General Biology 1 (Sci5)

UNIVERSITY of the ASSUMPTION
Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of San Fernando 2000, Pampanga, Philippines
2Q - Sci5 Page 1 of 31
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL - GRADE 12
Academic Track - Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Strand
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 (Sci5) • Examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and

(First Semester, Second Quarter Reviewer) nucleic acids.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION 4. ORGANELLES
• The name organelle comes from the idea that these
DIVISION OF LABOR AND THE FIRST LEVEL
structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the
- Within living things, there are divisions of labor.
body, hence organelle, the suffix “-elle” being small.
- Division of labors means that the work or labor of
Therefore, organelle meaning “little organs.”
keeping the organism alive is divided (division)
• Made up of macromolecules.
among different parts.
• Do different jobs for the cell.
- Each part has a job to do and as each part does its
• Examples are nucleus and mitochondria.
special job, it works in harmony with all the other
parts. The job of the smallest thing builds on the next 5. CELL
level. • Derived from the Latin word “CELLA” meaning
- Just like stair steps, there are different levels to how “small room.”
one living thing is made, as well as where it fits into • Made up of biological molecules specifically
this world. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- The arrangement of specialized parts within a living • The level where life begins.
thing is sometimes referred to as levels of • The building block of living things.
organization. • Examples are nerve and skin cells.
EIGHT (8) LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL 6. TISSUES

ORGANIZATION • Derived from the Old French word “TISSU” meaning
“weave or texture.”
1. ATOMS
• Made up of cells that are similar in structure and
• Derived from the Greek word “ATOMOS” meaning
function.
“uncuttable.”
• In any multi-cellular organism, cells rarely work
• Made up of matter, specifically 3 subatomic
alone.
particles which are protons, electrons, and neutrons.
• This applies to all living things.
• The smallest non-living unit to build a living thing.
- In plants, there are 2 types of tissue which are
• Examples are carbon (C) hydrogen (H), and oxygen
meristematic and non-meristematic tissue.
(O) atoms.
- In humans, there are 4 basic types of tissue which
2. MOLECULES are epithelial, connective, muscular, and connective
• Derived from the Latin word "MOLES” meaning tissue.
“small unit of mass.”
7. ORGANS
• Made up of atoms bonded together by a covalent
• Derived from the Greek word “ORGANON” meaning
bond.
“tool for making or doing” which is same as with a
• Represent the smallest fundamental unit of a
musical instrument.
chemical compound that can take part in a chemical
• Made up of more than 1 kind of tissue.
reaction.
• Examples are brain, heart, bone, lungs, and kidneys.
• Examples are water (H2O) and calcium oxide (CaO)
molecules. 8. ORGAN SYSTEMS
• Made up of organs that work together to perform a
3. MACROMOLECULES
major function.
• Derived from the English word “MACRO” meaning
• Example, your heart is part of your circulatory
“large.” Thus, macromolecules are large molecules.
system, which carries oxygen and other materials
• Made up of molecules bonded together.
throughout your body. Besides the heart, blood
• Biomolecules are macromolecules that form living
vessels are organs that work in your circulatory
things.
system.
Created by: Jopar Jose C. Ramos | STEM 12 - Our Lady of Fatima Professor: Dra. Menchu C. Luzano
2. ERYTHROCYTES
• Red blood cells which carry oxygen in the
bloodstream.
• Have no organelles so it has more room to carry
oxygen.
CELL DIVERSITY
• Cells of different organisms and even cells within (A) Cells that connect body parts.
the same organism are very diverse in terms of size,
3. EPITHELIAL CELLS
shape, and internal organization.
• Their shape allow cells to be packed together like
- In size, the smallest cell have a size of 10
sheets which cover and line body organs.
micrometer which is the mycoplasma, the largest cell
• Has long protein-fibers to resist tearing when it gets
have a size of 15 cm tall and 13 cm wide, and the
rubbed or pulled.
longest cell have a size of 3-18 micrometers which is
the nerve cell. In humans, the smallest cell is the male
sperm and the largest cell is female ovum.
- In shape, cells differ widely in shape, they are
roughly cuboidal or spherical, and tells you about its
function, for example, red blood cells are very small, (B) Cell that cover and line body organs.
flat discs, which allows them to easily fit through
narrow capillaries and around sharp corners in the 4. SKELETAL MUSCLE CELL
circulatory system to deliver oxygen throughout the • Elongated shape which allow cells to shorten or
body. contract moving our skeleton.
- In internal organization, nucleus contains DNA • Contain long protein fibers.
which directs the activity of the cell, organelle is a cell 5. SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL
component that performs specific functions in the • Elongated shape too which allow our internal
cell, eukaryotes are cells that contain a nucleus and organs to change size.
membrane bound organelles, and prokaryotes are
cells that lack nuclei and membrane bound
organelles.
• There are at least 200 different types of cells,
ranging from flat cells to branching cells to round
cells to rectangular cells.
TEN (10) TYPES OF CELLS (C) Cells that move organs and body parts.
1. FIBROBLASTS 6. FAT CELL

• Found in connective tissues which help protect, • Huge spherical shaped cell which is formed because
support and bind together other tissue types. of the large fat droplet in its cytoplasm.
• They have rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi • Stores nutrients along with fat.
apparatus to make and secrete proteins needed for
their fibers.
INTRODUCTION TO HISTOLOGY
HISTOLOGY
• Derived from the 2 Greek words “HISTO” meaning
“tissue” and “LOGOS” meaning “study.”
• Branch of science that deals with the microscopic
(D) Cell that stores nutrients. study of tissues.
7. MACROPHAGE • Group of similar cells performing similar functions.
• Can change shape so it can crawl through tissue to • All tissues are surrounded by intercellular material
reach infection sites. called matrix.
• They contain many lysosomes to digest infectious • The father of modern histology and pathology is
microorganisms. Marie F.X. Bichat, the brilliant French anatomist and
physiologist.
TISSUES
• Derived from the French word “TISSU” meaning
“weave or texture.”
• Group of cells that are similar in structure and
function that combine with other tissues to form
(E) Cell that fights diseases.
membranes or organs and work together to perform
8. NERVE CELL OR NEURON a certain function.
• Cell has long extensions that receive and transmits
FOUR (4) BASIC TYPES OF TISSUE
messages to other body parts.
• Long plasma membrane and a lot of rough I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
endoplasmic reticulum to make proteins needed for • Cells are tightly packed to form a continuous sheet.
the membrane. • Cells are anchored to each other and to underlying
tissues by a basement membrane.
• Cells are closely packed with little intercellular
material and no blood vessels but may have nerve
endings.
• Avascular or no blood supply and depends for food
and oxygen in the underlying connective tissue.
• Either single layered or multilayered.
(F) Cell that gathers information and controls body • Rest on a non-cellular basement.
functions. • Has a great power of regeneration.
• Found in different areas like body coverings, body
9. OOCYTE CELL (FEMALE) linings, and glandular tissue.
• Largest cell in the body. • Function is for protection, absorption, filtration, and
• This cell has twice as many organelles so it can secretion
distribute to new cells through growth or division.
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
10. SPERM CELL (MALE)
• Long and built for swimming. 1. NUMBER OF CELL LAYERS
• Flagellum acts as a whip to move sperm forward.
A. SIMPLE
• Composed of 1 layer of cells.
B. STRATIFIED
• Composed of 2 or more layer of cells.
(G) Cell of reproduction
Apical surface
Air sacs
of lungs
Nuclei of
squamous
epithelial cells
Basal surface
Simple
Apical surface Photomicrograph: simple

squamous epithelium forming part
of the alveolar or air sac walls (185x).
2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
• Single layer of cube-like cells.
• Location is common in glands and their ducts, it
forms walls of kidney tubules, and covers the ovaries.
• Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
Basal surface
Stratified types propel mucus or reproductive cells
Nucleus of
2. SHAPE OF CELLS simple cuboidal
epithelial cell
A. SQUAMOUS
- Scale-like and flattened.
B. CUBOIDAL
Basement
- Cube-shaped.
membrane
C. COLUMNAR
Diagram: simple cuboidal
- Tall and column shaped.
FOUR (4) SIMPLE EPITHELIAL Simple cuboidal

epithelial cells
1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
• Single layer of flat cells fitted together like fish Connective
scales. tissue
• Location usually forms membranes, it lines the skin, Basement
mouth, throat, anus, body cavities, lungs, capillaries, membrane
and blood vessel.
• Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in Photomicrograph: simple cuboidal epithelium in
membranes. kidney tubules (250x).
Nucleus of squamous
epithelial tissue 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR
• Single layer of tall cells or column-like cells which
are taller than their width.
• Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus.
• Many of these cells are ciliated.
Basement • Location lines the digestive track.
membrane • Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
types propel mucus or reproductive cells.
Diagram: simple squamous
Nucleus of simple FOUR (4) STRATIFIED EPITHELIA

columnar 1. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
epithelial tissue • Cells at the apical surface are flattened.
• Locations lines the skin, mouth, and esophagus.
Basement • Functions as a protective covering where friction is
membrane common.
Stratified squamous
Diagram: simple columnar epithelial tissue epithelium
Simple columnar
epithelial cells
Basement
membrane
Basement Diagram: stratified squamous
membrane
Photomicrograph: simple columnar epithelium of the Nuclei
Basement
small intestine (430x).
membrane Stratified
4. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED (CILIATED) COLUMNAR squamous
• Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others. epithelium
Connective
• Often looks like a double cell layer but all cells rest
tissue
on the basement membrane.
• Location at respiratory tract, where it is ciliated.
Photomicrograph: stratified squamous epithelium
• May function in absorption or secretion.
lining of the esophagus (140x).
• Functions in absorption or secretion.
2. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
Pseudostratified • Composed of 2 layers of cuboidal cells.
epithelial layer • Functions in protection.
3. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
Basement • Surface cells are columnar.
membrane • Cells underneath vary in size and shape
• Functions in protection.
Diagram: pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar - Stratified cuboidal and columnar are rare in human
body and found mainly in ducts of large glands
Cilia
4. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
Basement • Composed of modified stratified squamous
membrane epithelium.
Pseudostratified
• Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
epithelial layer
stretching.
Connective • Location lines organs of the urinary system.
tissue • Functions in stretching and the ability to return to
Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar normal shape.
epithelium lining in trachea (430x).
like the bone and cartilage, insulation like fat, and

Transitional transportation of substance like blood.
epithelium TWO (2) CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE
Basement
membrane TISSUE
1. VARIATIONS IN BLOOD SUPPLY
- Some tissue types are well vascularized.
- Some have poor blood supply or are avascular.
Diagram: transitional epithelium
2. MADE OF LIVING CELLS AND AN
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Basement
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
membrane
• Non-living material that surrounds living cells.
Transitional
Connective epithelium THREE (3) MAIN ELEMENTS OF CONNECTIVE
tissue TISSUE
1. GROUND SUBSTANCE
Photomicrograph: transitional epithelium lining of • Unstructured material that fills the space between
the bladder, relaxed state (215x); surface rounded cells and contains the fibers.
cells flatten and elongate when the bladder fills with • Composed of interstitial fluid and proteins.
urine. • Holds large amounts of fluid.
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM • Function as a medium through which nutrients and
• Forms the glands of the body. other substances can diffuse between the blood
• Provide fluid secretion. capillaries and the cells.
GLAND 2. FIBERS
• Composed of 1 or more cells responsible for • Provide support.
secreting a particular product. THREE (3) TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS
• Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous
or water-based fluid. A. ELASTIC
• Long and thin that form branching networks.
TWO (2) MAJOR TYPES OF GLAND • Stretches and recoils.
ENDOCRINE GLAND • Contain elastin and fibrillin.
• Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood vessels. B. COLLAGEN
• All secretions are hormones. • Strongest and most abundant.
• Examples are pineal and pituitary gland. • Most are type I collagen.
EXOCRINE GLAND C. RETICULAR
• Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial • Fibers mainly consist of type III collagen.
surface. • Thin fibers and form a delicate netlike framework in
• Examples are sweat and oil glands. the liver, lymph nodes, spleen, hemopoietic organs
and other locations where blood and lymph are
II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE filtered.
• Found everywhere in the body. • Support capillaries, nerves and muscle cells.
• Includes the most abundant and widely distributed • Visible when tissues and organs are silver stained.
tissues.
• Functions is to bind, support, and give protection 3. CELLS
• Each major class of connective tissue has a
fundamental cell type. 2. MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE (WHARTON'S

• Most common type is fibroblasts, in which they JELLY)
produce fibers. • Gelatinous substance within the umbilical cord and
• Includes fibroblasts in connective tissue proper, is a rich source of stem cells.
chondroblasts in cartilage, osteoblasts in bone, • Composed of fibroblast-like cells, which can be
hematopoietic stem cells which produces blood cells, spindle or stellate shaped.
and accessory cells (mast cells are cluster along blood
vessels that detect foreign microorganisms;
macrophages eat foreign materials).
II. MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Responsible for maintaining structural
interrelationships between tissues and cells.
THREE (3) CLASSIFICATION OF MATURE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
TWO (2) MAJOR CATEGORIES OF CONNECTIVE
TISSUE I. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
I. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE TWO (2) SUBDIVISION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Formed during the development of the embryo. PROPER
• By 8 weeks of development, most of the embryonic 1. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
connective tissue has become specialized to form the • Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue
types of connective tissue seen in adults. to other underlying tissues.
TWO (2) TYPES OF EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE • Most common type of connective tissue in
TISSUE vertebrates.
• Has fewer cells and fibers, but have more ground
1. MESENCHYME substance.
• Gives rise to all other connective tissues.
• Loosely organized, mainly mesodermal embryonic THREE (3) TYPES OF LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
tissue which develops into connective and skeletal A. AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE (LITTLE SPACE)
tissues, including blood and lymph. • Most widely distributed connective tissue in the
body.
• Contains several types of cells and all three fiber
types, and made up of fibroblast, macrophages,
plasma, mast cells, and adipocytes (fat cells).
• Forms the subcutaneous layer, it attaches skin to
the underlying tissues and organs.
• Used to attach skin and underlying tissues, and as a
packing between glands, muscles, and nerves.
• Function is to holds body fluids, defend against (non- shivering

thermogenesis)
infection, and stores nutrients. Uncoupling Undetectable Positive Positive after
protein stimulation
C. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Network of interlacing reticular fibers and cells.
B. ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE • Forms a scaffolding used by cells of lymphoid
• Located in the subcutaneous layer deep to the skin tissues such as the spleen and lymph nodes, and it
and around organs and joints. forms the stroma.
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules • Function is to bind together smooth muscle cells
predominant. and filter worn out blood cells and bacteria.
• Many cells contain large lipid deposits.
• Form prenatally during the first year of life.
• Function is to insulate the body, protects some
organs, serves as a site of fuel storage, and reduces
heat loss and serves as padding and as an energy
source.
2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• More and thicker fibers but fewer cells than loose
connective tissue.
• Main matrix element is collagen fibers.
• Cells are fibroblasts.
• Examples are tendon which attach muscle to bone
WHITE BROWN BEIGE
and ligaments which attach bone to bone.
TISSUE ADIPOSE ADIPOSE ADIPOSE
TISSUE TISSUE TISSUE THREE (3) TYPES OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Localization Subcutaneous Interscapular Emerges in
Intra- Paravertebral white adipose A. DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
abdominal Perirenal tissue depots • Fibroblast cells secrete collagen fibers that form
Epicardial Cervical with
Gonadal Supraclavicular appropriate thick bundles and fill the majority of the extracellular
stimuli space.
Morphology Spherical Elliptical and Spherical • Fibers are oriented in one direction.
smaller than
white • Fibers arranged in parallel.
Cell Single lipid Multiple small Unilocular • Functions are forming tendons and some ligaments;
composition droplet lipid droplets morphology
Few Large number but small collagen fibers give the tissue considerable tensile
mitochondria of lipid droplets strength in one direction.
Flattened mitochondria after • Examples are tendons and most ligaments.
peripheral Oval central stimulation
nucleus nucleus Mitochondria
Little appear after
B. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
endoplasmic stimulation • Fibers are not parallel like heart valves.
reticulum • Irregularly arranged thick collagen fibers with some
Function Storing Expending Thermogenic
energy energy and potential elastic fibers.
heat • Major cell type is fibroblasts.
production
• Withstands tension in many directions.
• Provides structural strength.

• Dense woven mesh of collagen fibers.
• Provides strength and support in various directions.
• Occurs in sheets.
• Located at periosteum which around bone,
perichondrium which around cartilage, fibrous
capsules of some organs like liver, kidney, and spleen,
found in the dermis and fasciae, and forms fibrous
joint capsules and fibrous coverings that surround
some organs.
3. ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Can extend and return to original length.
• Examples are lungs and arteries.
THREE (3) CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON THE

NATURE OF MATRIX
II. SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE • Provide structure and strength to the body and
• Contains large amount of collagen fibers or matrix protect soft tissues.
materials.
TWO (2) SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
2. REGULARLY ARRANGED FCS
1. CARTILAGE
• Found in tendons and ligaments.
• Tough, hard but a flexible.
3. IRREGULARLY ARRANGED FCS • Can resist strain and can absorb mechanical shock.
• Found in areas of the body where stress occurs • Solid or semisolid matrix in which cartilage cell
from all directions. (chondrocytes) and fibers are embedded.
• Example is the dermis of the skin. • Enclosed in a sheath of white fibrous connective
tissue called perichondrium, there is layer
PERICHONDRIUM
chondroblast cell, which forms chondrocytes.
• Dense irregularly arranged connective tissue
• Chondrocytes are dispersed in the matrix and occur
• Has type I collagen.
in the fluid filled space called lacunae.
• Ensheaths the cartilage.
• The matrix lacks the blood vessels.
• Houses the blood vessels that nourish
• Specialized dense connective tissue.
chondrocytes.
• Chondrocytes lie within lacuna embedded in a
flexible proteinaceous matrix.
• Firm connective tissue softer and much more
flexible than bone.
THREE (3) TYPES OF CARTILAGE
A. HYALINE CARTILAGE
• Most common cartilage.
• Slightly elastic and compressible.
• Composed of abundant collagen fibers and rubbery
matrix.
• Matrix is glass like semi-transparent, homogenous
and has fine collagen fibers.
• Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage.
• Found in nose, larynx, trachea, ends of bone, and 2. BONE OR OSSEOUS TISSUE
skeleton of fish. • Supportive and protective tissue.
• Matrix is solid and calcified. (70% salts of calcium
B. FIBROUS CARTILAGE and phosphate: hydroxyapatite-Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2,
• Highly compressible. 30% fibrous protein; ossein).
• Provides great strength and little degree of • Bone cell (osteocyte) and collagen fiber are
flexibility. embedded in solid matrix.
• Matrix has bundles of densely packed white • Each bone is enclosed in a layer of white fibrous
collagen fibers. connective tissue, called periosteum.
• Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae. • Matrix is arranged in concentric circles called
• Acts as a shock absorber by giving a cushioning lamellae.
effect. • Number of osteoblast and osteocytes are arranged
• Found in intervertebral discs and at pubis in between the lamellae, in the fluid filed space or
symphysis. cavities called lacunae.
• Each lacunae has fine cytoplasmic processes called
C. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
canaliculi, which connect with other lacunae.
• Provides elasticity.
• Osteoblast are active bone cell, while osteocytes are
• Highly elastic and flexible.
inactive osteoblasts.
• The tissue recovers the shape quickly.
• Composed of bone cells in lacunae in cavities, hard
• The matrix is semi opaque and has network of
matrix of calcium salts, and large numbers of collagen
yellow elastic fibers.
fibers.
• Found in external ear, epiglottis, and pharynx
• Calcified connective tissue with numerous
(eustachian tube).
collagenous fibers commonly found in the skeleton of
most vertebrates.
• Used to protect and support the body.
TWO (2) TYPES OF BONE
A. COMPACT BONE
• Arranged in concentric ring structures called
osteons (Haversian canal system) in the center of
each ring is a structure called a haversian canal (canal
carries blood vessels through the bone to nourish the
cells embedded within the tissue).
• Around the Haversian canal, rings of bone tissue are
found called lamellae. Within these rings, are space
called lacunae that contain osteocytes.
• Radiating out from the lacunae are tiny channels
that allow interaction of the cells with the blood
supply, exchanges of nutrients, gases, called
canaliculi.
• Canal of Volkmann connect various Haversian canal EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BONE
systems together.
• In the center of compact bone, bone marrow cavity
is present, filled with yellow bone marrow.
B. SPONGY BONE
• Matrix is web like rather than solid with number of
spaces in between.
• Found in epiphysis of long bone.
• Lacks Haversian canal system and Volkmann canal.
• Contains red bone marrow, which forms red blood III. FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and white blood cells. • Cells circulate in a liquid extracellular matrix.
• Cells from the immune system monitor the lymph
for signs of infection, differences in nutrient levels
and detects levels of toxins.
•The formed elements circulating in blood are all
derived from hematopoietic stem cells located in
bone marrow.
• Lymph is a type of fluid that forms as fluid enters
lymphatic vessels.
• If the lymph is deemed clean, it is returned to the
blood stream.
TWO (2) FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE • Connective tissue capsule with trabeculae
extending into cortex.
1. BLOOD
• Stroma is a supportive network of reticular fibers,
• Connective tissue that has a fluid matrix, called
fibroblasts.
plasma, and no fibers.
• Specialized fluid connective tissue composed of
blood cells suspended in the liquid plasma matrix.
• Plays vital role in transporting and distributing food
materials, gases, hormones, immune responses, blood
clotting and other waste products.
PLASMA
• Watery matrix with dissolved proteins.
• Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are
suspended in plasma.
• Fibers are visible during clotting.
• Functions as the transport vehicle for materials. III. MUSCLE TISSUE
• Responsible for movement in higher animals, heat
production, and maintenance of posture.
THREE (3) TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
1. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

• Spindle-shaped cells which are thickened at the
middle but tapered towards ends. Without striation
and responsible for involuntary movements of
internal organs.
• Surrounds hollow organs.
• Attached to other smooth muscle cells.
• Under control of the autonomic nervous system.
• No visible striations.
• Has 1 nucleus per cell.
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
• Striated and branched muscle fibers.
• Found exclusively in the heart (myocardium) and is
involuntary in movement.
• Found only in the heart.
• Function is to pump blood cells attached to other
cardiac muscle cells at intercalated disks.
• Cells are striated.
• Has 1 nucleus per cell.
3. SKELETAL OR TISSUE
• Has cross-striations (A-I bands) and can be
controlled at will.
2. LYMPH
• Consists of myofibrils which contains actomyosin.
• Interstitial fluid (water and solutes) enters
• Sarcomere is the functional/structural unit of
lymphatic vessels.
muscle contraction.
LYMPH NODES • Attached to connective tissue.
• Attach to skeleton for movement. • Has various centers located within it that carry out
• Cells are striated. the sensory, motor and integration of data.
• Cells have more than 1 nucleus. • Composed of brain and spinal cord.
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Vast network of spinal and cranial nerves that are
linked to the brain and the spinal cord.
• Composed of ganglion and nerve.
REGENERATION OF TISSUES
• Regeneration means the regrowth of a damaged or
missing organ part from the remaining tissue,
THREE (3) TYPES OF TISSUE REGENERATION

1. TWO (2) TISSUES THAT REGENERATE EASILY
A. Epithelial tissue
B. Fibrous connective tissue and bone
2. ONE (1) TISSUES THAT REGENERATE POORLY
A. Skeletal muscle
3. TWO (2) TISSUES THAT ARE REPLACED
LARGELY WITH SCAR TISSUE
A. Cardiac muscle
B. Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
REGENERATION OF CELLS
THREE (3) TYPES OF CELL REGENERATION
IV. NERVOUS TISSUE 1. LABILE CELLS
• Controls and integrates all bodily activities within • Cells that undergo mitosis regularly and quickly.
limits that maintain life. • Example is epithelial tissue repair.
• Has 3 basic functions which are sensing changes
with sensory receptors, interpreting and 2. STABLE CELLS
remembering those changes, and reacting to those • Cells that do not regularly undergo mitosis, but are
changes with effectors. able to if the need arises.
• Example is bone cells.
3. PERMANENT CELLS
• Cells that cannot undergo mitosis.
• Examples are nervous tissue and muscle cells.
TISSUE REPAIR
• Dynamic restorative cell proliferation and tissue
regeneration response stimulated in order to
overcome acute toxicity and recover organ or tissue
structure and function.
TWO (2) MAJOR PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM TWO (2) TYPES OF TISSUE REPAIR
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. STROMAL CELLS
• Connective tissue cells of an organ found in the • Function is to provide support and stores materials
loose connective tissue in roots and stems.
• Often associated with the uterine mucosa and the • Makes up much of the inside of the plant.
ovary as well as the hematopoietic system and • Where you can find the chloroplasts in leaves.
elsewhere. • Made of all 3 cell types. Parenchyma is most
• Example is delicate network of connective tissue in common.
the liver, it allows liver to maintain its shape.
C. VASCULAR OR COMPLEX TISSUE
2. PARENCHYMAL CELLS • Conducting tissue, transport.
• The tissue characteristic of an organ, as • Surrounded by ground tissue.
distinguished from associated connective or • Function is to transport water, mineral nutrients,
supporting tissues. and organic compounds to all parts of the plant.
• Example is the cells that secrete file in the liver. • Made of two networks of hollow tubules.
• Examples are xylem and phloem.
PLANT TISSUE
• Neighboring cells are often connected by
plasmodesmata.
• Tissues in plants that divide throughout their life.
• Plasmodesmata are strand of cytoplasm that pass-
through openings in cell walls and connect living
cells.
• All plant organs (roots, stems, leaves) are composed
of the same tissue types.
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT TISSUE
I. MERISTEMATIC OR GROWING TISSUE

• Meristem is a tissue in plants that consists of
undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells) capable of
cell division.
THREE (3) TYPES OF MERISTEMATIC OR
THREE (3) TYPES OF PLANT TISSUE GROWING TISSUE
A. DERMAL TISSUE 1. APICAL MERISTEM

• Outermost layer. • Located at the tip (apex) of shoots and roots.
• Acts similar to human skin. • Increase in length (primary growth).
• Function is to cover the outside of a plant, providing PRIMARY OR TRANSITIONAL MERISTEM
protection in a variety of ways. • Primary growth.
• Epidermis is made of live parenchyma cells.
• Can be made of dead parenchyma cells; makes the PROTODERM
outer bark of woody plants. • Gives rise to epidermis.
• Cell types made of parenchyma cells. GROUND MERISTEM
B. GROUND TISSUE • Gives rise to ground tissue.
• Bulk of inner layers.
PROCAMBIUM
• Surrounded by dermal tissue.
• Gives rise to 1° vascular tissue. • Lignified cell wall.

• Non-growing regions.
2. INTERCALARY MERISTEM
• Contains long fibers.
• Formed at the nodes of grass stem.
• Sclereid or cuboidal.
• Helps regenerate parts removed by grazing animals.
SCLEREIDS OR STONE CELLS
3. LATERAL MERISTEM
• Cells as long as they are wide.
• Positioned around the circumference of shoots and
roots. FIBERS
• Produces secondary growth, which increases the • Cells longer than they are wide.
girth of the plant.
EPIDERMIDIS
VASCULAR CAMBIUM • Alive at maturity.
• 2° vascular tissue.
TRICHOMES
CORK CAMBIUM OR PHELLOGEN • Pubescence or hairs on epidermidis.
• Periderm.
ROOT HAIRS
• Tubular extensions of epidermal cells.
II. NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE

• Tissues formerly derived from meristems, but
already assumed various shapes and sizes related to 2. COMPLEX NON-MERISTEMATIC OR
their specific functions as they develop and mature. PERMANENT TISSUE
TWO (2) DIVISION OF NON-MERISTEMATIC OR TWO (2) KINDS OF COMPLEX NON-

PERMANENT TISSUE MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE
1. SIMPLE NON-MERISTEMATIC A. XYLEM

• Water conducting tissue.
THREE (3) KINDS OF SIMPLE NON-MERISTEMATIC • Composed of parenchyma, fibers, vessels and/or
A. PARENCHYMA tracheids, and ray cells.
• Thin walled and alive at maturity; often • Carries water and dissolved mineral nutrients up
multifaceted. from roots to the rest of the plant.
• Gas exchange, nutrients and food. • Has 2 cell types which are tracheid cells and vessel
elements.
B. COLLENCHYMA
• Thick walled and alive at maturity. B. PHLOEM
• Support for the growing region of the plants. • Food conducting tissue.
• Composed of sieve-tube members with no nucleus
C. SCLERENCHYMA at maturity and with cytoplasm, companion cells,
• Thick walled and dead at maturity. fibers, parenchyma, and ray cells. In flowering plants,
sieve-tube members and companion cells arise from • Digestive glands of carnivorous plants (enzymes)
the same mother cell. • Salt glands that shed salt (especial in plants adapted
• The vascular tissue that carries the products of to environments laden with salt).
photosynthesis through the plant.
PLANT ORGANS
• Has 2 cell types which are sieve tube elements and
companion cells. ORGANS
• Tissues that act together to serve specific function.
VASCULAR BUNDLES WITH XYLEM AND PHLOEM
MOLECULES OF LIFE
BIOMOLECULES
• Molecule of atoms that contain more than one
element.
• Always have carbon as the main element produce
by living organism.
• Essential structure for the basis of life.
• Involved in many cellular processes like
MAIZE OR CORN - vein in cross section.
maintenance and repair, control and regulation of
ALFALFA - vein in cross section.
metabolic processes, and responsible for energy
exchange
ELEMENTS THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN LIFE

- All nutrients appear in element.
- Earth’s elements essential for living things called
nutrients.
- The six most important elements are carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P), and sulfur (S).
PERIDERM
• Protective covering composed of cork and
parenchyma.
SECRETORY STRUCTURES
• Responsible for making latex, resins, nectar, and
other substances produced and stores in channels
inside the plant body.
• Nectar (flowers) from nectaries.
• Oils (peanuts, oranges, citrus) from accumulation of
glands and elaioplasts.
• Resins (conifers) from resin canals
• Lacticifers (e.g., latex - milkweed, rubber plants,
opium poppy)
• Hydathodes (openings for secretion of water)
NUTRIENTS B. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

MACRONUTRIENTS MICRONUTRIENTS • Requires water for transport and use.
(Proximate principles) • Vitamins • Easily absorbed and passed through the body as
• Carbohydrates (65- • Minerals waste.
80%) • Examples are vitamins C and B-complex.
• Fats (10-30%)
• Proteins (7-15%) BIOCHEMISTRY: ESSENTIALS OF LIFE
- Carbon (C) - Calcium
- Hydrogen (H) - Potassium 1. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Oxygen (O) - Calorine • Contain carbon (C) with hydrogen (H) and oxygen
- Nitrogen (N) - Sodium (O)
- Phosphorus (P) - Magnesium • Most are covalent bond.
• Example is glucose (C6H12O6).
TWO (2) MAIN TYPES OF NUTRIENTS THAT THE
2. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
BODY NEEDS TO SURVIVE AND STAY HEALTHY
• Lack carbon (H) without hydrogen (H) and oxygen
1. MINERALS (O).
• Required for growth, repair, and regulation of vital • Tend to be simpler compounds.
body functions. • Examples are water (H2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2).
TWO (2) MAJOR GROUPS OF MINERALS
TWO (2) EXAMPLES OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
A. MACRO OR MAJOR MINERALS
• Used and stored in large quantities in the body. 1. WATER
• Present in body tissues at concentrations > 50 - Biological solvent
mg/kg. - High heat capacity
• Requirement of these is >100 mg per day. - High heat of vaporization
• Examples are calcium (C), phosphorus (P), and - High heat of fusion
sodium (Na). - Means of transport
- Medium of chemical and physical process
B. MINOR OR TRACE MINERALS
• Trace elements needed in amounts of less than a 2. SALTS
few mg per day. - Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water
• Present in body tissues at concentrations <50 - Vital to many body functions
mg/kg. - Include electrolytes which conduct electrical
• Requirement of these is 100 <mg/day. currents
• Examples are iron (Fe), fluorine (F), and zinc (Zn).
ELECTROLYTES
2. VITAMINS - Formed by opposite elements
• Any of a group of organic compounds which are - Conducts energy
essential for normal growth and nutrition and are - Regulate fluid balance
required in small quantities in the diet because they - Transport nutrients
cannot be synthesized by the body. - Support proper muscle function
- Support mental function
TWO (2) KINDS OF VITAMINS
- Help convert calories into energy
A. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS - Regulate pH
• Require fat for the stomach to allow them to be
THREE (3) TYPES OF ELECTROLYTES
carried into the blood stream for use.
• Extra is stored in the body for later use. 1. ACID
• Examples are vitamins A, D, E, and K. • Substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+).
• Examples are carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, 4. Component found in coenzyme (FAD) and nucleic
acetic acid, and phosphoric acid. acids.
2. BASE MONOMER
• Substance that releases ions that can combine with • Type of molecule that has the ability to chemically
hydrogen ions. bond with other molecules in a long chain.
• Examples are sodium hydroxide, potassium • Essentially, monomers are the building blocks of
hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, and sodium polymers, which are more complex type of molecules.
bicarbonate.
POLYMER
3. SALT • Large molecule or macromolecule chain of an
• Substance formed by the reaction between an acid unspecified number of monomers.
and a base.
SACCHARIDES
• Examples are sodium chloride, aluminum chloride,
• Derived from the Greek word “SAKCHARON”
and magnesium sulfate.
meaning “sugar.”
MACROMOLECULES
GLYCOSIDIC BOND
- Carbon compounds form chemical covalent bond
• Type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate
through polymerization.
molecule to another group, which may or may not be
- Polymer are made up of individual monomer.
another carbohydrate
- Polymers bond together to make macromolecules.
- Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALPHA AND BETA IN
nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P). CARBOHYDRATES
ALPHA
• Carbohydrate is alpha when the hydroxyl group of
carbon 1 is pointing in the opposite direction to the
carbon 6.
• Represented by the symbol “α.”
BETA
• Carbohydrate is beta when the hydroxyl group of
carbon 1 is pointing in the same direction to the
carbon 6.
FOUR (4) TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES • Represented by the symbol “β.”
I. CARBOHYDATES
• Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O) atoms.
• Monomer is monosaccharides.
• Can be polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or are
compounds that can be broken down to form such
compounds.
• Most abundant biomolecules found in nature.
α - glucose β - glucose
FOUR (4) FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Provide energy in the form of ATP to drive TWO (2) CATEGORIES OF CARBOHYDRATES
metabolic processes.
2. Energy-storage molecules like glycogen. 1. SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
3. Structural component of cell wall. • Can be broken down quickly by the body to be used
as energy.
• Found naturally in foods such as fruits, milk, and

milk products.
TWO (2) TYPES OF SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
A. MONOSACCHARIDES RING FORM

• Simplest form of carbohydrates composed of 1
sugar.
• Have many hydroxyl groups (-OH) in their
molecular structure, thus they are polar and
therefore very soluble in water.
THREE (3) KINDS OF MONOSACCHARIDES
B. DISACCHARIDES
a. GLUCOSE
• Composed of 2 monosaccharide.
CHAIN FORM • Formed when two sugars are joined together and a
molecule of water is removed through the process
called condensation reaction.
RING FORM
b. GALACTOSE
CHAIN FORM TWO (2) TYPES OF REACTION IN DISACCHARIDES
a. CONDENSATION REACTION
• Form complex molecules by the loss of water (H2O)
in a chemical reaction.
b. HYDROLYSIS REACTION
RING FORM
• Breakdown of molecules after the addition of water.
THREE (3) KINDS OF DISACCHARIDES
a. MALTOSE
• Formed from 2 units of glucose joined with an α 1 –
4 bond.
• Found in germinating grains.
c. FRUCTOSE
CHAIN FORM
Glucose Glucose POLYSACCHARIDES CAN BE
b. LACTOSE a. HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
• Formed from galactose and glucose subunits joined • Composed of 1 type of monosaccharide monomer.
with an β 1 – 4 bond. • Example, it can only contain glucose units linked
• Found naturally in milk. together.
b. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
• Composed of 2 or more type of monosaccharide
monomer.
• Example, it contain glucose and fructose units
linked together.
THREE (3) EXAMPLES OF POLYSACCHARIDES
Galactose Glucose A. STARCH

• Used as carbohydrate storage in plants.
c. SUCROSE • Branched points occurs every 24 - 30 glucose units.
• Formed from fructose and glucose subunits joined • Composed of 300 to 1,000 glucose units stuck
with a glucose α - 1 and fructose β - 2 bond. together in a long chain.
• Commonly known as table sugar.
TWO (2) FORMS OF GLUCOSE POLYMERS IN
STARCH
a. AMYLOSE
• Long linear and unbranched chains of glucose.
• Structure composed of α 1 - 4 bond.
Glucose Fructose
2. COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
• Made up of sugar molecules that are strung together
in long, complex chains.
b. AMYLOPECTIN
• Found in foods such as peas, beans, whole grains,
• Long linear and branched chains of glucose.
and vegetables.
• Structure composed of α 1 - 4 bond and α 1 - 6
TWO (2) TYPES OF COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES bond.
A. OLIGOSACCHARIDE
• Short chain of monosaccharides that composed of
less than 20 monosaccharide units linked together.
B. POLYSACCHARIDES
• Long chain of monosaccharides that composed of
more than 20 monosaccharide units, usually glucose
linked together. B. GLYCOGEN
• Most carbohydrates found in nature occur as • Used as carbohydrate storage in animals.
polysaccharides. • Long linear and branched chains of glucose.
• Complex sugars are starch, glycogen, and cellulose, • Branched points occurs every 8 - 12 glucose units.
which serves as energy storage or as cell framework. • Composed of 60,000 glucose units stuck together in
• Can be branched or unbranched, this goes for both a long chain.
homopolysaccharide and heteropolysaccharide.
C. CELLULOSE
• Structural components in plants, they make up the OF CARBOHYDRATES

plant cell wall. 1. Obesity
• Long linear and unbranched chains of glucose. 2. Diabetes, type 2: non-insulin dependent diabetes
• Linked together by a different type of chemical mellitus
bond, chains of glucose are hydrogen-bond together 3. Cardiovascular diseases like heart disease and
into fibers (microfibrils) that gives cellulose its stroke
unique properties of mechanical strength and 4. Dental caries
chemical stability.
PREBIOTICS
• Structure composed of β 1 - 4 bond.
• Substance that the body can’t digest. They act as
• Humans do not have enzymes that can break down
food for the beneficial bacteria in the gut and
cellulose and so humans cannot digest cellulose.
encourage their growth.
• Composed of 2,000 - 14,000 glucoses.
• Tomatoes, bananas, onions, and asparagus all
contain oligosaccharides, a common form of
prebiotics.
• You may also find prebiotics in specially made dairy
products or sold in capsules.
• The evidence is growing that prebiotics can
increase the beneficial bacteria in your gut and so
help maintain good health.
II. LIPIDS OR FATS
• Derived from the Greek word “LIPOS" meaning
“animal fat” or “vegetable oil.”
(O) atoms.
TEN (10) HEALTH BENEFITS OF • Glycerol and fatty acids are the monomers that
CARBOHYDRATES make up lipids.
1. Energy for the body • Insoluble in aqueous solutions but soluble in
2. Helps to sleep better organic solvents like methanol, ethanol, and ether.
3. Helps to prevent diseases - Lipids are hydrophobic, meaning it repel with
4. Useful to control weight water.
5. Helps to keep memory sharp • Function is for long-term energy storage,
6. Uplifts mood protection, insulation, and lubrication.
7. Provides fiber to the body
8. Prevent blood clots FOUR (4) CATEGORIES OF LIPIDS
9. Improves the digestive system
1. TRIGLYCERIDES
10. Best nutrient for athletes
• Composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid.
THREE (3) DISEASES DUE TO DEFICIENCY OF • Main constituents of natural fats and oils, and high
CARBOHYDRATES concentrations in the blood indicate an elevated risk
1. Usage of fats as energy source or underweight. of stroke.
2. Ketosis, accumulation of ketones in the body, in
TWO (2) THINGS THAT TRIGLYCERIDES INCLUDE
absence of carbohydrates the body starts using the
proteins and converts it to sugars). A. OILS
3. Hypoglycemia, condition in which your blood sugar • Liquid at room temperature
level is lower than normal. • Used by plants for long term energy storage.
• Examples are corn and olive oil.
FOUR (4) DISEASES DUE TO OVERCONSUMPTION
B. FATS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF UNSATURATED FATTY

• Solid at room temperature ACID
• Used by animals for insulation, protection, and long
TRANS-FATTY ACID OR TRANS FAT
term energy storage.
• Made through the chemical process of
• Examples are lard and butter.
hydrogenation of oils.
TWO (2) TYPES OF SUBUNIT MOLECULES OF - Hydrogenation solidifies liquid oils and increases
TRIGLYCERIDES the shelf life and the flavor stability of oils and foods
that contain them.
A. GLYCEROL
• Examples are doughnuts, cakes, and pies.
• Attached to each of the 3 carbons of the glycerol
molecule with an ester bond through the oxygen (O)
atom.
B. FATTY ACIDS
• Composed of a straight chain of an even number of
carbon (C) atoms, with hydrogen (H) atoms along the
length of the chain and at 1 end of the chain and a
carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end.
FATTY ACIDS CAN BE

2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
SATURATED FATTY ACID • Composed of 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and phosphate
• Composed of 1 carbon (C) to carbon bonds. group.
- Single bond saturated fatty acid can pack together - The phosphate head is hydrophilic, meaning having
better and tend to be solid. a tendency to mix with water.
• Example is animals fats. - The fatty acid tail is hydrophobic, meaning it repel
with water.
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

• Composed of 2 or more double bonds
- Double bond causes a bend or a kink that prevents
the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them
liquid at room temperature.
• Example is vegetable oil.
3. STEROIDS excessive amounts of water.

• Composed of 4 fused rings of carbon (C) to which
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
different functional groups are attached.
1. BASED ON COMPOSITION
A. SIMPLE LIPIDS
- Fats
- Waxes
B. COMPLEX LIPIDS
- Phospholipids
- Non-phosphorylated lipids
- Lipoproteins
- Sulfolipids
C. DERIVED LIPIDS
- Isoprenoids
- Fat soluble vitamins
- Steroids
- Ketone bodies
CHOLESTEROL - Fatty acids
• Well known organic compound belonging to the
2. BASED ON FUNCTIONS
steroid family.
• Serves as a precursor for the synthesis of other A. STORAGE LIPIDS
steroids such as testosterone, estrogen, vitamin D, - Fats
and cortisone. - Oils
• Present in most animal membranes with varying
amounts but absent in prokaryotes and intracellular B. STRUCTURAL LIPIDS
membranes. - Phospholipids
- Non-phosphorylated lipids
TWO (2) SEX HORMOES WHICH ARE ALSO
STEROID C. LIPIDS AS SIGNALS, COFACTORS, AND
PIGMENTS
A. TESTOSTERONE - Phosphatidylinositol
• Primary male sex hormone. - Eicosanoids
• Responsible for the development of male secondary - Steroid hormones
sexual characteristics, produced mainly in the testes, - Fat soluble vitamins
but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex. - Lipid quinines
- Dolichols
B. ESTROGEN
• Primary female sex hormone. MAJOR SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• Responsible for the development and regulation of AND THEIR SOURCES
the female reproductive system and secondary sex NAME OF
characteristics. S. NO. FATTY STRUCTURE SOURCE
ACIDS
4. WAXES Butyric
• Simple lipid that is an ester of a long-chain alcohol 1 CH3(CH2)2COOH Butter
acid
and a fatty acid. Butter
Caproic
• Can be found in nature as coatings on leaves and 2 CH3(CH2)4COOH palm oil,
acid
stems of plants, and prevents the plant from losing and
coconut Olive oil,

oil peanut
Palm oil CH3(CH2)4CH= oil,
Linoleic
Caprylic and 3 CHCH2CH= linseed
3 CH3(CH2)6COOH acid
acid coconut CH(CH2)7COOH oil, and
oil soybean
Palm oil oil
Capric and CH3(CH2)4CH=
4 CH3(CH2)8COOH
acid coconut Y-linolenic CHCH2CH= Linseed
4
oil acid CHCH2CH= oil
Plants of CH(CH2)4COOH
lauraceae, CH3CH2CH=
Lauric Parinaric Plant
5 CH3(CH2)10COOH coconut 5 CHCH=CHCH=
acid acid lipids
oil, and CH(CH2)7COOH
palm oil CH3(CH2)7CH= Rapeseed
6 Erucic acid
Seed fats CH(CH2)11COOH oil
of mace, CH3(CH2)4CH=
Myristic butter, CHCH2CH=
6 CH3(CH2)12COOH Arachidonic
acid and 7 CHCH2CH= Peanut oil
acid
coconut CHCH2CH=
oil CH(CH2)3COOH
Plant fats,
Palmitic palm oil, HEART DISEASE - ATHEROSCLEROSIS
7 CH3(CH2)14COOH
acid and
peanut oil HEART DISEASE
Plant and • No. 1 cause of death in America.
Stearic • 1/3 die of atherosclerosis.
8 CH3(CH2)16COOH animal
acid • Myocardial infarction and stroke risk increase with
fats
Arachidic atherosclerosis.
9 CH3(CH2)18COOH Peanut oil
acid
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Behenic Plant
10 CH3(CH2)20COOH • Buildup of plaque occludes arterial walls arterial
acid lipids
Lignoceric Plant vessels.
11 CH3(CH2)22COOH - Begins as injury or inflammation.
acid lipids
Cerotic Beewax - Contains cholesterol (oxidized LDL), platelets, etc.
12 CH3(CH2)24COOH • Artery walls lose elasticity.
acid and wool
• Passage through the artery narrows.
MAJOR UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS • One leading cause of heart disease.
AND THEIR SOURCES
NAME OF
S. NO. FATTY STRUCTURE SOURCE
ACIDS
Palmitoleic CH3(CH2)5CH= Sardine
1
acid CH(CH2)7COOH oil
Olive oil,
peanut
CH3(CH2)7CH=
2 Oleic acid oil, and
CH(CH2)7COOH
linseed
oil
III. PROTEINS
(O), and nitrogen (N) atoms.
• Made up of long chains of amino acids, which is
their monomer held together by a peptide bond.
• Function in metabolism by providing structural
support and by acting as enzymes, carriers, or
hormones.
AMINO ACIDS
• Building blocks of protein.
• There are 20 different amino acids.
• Compound that contains an amino group, carboxyl
group, and a side chain that is specific to each amino
acid.
AMINO ACID STRUCTURE
the carboxyl group of 1 molecule reacts with the 1

amino group of the other molecule, releasing a
molecule of water (H2O).
CONDENSATION AND HYDROLYTIC REACTIONS
Where:
C - carbon center
NH2 - amino group
-COOH - carboxyl group
R - side chain
TWO (2) TYPES OF AMINO ACID
1. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID

• Cannot be made by the body, it must be consumed
in the diet.
2. NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID
• Can be made by the body,
CONDITIONALLY NON-
ESSENTIAL
NON-ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL
Histidine Arginine Alanine FOUR (4) LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Isoleucine Asparagine Aspartate - A protein's shape determines its function.
Leucine Glutamine Cysteine
Methionine Glycine Glutamate 1. PRIMARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Phenylalanine Proline • Linear sequence of a chain of amino acids.
Threonine Serine
Tryptophan Tyrosine 2. SECONDARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Valine • Occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked
Lysine by hydrogen bonds.
3. TERTIARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE
- All amino acids are required for body growth.
• Occurs when certain attractions are present
- Since essential amino acids cannot be synthesized
between alpha helices and pleated sheets.
within the body, they have to be consumed in the
form of food. 4. QUATERNARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE
• Composed of 2 or more amino acid chain.
VALINE, LEUCINE, AND ISOLEUCINE
- These are included in protein that forms muscles. 1° 2° 3° 4°
- They account for 30 - 40% of essential amino acids.
PEPTIDE
• Composed of 2 or more amino acids linked in a
chain.
• The name given to a short polymer of amino acids
joined by peptide bond. CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
• Formed through condensation and broken down
through hydrolysis. 1. NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS (monoamine,
monocarboxylic amino acids)
PEPTIDE BOND
• Chemical bond formed between 2 molecules when THREE (3) NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS
A. NEUTRAL ALIPHATIC AMINO ACIDS Structural Functional

Role (strength and (catalysts and
a. WITH HYDROCARBON CHAIN support) transport)
• Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine. Solubility in Mostly
Mostly soluble
b. WITH SPECIFIC GROUPS water insoluble
Repetitive Irregular
Sequence of
i. SULFER GROUP amino acid amino acid
amino acids
• Cysteine, homocysteine, and methionine. sequence sequence
Less sensitive More sensitive
ii. HYDROXYL GROUP Stability to changes in to changes in
• Serine, homoserine, threonine, and heat and pH heat and pH
hydroxylysine Hemoglobin,
Collagen,
Examples insulin,
iii. CARBOXY AMIDE GROUP keratin
catalase
• Asparagine and glutamine
B. NEUTRAL AROMATIC AMINO ACIDS (PHENYL
OR PHENOL RING)
• Phenylalanine and tyrosine
C. NEUTRAL HETEROCYCLIC AMINO ACIDS
• Indole ring: tryptophan
• Pyrrolidine ring: proline and hydroxyproline (imino
group)
Fibrous protein Globular protein
2. BASIC AMINO ACIDS (diamine, monocarboxylic
amino acids) TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
• Aliphatic: lysine and arginine
1. CONJUGATED PROTEINS OR COMPOUND
• Cyclic (imidazole): histidine
• These molecules are made up of a simple protein
3. ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS (monoamine, dicarboxylic united covalently or non-covalently with a non-
amino acids) protein factor.
• Aspartic acid: aspartate • Non-protein factor is called prosthetic group or
• Glutamic acid: glutamate cofactor.
• Examples are glyco-protein, phosphor-protein, and
TWO (2) MAIN CLASSES OF PROTEIN TERTIARY
chromo-protein.
STRUCTURE
2. DERIVED PROTEINS
1. FIBROUS PROTEINS
• These are not naturally occurring proteins and are
• Generally composed of long and narrow strands
obtained from simple proteins by the action of
and have a structural role.
enzymes and chemical agents.
2. GLOBULAR PROTEINS
TWO (2) TYPES OF DERIVED PROTEINS
• Generally have a more compact and rounded shape
and have functional roles. A. PRIMARY DERIVED
• Denatured or coagulated or first hydrolyzed
FIBROUS GLOBULAR
PROPERTIES products of proteins.
PROTEINS PROTEINS
• Examples are proteans, meta-proteins, and
Long and Rounded and
Shape coagulated proteins.
narrow spherical
B. SECONDARY DERIVED
• Degraded which is due to break down of peptide
bonds) product of proteins. BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

• Examples are proteose, peptones, and peptides.
1. CATALYTIC FUNCTION
TWO (2) KINDS OF PROTEIN - Nearly all chemical reactions in biological systems
are catalyzed by specific enzymes.
1. COMPLETE PROTEIN
• Contains all essential amino acids. 2. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE
• Examples are meat, fish, poultry, milk, yogurt, and Examples:
eggs. - Hemoglobin transports oxygen in erythrocytes
- Myoglobin carries & stores oxygen in muscle.
2. INCOMPLETE PROTEIN
- Albumin transports free fatty acids in blood.
• From plant sources that does not contain all of the
- Transferrin transports iron in blood.
essential amino acids.
• Examples are grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds. 3. COORDINATED MOTION
- Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle.
TWO (2) SOURCES OF PROTEINS
4. STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL SUPPORT
1. PLANT SOURCE
Example:
• Proteins coming from plants.
- Collagen, a fibrous protein in skin and bone.
• Examples are grains, cereals, legumes, nuts, seeds,
fruits, roots, and tubers like yams, cassava, and sweet 5. DEFENSE FUNCTION
potato. Examples:
- Clotting factors prevent loss of blood.
2. ANIMAL SOURCE
- Immunoglobulins protects against infections.
• Proteins coming from animals.
• Examples are meat, egg, fish, and milk, and milk 6. GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION OF NERVE
derived food. IMPULSES
Example:
PROTEINS IN EGGS
- Rhodopsin is the photoreceptor protein in retinal
- Ovalbumin - 54% of an egg’s total protein content.
rod cells.
- Conalbumin - 12% of the protein content.
- Ovomucoid - 11% of the protein content. 7. CONTROL OF GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION
- Ovoglobulins G2 and G3 - 10% of the protein Examples:
content. - Growth factor proteins.
- Lysozyme - 3.5% of egg white protein. - Hormones such as insulin and thyroid-stimulating
- Ovomucin - 3% which is a jelly-like protein. hormone.
- Avidin - 0.5% of egg white protein.
- IgA, IgG, and IgM guard against viral and bacterial
- Few more to make it up to 100% but in much
invasion.
smaller proportions.
- IgD acts as an antigen receptor of B cells.
MILK PROTEINS - IgE causes an allergic response.
ENZYMES GROUPED IN SIX (6) MAJOR CLASSES
1. OXIDOREDUCTASES
• Double-barreled name.
• Catalyze the reduction or oxidation of a molecule.
2. TRANSFERASES
• Catalyze the transfer of a group of atoms from one
molecule to another.
• Example is transfer of phosphate between ATP and
sugar. - Enzymes in your saliva, stomach, and small intestine

are proteins that help you digest food.
3. HYDROLASES
• Catalyze hydrolysis reactions & reverse rxns. 8. CELLULAR CONSTRUCTION WORKERS
• Example is hydrolysis of an ester. - Huge clusters of proteins form molecular machines
that do your cells’ heavy work, such as copying genes
4. ISOMERASES
during cell division and making new proteins.
• Catalyze conversion of a molecule into isomer.
• The cis-trans conversion of maleate & fumarate. DEFICIENCY DISEASES
- Protein deficiency occurs along with energy
5. LYASES
deficiency, hence called protein energy malnutrition
• Rxns which break a double bond & add a small
(PEM).
molecule like water or ammonia and the reverse rxn:
- Current concept of PEM has 2 clinical forms which
elimination to form a double bond.
are kwashiorkor and marasmas.
• Not involving hydrolysis or oxidation.
- Can be prevented by health promotion, good diet,
6. LIGASES immunization, good fortification, early diagnosis, and
• These enzymes catalyze reactions which make treatment and rehabilitation.
bonds to join together or ligate smaller molecules to
make larger ones and uses ATP energy.
• Example of specific enzymes lipases, amylase,
protease, and cellulase.
EIGHT (8) IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN

1. HAIR AND NAILS
- A protein called alpha-keratin forms your hair and
fingernails, and also is the major component of
feathers, wool, claws, scales, horns, and hooves.
2. MUSCLES IV. NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Muscle proteins called actin and myosin enable all • Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
muscular movement, from blinking to breathing to (O), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) atoms.
rollerblading. • Made up of monomers called nucleotides.
• Present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA,
3. CELLULAR MESSENGER whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked
- Receptor proteins stud the outside of your cells and in a long chain.
transmit signals to partner proteins on the inside of • Responsible for the storage of genetic information
the cells. and protein synthesis.
4. ANTIBODIES NUCLEOTIDES
- Antibodies are proteins that help defend your body • Building blocks of DNA and RNA.
against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses. • Composed of deoxyribose and phosphate group
which make up the backbone of the DNA and 1 of 4
5. BLOOD
nitrogenous base.
- The hemoglobin protein carries oxygen in your
• Linked together by dehydration synthesis between
blood to every part of your body.
the sugar of 1 nucleotide and the phosphate group of
6. BRAIN AND NERVES the second nucleotide.
- Ion channel proteins control brain signaling by
STRUCTURE OF A NUCLEOTIDE
allowing small molecules into and out of nerve cells.
7. ENZYMES
hydrogen bonds.
FOUR (4) NITROGENOUS BASES IN DNA

A. Guanine
B. Cytosine
C. Thymine
D. Adenine
TWO (2) BASE PAIRS OF DNA

A. Guanine - cytosine
B. Thymine - adenine
2. RIBONUCLEIC ACID OR RNA
• Present in all living cells.
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS • Principal role is to act as a messenger carrying
instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of
proteins, although in some viruses RNA rather than
DNA carries the genetic information.
• Composed of 1 polynucleotide chain and does not
form a double helix.
FOUR (4) NITROGENOUS BASES IN RNA

A. Guanine
B. Cytosine
C. Uracil
D. Adenine
TWO (2) BASE PAIRS OF RNA

A. Guanine - cytosine
B. Uracil - adenine
THREE (3) TYPES OF RNA

1. MESSENGER RNA
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE • Carries instructions for polypeptide synthesis from
• Modified nucleotide that plays a central role in nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
energy processing within cells.
• Composed of adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphate
group.
TWO (2) TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS 2. TRANSFER RNA
1. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID OR DNA • Carries amino acids to the ribosome and matches
• Genetic material found in all living organisms, them to the coded mRNA message.
ranging from unicellular bacteria to multicellular - Amino acid
mammals.
• Found in the nucleus of eukaryotes and in the
chloroplasts and mitochondria.
• Stores information needed to construct a protein.
• Composed of 2 polynucleotide chains that coil
around each other to form a double helix held by 3. RIBOSOMAL RNA
• Forms an important part of both subunits of the

ribosome.
PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
NITROGENOUS BASES
• Nitrogen-containing molecule that has the same
chemical properties as a base.
TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF NITROGENOUS

BASES
1. PURINES
• Composed of 2 ring structure.
TWO (2) PURINE BASES
2
2
2. PYRIMIDINES
• Composed of 1 ring structure.
THREE (3) PYRIMIDINE BASES

2

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UNIVERSITY of the ASSUMPTION

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 (Sci5) • Examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and

EIGHT (8) LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL 6. TISSUES

1. FIBROBLASTS 6. FAT CELL

Apical surface Photomicrograph: simple

FOUR (4) SIMPLE EPITHELIAL Simple cuboidal

Nucleus of simple FOUR (4) STRATIFIED EPITHELIA

like the bone and cartilage, insulation like fat, and

fundamental cell type. 2. MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE (WHARTON'S

II. MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

I. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE TWO (2) SUBDIVISION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Function is to holds body fluids, defend against (non- shivering

C. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Provides structural strength.

3. ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE

THREE (3) CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON THE

THREE (3) TYPES OF CARTILAGE

TWO (2) TYPES OF BONE

1. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THREE (3) TYPES OF TISSUE REGENERATION

TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT TISSUE

I. MERISTEMATIC OR GROWING TISSUE

A. DERMAL TISSUE 1. APICAL MERISTEM

• Gives rise to 1° vascular tissue. • Lignified cell wall.

II. NON-MERISTEMATIC OR PERMANENT TISSUE

TWO (2) DIVISION OF NON-MERISTEMATIC OR TWO (2) KINDS OF COMPLEX NON-

1. SIMPLE NON-MERISTEMATIC A. XYLEM

ELEMENTS THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN LIFE

NUTRIENTS B. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

• Found naturally in foods such as fruits, milk, and

A. MONOSACCHARIDES RING FORM

THREE (3) KINDS OF DISACCHARIDES

Glucose Glucose POLYSACCHARIDES CAN BE

THREE (3) EXAMPLES OF POLYSACCHARIDES

Galactose Glucose A. STARCH

• Structural components in plants, they make up the OF CARBOHYDRATES

B. FATS ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF UNSATURATED FATTY

FATTY ACIDS CAN BE

UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

3. STEROIDS excessive amounts of water.

coconut Olive oil,

the carboxyl group of 1 molecule reacts with the 1

CONDENSATION AND HYDROLYTIC REACTIONS

TWO (2) TYPES OF AMINO ACID

1. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID

A. NEUTRAL ALIPHATIC AMINO ACIDS Structural Functional

bonds) product of proteins. BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

sugar. - Enzymes in your saliva, stomach, and small intestine

EIGHT (8) IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN

FOUR (4) NITROGENOUS BASES IN DNA

TWO (2) BASE PAIRS OF DNA

FOUR (4) NITROGENOUS BASES IN RNA

TWO (2) BASE PAIRS OF RNA

THREE (3) TYPES OF RNA

• Forms an important part of both subunits of the

PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

TWO (2) CLASSIFICATION OF NITROGENOUS

THREE (3) PYRIMIDINE BASES

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