Original article

Textile Research Journal

2019, Vol. 89(15) 3048–3055

Strain sensing fabric integrated ! The Author(s) 2018

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with carbon nanotube yarn for DOI: 10.1177/0040517518807441
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wearable applications

Wei Liu1 , Ningjuan Liu1, Yang Gao2, Shuang Wang1,

Qiong Cheng1 and Fujun Xu2

Abstract
Textiles, as a desired platform for wearable smart technology, can be integrated with smart elements in the hierarchical
levels of the fabric structure. In this study, a new way to make strain sensing fabric was developed by embedding a single
strain sensing carbon nanotube (CNT)-based yarn into the woven structure. To overcome the abrasion during insertion,
the yarn was coated with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) to achieve higher mechanical performance. The gauge factor of the
yarn was improved from 0.91 to 1.64. The sensing properties of CNT/PVA yarn integrated strain sensing fabric showed a
gauge factor of over 1.1, a degree of linearity of more than 97% and good stability and repeatability during cyclic loading.
Fabric with different integrated yarn lengths, patterns and output connections has also been investigated. The results
showed that the yarn length and bend over section had a great influence on the strain sensing properties of the fabric.
Furthermore, the fabric strain sensor exhibited a quick and precise response to the finger motion detection, demon-
strating potential in wearable electronics.

Keywords
wearable electronics, strain sensor, carbon nanotube yarn, electric mechanical properties

Flexible strain sensors are a promising prospect for
applications in wearable electronics.1,2 Compared with
rigid and brittle strain sensors, they can withstand
larger deformation during stretching, torsion or com-
pressing and provide comfortable contact with human
skin. Textiles, as a platform, have been shown to be an
effective way to obtain flexible strain sensors, with inte-
grating sensing elements into different levels of the hier-
archy structure, including the fiber, yarn and fabric.3–5
However, to exploit the development of wearable
devices, the sensors should be able to support the
deformations of the textile simultaneously, without
affecting the original textile characteristics, such as soft-
ness, breathable and draping properties.6,7 To respond
to these specifications, the sensing element is required
to be imperceptible to human beings and compatible to
the structure of the textile.
The textile strain sensor can be made by applying
conductive coating or introducing conductive fibers or
yarns, by which the strain sensing can be induced by
contact resistance change.8 Conductive materials, such
as polypyrrole,9 poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):
poly(styrenesulfonate) (PE-DOT:PSS)10 and reduced
graphene oxide11,12 have been coated on the fabric dir-
ectly for preparation of flexible strain sensors.
However, their electrical durability under abrasion
and washing should be considered for practical appli-
cations. Knitting or weaving conductive fiber or yarns
into strain sensing fabrics is another way that can facili-
tate the sensor with the preferred structure and proper-
ties. For example, Hong et al.13 fabricated conductive
1
School of Fashion Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering
Science, China
2
College of Textiles, Donghua University, China
Corresponding author:
Wei Liu, School of Fashion Engineering, Shanghai University of
Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, China.
Email: wliu@sues.edu.cn
Liu et al.
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWP)/
polyaniline (PANI) composite yarn into a cylindrical
plain weft-knitted fabric. The gauge factor of the
fabric changed from 7.38 to 15.47 with different densi-
ties. For knitted fabric, electrical resistance change
resulted from a close or distant contact of the adjacent
fiber or yarns during the extension, which was caused
by the deformation of the loop structure.14 Similarly,
the strain sensor can also be designed into a warp-
knitted or woven structure by utilizing the conductive
polymer yarns.15,16 For fabricating the free-standing
strain sensing fabric, the conductive fibers or yarns
should be scalable and achieve suitable electrical and
mechanical properties, which has limited the develop-
ment of the one-piece all-in-one wearable strain sensing
textile.17,18
To target the positions of measurement, strain sen-
sing fabric can also be obtained by incorporating the
yarn strain sensors into the textile structure.19 The sen-
sing feature of fibers or yarns can be achieved by coat-
ing of intrinsically or extrinsically conductive polymers,
usually by immersing the yarns into a solution of con-
ductive polymer or non-conductive polymer with con-
ductive fillers.20–22 There are some other ways to make
the strain sensing yarn. For example, carbon nanotube
(CNT) yarn (fiber) made by twisting of the axially
aligned CNT assembly also exhibits a piezoresistive
effect23,24 and can be further improved by incorporat-
ing with polymer.25,26 However, strain sensing fabrics
based on the yarn strain sensors are seldom reported.
Recently, Eom et al.27 integrated in situ polymerized
PEDOT/PS strain sensing fiber into a woven fabric
by using a mechanical sewing machine. The gauge
factor of the textile strain sensor was higher than
0.76. Yet, the sensing yarn was attached on the surface
of the fabric, which might cause low abrasion
resistance.
In this paper, we report a flexible strain sensor by
embedding poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-coated CNT
yarn into the woven structure. Among many types of
CNT yarns, aerogel spun CNT yarn has great advan-
tages due to its good electrical properties and high effi-
ciency during production.28 PVA was carefully chosen
as a coating polymer because it has good compatibility
with CNT yarns.26 The coated yarn possesses a strain
gauge factor of 1.64 and it is quite flexible with a strain
at break of 20%. After integration, the textile strain
sensor exhibited a strain gauge factor higher than 1
and good stability. Meanwhile, the sensing properties
of fabric embedded with different patterns and output
connections were investigated under cyclic loading.
Furthermore, the strain sensing fabric was attached to
a finger to monitor the finger bending motion, and
it demonstrated potential application in wearable
electronics.
3049
Experimental details
Preparation of strain sensing CNT composite yarn
Aerogel spun CNT yarns with diameter of 40–45 mm
were provided by the Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech
and Nano-Bionics (Suzhou China). PVA 1799 with a
polymerization degree of 1700 and alcoholysis degree
of 99% was bought from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent
Co., Ltd. PVA solution (5% concentrated) was pre-
pared by dissolving PVA in a solvent containing
equal volumes of deionized water and ethanol. The
CNT yarn was immersed in the PVA solution for
30 min and passed through a quilting pin to remove
the excess solution. After drying the yarn at room tem-
perature for 24 h, the strain sensing CNT composites
yarn can be obtained.
Fabrication and characterization of the strain
sensing fabric
As shown in Figure 1, single CNT/PVA yarn of a cer-
tain length was integrated into the plain structured
cotton fabric in the interlacing warp direction by
hand sewing. Two copper wires were connected into
the two ends of the integrated yarn by using silver
paste. Epoxy glue was further applied on the two
ends to ensure a tight and stable connection. To inves-
tigate the influence of the embedding shape on the elec-
tro-mechanical property of the fabric, yarns with
different lengths of 1, 3 and 5 cm and output connec-
tions were integrated into the fabric separately.
A KEYSIGHT 34461A multimeter was used to test
the electrical resistance of the integrated yarn by the
two-probe method. The electrical resistance data was
output simultaneously during the stretching of a
60 mm  200 mm substrate fabric with a strain rate of
Figure 1. Schematic view of the carbon nanotube (CNT)/
poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) yarn integrated fabric strain sensor.
3050
4.8 mm/min. The micro structural observations of CNT
yarns and CNT/PVA yarns were conducted with a field
emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM,
Hitachi S4800, 5 kV).
Results and discussion
Physical properties of CNT yarn and PVA/CNT yarn
The CNT yarn had a rough surface with whisker CNTs
and micro cracks along the twisting angle direction
(Figure 2(a)). This morphology of the yarn was
formed during the process of spinning CNT yarn via
the one-step floating catalyst chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) method. To improve the properties of CNT
yarn, a layer of PVA coating was applied on the cir-
/cm, respectively. During tensile loading,
cumference of the yarn. After coating by 5% concen-
trate PVA solution, the coated CNT yarn shrank with a
diameter of 35–42 mm and showed a smooth surface in
Figure 2. (a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) picture of carbon nanotube (CNT) yarn; (b) SEM picture of CNT/poly(vinyl
alcohol) (PVA) yarn; (c) Typical stress–strain curves of CNT yarn and CNT/PVA yarn; (d) Tensile strain-dependent relative resistance
change of the CNT yarn and CNT/PVA yarn.
Textile Research Journal 89(15)
Figure 2(b), as the yarn was covered by polymer with a
densified structure. It also demonstrated an improved
mechanical performance over the original CNT yarn.
The tensile strength and modulus increased from 228 to
341 MPa and 7.3 to 15 GPa, respectively. Although the
failure strain of the PVA-coated CNT yarn was lowered
from 30% to slightly over 20%, it could still meet the
requirements as a sensor for detecting hand gestures or
body posture.29,30 The high strain of CNT yarn resulted
from the rearrangement of CNT alignment during ten-
sile loading. As the PVA combined with CNT in the
coated yarn, a dense film structure was obtained, which
inhibited CNT rearrangement.
Both CNT yarn and CNT/PVA yarn are elec-
trically conductive with resistivity of 70  10 and
150  10
the electrical resistance of both yarns changed linearly
due to the increased intrinsic resistance of individual
CNTs.26,31 As shown in Figure 2(d), the resistance
Liu et al. 3051

change rate demonstrated a linear relationship with the
tensile strain. The resistance change rate was calculated
by the ratio of changed resistance
R to the original
resistance R0. To evaluate the correlation between the
resistance and strain of the yarns, the gauge factor
(GF), as a measure of the sensitivity of the strain
gauge, was calculated using the following equation

R=R0
GF ¼
"
where e is the strain of the yarn. The gauge factor of the
original CNT yarn was calculated to be 0.91, while that
of the PVA-coated CNT yarn was 1.64, which indicated
an improved sensibility with strain. This was because
the sensing property of the yarn primarily came from
the intrinsic resistance change of the CNT during
stretching.26,32 With PVA coating, the yarn showed
an increased mechanical structure, which proved that
the load transfer from yarn to CNT was improved.
Therefore, when the intrinsic resistance of CNTs
increased more, it resulted in higher resistance change.
Since the yarn had a large tensile strain of 20%, it could
be elongated without breaking with the strain of the
fabric lower than 20%. Moreover, the improved tensile
strength, strain sensitivity and anti-abrasion property
of CNT/PVA yarn made it applicable for integrating
into a woven structure as a sensing element.
ð1Þ
Electro-mechanical properties of single CNT/PVA
yarn inserted in woven fabric
Since the CNT/PVA yarn was much finer compared
with normal textile yarns, such as cotton or cotton
blend yarns, it could be easily threaded into the
woven structure by simply tracing a single warp yarn
or weft yarn into the interlacing space of the textile.
Figure 3(a) shows a schematic view of a single

Figure 3. Strain sensing properties of the strain sensing fabric: (a) schematic view of the structure of strain sensing fabric; (b) strain
sensing plain woven fabric with embedding of a single carbon nanotube (CNT)/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) yarn; (c) relative resistance
change of CNT/PVA yarn and strain sensing fabric during five cyclic loadings; (d) gauge factors (GFs) of the CNT/PVA yarn and strain
sensing fabric during five cyclic loadings.
3052 Textile Research Journal 89(15)

CNT/PVA yarn inserted into the plain structure in the and linearity of the yarn and fabric are compared in
warp direction. The strain sensor fabricated by using Table 1. In fact, the resistance change of fabric resulted
cotton fabric as a platform and CNT/PVA yarn as a from the stretching of the embedding yarn, which indi-
sensing element is shown in Figure 3(b). It can be cated that the strain sensing properties of the yarn were
observed that the CNT/PVA yarn exhibited less curva- well maintained in the sensing fabric. This is because
ture in the space in between the warp and weft yarns the fine and strong PVA-coated CNT yarn has a much
than in the warp yarn and weft yarn of the fabric. stable structure, which make it resistant to abrasion
As shown in Figure 3(c), with five times cyclic load- during the stretching and releasing of the fabric.
ing of 3% strain, the fabric and CNT/PVA yarn both The stability of the sensing fabric was also investi-
demonstrated cyclic relative resistance change. After gated by up to 30 cyclic tensile loadings with strain of
the first tensile loading, the electrical resistance of the 7%. The electro-mechanical properties of the elastic
CNT/PVA-coated yarn and integrated fabric increased strain sensing fabric are shown in Figure 4. This
approximately by 2.5% and 1.9%, respectively, due to fabric can keep a very stable electro-mechanical per-
the stress relaxation and realignment of CNT and PVA formance during cyclic loading and would be durable
in the yarn.26 The gauge factor of the fabric increased for applications. The strain-dependent relative resist-
after the first cycle and became stable at around 1.1. ance change in Figure 4(b) shows that the fabric had
Moreover, the resistance response curve of the fabric an electrical response when the strain was higher than
showed good linearity of over 97%. The gauge factor 3% at the first loading cycle. After releasing, the rela-
tive resistance changes of the fabric increased by 1%
and then remained unchanged due to the adjusting of
Table 1. Gauge factor and linearity of carbon nanotube (CNT)/ the CNT-coated yarn in the fabric during stretching.
poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) yarn and the fabric sensor during dif- For the following cycles, the electrical response started
ferent loading cycles as the strain reached 4.5% and the gauge factor exhib-
Gauge factor Linearity (%) ited similar and stable values around 1.3. The excellent
electro-mechanical stability of the CNT/PVA yarn
Loading CNT/PVA Fabric CNT/PVA Fabric embedded fabric during 30 cyclic tensile loadings dem-
cycle yarn sensor yarn sensor onstrates that it is capable of working as a strain sen-
1st 1.06 0.64 98.1 97.2
sing fabric for wearable electronics. Compared with
other fabric sensors with stiff conductive yarns woven
2nd 1.36 0.98 99.0 98.6
or knitted into the fabric structure, fabric integrated
3rd 1.33 0.91 98.3 97.8
with sensing CNT/PVA yarn has a much lower
4th 1.27 1.01 99.1 98.7 impact on the fabric, especially its hand feeling and
5th 1.27 0.93 99.1 98.3 draping properties.

Figure 4. Electro-mechanical stability of the strain sensing fabric during 30 cyclic tensile loadings: (a) load cycle-dependent relative
resistance change; (b) tensile strain-dependent relative resistance change.
Liu et al.
Strain sensing fabric with different
integrated patterns
To monitor the deformation of the fabric in a specific
area, the strain sensing CNT/PVA yarn can be inte-
grated into the fabric with different shapes and different
output connections. As shown in Figure 5, CNT/PVA
yarns with different lengths of 1, 3 and 5 cm were inte-
grated into the fabric in three different ways. The fabric
was applied with a cyclic loading with a tensile strain of
3%. Figure 5(a) shows the strain sensing fabric with
straight insertion of yarns with different lengths. By
increasing the yarn length from 1 to 3 and 5 cm, the
relative resistance change of both fabrics increased and
showed smooth curves (Figure 5(d)). In fact, the rela-
tive resistance changes of the fabric were calculated
based on the resistance change of the inserted yarn.
When a longer CNT was inserted into the woven struc-
ture, the yarn had more contact with the adjacent warp
and weft yarns, making the inserted structure more
stable. Therefore, the yarn could take more uniform
loading during the tensile stretching of the fabric.
With the same insertion length of the CNT/PVA
yarns, they can also be integrated into the fabric with
rectangle patterns (Figures 5(b) and (c)). By setting the
width of the pattern to 1 cm, the height of the rectangle
pattern increased with the increasing of the yarn length.
Based on the different output connections, it can be
Figure 5. Strain sensing fabrics integrated with 1, 3 and 5 cm lengths of carbon nanotube/poly(vinyl alcohol) yarn and comparison of
their electro-mechanical properties: (a) and (d) for the straight warp insertion pattern; (b) and (e) for rectangle pattern insertion with
series output connection; (c) and (f) for rectangle pattern insertion with parallel output connection.
3053
classified as serial integration (Figure 5(b)) and parallel
integration (Figure 5(c)). For the former, by increasing
of the inserted yarn length, the relative resistance
changes obviously decreased. This is because the bend
over section of the serial inserted yarn, along the weft
direction, was compressed by the adjacent weft yarn
during the stretching along the warp direction, and
this resulted in the degradation of strain sensitivity. In
comparison, the CNT yarns inserted in parallel
(Figures 5(c) and (f)) were electrically connected with
each other by the conductive paste. These patterns
showed less variation of the resistance change rate as
there was no bend over section along the weft direction.
Therefore, the total length of the inserted yarn had less
influence on parallel output resistance.
Monitoring of finger bending motions based on the
strain sensing fabric
In order to demonstrate the potential applications of
the strain sensing fabric for wearable devices, the fabric
was attached to the joint (Figure 6(a)) and segment
(Figure 6(b)) part of the index finger to detect the
minor strain from bending. When the finger was bent,
the resistance change of the fabric was recorded simul-
taneously by the digital multimeter. As shown in Figure
6, with increasing the bending angel to a certain degree,
the electrical resistance of the fabric increased and then
3054
Figure 6. Monitoring of the finger bending motion with attaching the strain sensing fabric to the joint (a) and segment (b) part of the
index finger.
remained stable. Compared with the fabric that is fixed
on the joint part of the finger, the fabric that is fixed on
the segment part of the finger had less increase of resis-
tance due to there being less elongation during the
bending. This demonstration clearly showed the feasi-
bility of the fabric sensor applied in wearable electronic
structures to detect human motions.
Conclusions
In summary, flexible strain sensing fabrics have been
successfully fabricated by integrating strain sensing
CNT/PVA composite yarn into woven fabrics. The
electro-mechanical performance of the strain sensing
fabric showed that the strain sensing properties of the
CNT/PVA yarn can be well maintained after insertion
into the fabric structure. The fabric sensor exhibited
the moderate gauge factors of 1.1 and 1.3 with inte-
gration to a plain woven (strain of 3%) and an elastic
woven fabric (strain of 7%), respectively. It also
showed good repeatability and stability with a linear
response of over 97% linearity. Upon integrated dif-
ferent patterns and lengths of yarn into the fabric, the
fabric with 5 cm length of single CNT/PVA yarn
insertion showed the best strain sensing properties.
Furthermore, the fabric sensor showed good sensitiv-
ity to detect the finger motion, which indicates that it
will facilitate the development of novel wearable elec-
tronic devices.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Textile Research Journal 89(15)
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51503120), the
Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai
Municipality (Grant No. 14YF1409600) and the Shanghai
Education Committee (Grant No. ZZgcd14016).
ORCID iD
Wei Liu http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8811-0356
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