 875 (Part 3) – 1987. (1987).
[5] China National Standard. Load code for the
design of building structure. GB 50009-2001
(revised). (2006) China Architecture and Building
Press.
[6] Davenport, A. G. (1967) 'Gust loading factors'. J.

Struct. Div, ASCE, 93(3), pp. 11-34.
[7] European Committee for Standardization (CEN).

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – Part 1-4:
General actions – wind actions. EN 1991-1-
4:2005/ AC: 2010 (E). Europe: European
Standard (Eurocode), European Committee for
Standardization (CEN). (2010).
[8] Ge, T., Jin, X. and Cao, S. 'Comparison of APEC

wind loading codification and revision of Chinese
Figure 10: Peak top story accelerations for Tower 2 national code'.
[9] Holmes, J. D. (2009 Nov) 'Developments in
codification of wind loads in the Asia Pacific',
The 7th Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind
Engineering, pp. 8-12.
[10] Holmes, J. D., Tamura, Y. and Krishna, P. (2008
May) 'Wind loads on low, medium and high-rise
buildings by Asia-Pacific codes', The 4th
international conference on advances in wind and
structures, pp. 29-31.
[11] Joint Technical Committee. AS/NZS 1170.2:2011
Structural design actions – Part 2: Wind actions.
Australian/ New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS):
Joint Technical Committee BD-006. (2011)
Figure 11: CFD prediction of wind flow in the vicinity Australia/ New Zealand.

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MODULUS

MODULUS | June| June

EDITOR’S MESSAGE Throughout time, the primary objective of

This June Issue of Modulus has a considerable

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS SRI LANKA 1

The Backstory The Structure

Wind and Earthquake Analysis Figure 17

Steel-Concrete Composite Column system

In order to enhance the strength capacity of existing

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS SRI LANKA

Consultancy Bureau, thusiropeiris@gmail.com

1 D.L.T.R. Peiris, Specialist Engineer (Structural Designs),

doctor-patient analogy. On the other hand, this

is aimed at presenting Structural Audit, its

importance and adopted methodology in terms of

effects and degree of maintenance.

Structural Audit of Buildings Process Viewed in Doctor/Patient Analogy

2. What is Structural Audit of a building

buildings also undergo various over stresses,

managers on the long term economic benefits and

factors such as quality of construction, environmental

buildings. Deliverables in Structural Audit generally

out by a structural engineer, like a patient is

width/strain gauges, tell-tale glasses, binoculars/

magnifying glasses, in-situ/non-destructive tests

engineers also use equipment and tests such as crack

health/performance check-up of a structure carried

instruments and tests in check-ups, structural

structural engineers to convince non-technical

(NDT), laboratory tests etc. in Structural Audit of

PC control system allows the operator to control the

Test B 03:00 03:30 15:10 48:00 60:00

(a) Test A (b) Test B

At the end of each test, flaming combustion was

40 (a) Exposed side (b) Unexposed side

Figure 10: Temperature profiles during the Tests C.

°C) compare to TC B3 (448.2 °С). A similar situation

4. Wind Design Codal Provisions Table 3: Applicability of different design codes

Figure 7: Comparison of base shear – Tower 1

Figure 6: Orientations of towers and different governing wind

[6] Davenport, A. G. (1967) 'Gust loading factors'. J.

[7] European Committee for Standardization (CEN).

[8] Ge, T., Jin, X. and Cao, S. 'Comparison of APEC

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