Course Overview

Course Number : Maj Sci 101

Course Code
Descriptive Title Inorganic Chemistry
Credit Units 3
School/Term First Sem./ AY: 202-2021
Mode of Deliver Online/ Offline Learning
Name of Instructor Marilou B. Siega
The course covers the fundamental concepts of chemical kinetics, chemical
equilibrium (including acid-base chemistry and solubility equilibrium),
thermodynamics, and electrochemistry. It also deals with solution chemistry,
Course Description specifically reactions in aqueous solutions as well as group properties and
reactions of elements as an introduction to qualitative analysis of cations and
anions.

It is expected that at the end of the course, the students would be able to:
1. Explain and discuss the fundamental concepts relating to: chemical
reactions and factors that affect it, heat and its relation to other
energy forms and work, relationship between chemistry and
electricity, and the nature and behaviour of solutions through desired
Corse Outcomes learning opportunities in various media;
2. Apply and demonstrate the concept of inorganic chemistry (chemical
kinetics and equilibrium, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, and
solution chemistry) through various learning opportunities (such as
problem solving activities, laboratory exercises and others) in order to
boost their higher thinking skills;
3. Relate the scientific concepts to real life situations;
4. Develop the scientific attitude such as critical and analytical thinking,
curiosity, objectiveness, open-mindedness and others;

A high quality corporate science and technology university.

SLSU Vision
SLSU Mission SLSU will produce science and technology leaders as well as competitive
professional; generate breakthrough research in Science and Technology-
based disciplines; transform and improve the quality of life in the communities
in the service areas; and be self-sufficient and financially viable.
Learning Plan:
Module 1 : Chemical Kinetics
Lesson 1: Rate of Reaction
The Concept of the Reaction Rate
Types of the Reaction
Factors Affecting the Rate
Scientific Knowledge to Enhance Quality of Life
Intended Learning Outcomes:
1. State what rate of reaction is;
2. Identify observable changes to reactants or products for determining rate of
reaction;
3. Identify the factors which affect the rate of reaction;
4. Predict the effect of factors on rates of reaction from given data;
5. Describe the relationships between reaction rates and factors that affect reaction
rate.
6. Define the rate of chemical reaction and express the rate in terms of the
concentrations of individual reactants or products.
7. Differentiate average and instantaneous rate of reaction.

Introduction:
Chemical kinetics is the study of chemical reaction rates.
Kinetics can be more simply described as how the concentration of a given reactant or
product changes in time during a chemical reaction.

The branch of chemistry which deal with the study of speeds or rates of chemical
reaction, the factors affecting the rate of the reaction and the mechanism by which the reaction
proceed is known as chemical kinetics.
To understand and predict behaviour of a chemical system one must consider both
thermodynamics and kinetics. Thermodynamics tells us how does a reaction takes place??? And
kinetics tells us how fast does a reaction proceed??? What is chemical kinetics?
Chemical kinetics is the part of chemical science dealing with the study of the rates of
chemical reactions and the factors which affect the reaction rates.
A spontaneous reaction may be slow or it may be fast or very fast or very slow. Example; NaCl
and AgNO3 is a fast reaction. Rusting of iron is a slow reaction that occurs over the years.

Key to Remember: Kinetics, Reaction Rate, Nature of Reactants, Concentration, Temperature,

Zero order rxn, first order rxn, second order rxn, 3 rd order rxn

Discussion/Presentation of the Topic/Learning Plan:

The Concept of Reaction Rate :
What does rate of reaction mean?
The speed of different chemical reactions varies hugely. Some reactions are very fast
and others are very slow.
The speed of a reaction is called rate of the reaction.
The rate of a reaction depends on;
1. The frequency of collisions between particles; and
2. The energy with which particles collide.
 For example: iron rusting (low rxn rate), wood combustion(high rxn rate), and nuclear
explosion(very high rxn rate).
Rate of reaction is defined as the change in the amount of reactants or products per unit
time. Different chemical reactions occur at different rates.

Measuring the rate of reaction

Observable changes (visible changes)
Suitable changes which can be observed in a chemical reaction:
 Volume of gas liberated
 Time taken for the precipitate formed
 Change in mass during the reaction
 Colour changes
 Temperature changes
 Pressure changes
The rate of the reaction is a measure of the speed with which reactants are converted
into products. In terms of amount, the rate of the reaction is defined as the change in amount of
reactant or product per unit time.
Mathematically,
Rate of a chemical reaction = change in amount of reactants or products/ time taken for the
changed
In terms of concentration, the rate of the reaction is defined as the change in the concentration
of the reactant (or product) per unit time.
Rate of reaction = change in concentration (mol/L) of a reactant or product per unit time
(s,min,hr);
Therefore rate of reaction is defined as the rate of disappearance (or decrease) in the
concentration of the reactants or the rate of appearance (or increase) in the concentration of the
products.
For any hypothetical reaction,
Progress of a simple reaction: Reactant A------------------- Product B
Rate with respect to A: Rate of disappearance of reactant (A)
Rate= -∆[A]/∆t ∆[A] = change in concentration of A over time period ∆t
Rate with respect to B: Rate of Appearance of product (B)
Rate = ∆[B ]/∆t ∆[B] = change in concentration of B over time period ∆t
Because [A] decreases with time, ∆[A] is negative (shows in a graph)
Rate = ∆[A]/∆t = ∆[B]/∆t ………………for simpler reactions
For complex reactions:

Types of the Reaction:

Depending upon the time interval over when the change in amount of reactant or product is
measured the reaction rates can be classified into two main classes:
1. Average rate of the reaction
2. Instantaneous rate of the reaction
1. Average rate of the reaction:
It is defined as the rate of change of concentration of the reactants(orproducts) over a specified
measurable period of time.
For reaction, A------ B
If [A]1 and [A]2 be the concentration of the reactants A at time t 1 and t2 respectively,
then the rate of the reaction in terms of the reactant in time interval (t 1 – t2) is given by,
 Average rate of reaction = change in concentration of A/ time interval
= [A]2 - [A]1/ t2 - t1
= - ∆[A]/∆t
Here, [A]1 > [A]2 ; therefore negative is used.
Similarly, if [B]1 and [B]2 be the concentration of product at time t 1 and t2 respectively, then the
rate of reaction in terms of product B is given by,
Average rate of the reaction = change in concentration of B (products)/ time interval
= [B]2 - [B]1 / t2 –t1 = +∆[B]/∆t
Here,[B]2 > [B]1, therefore positive sign is used.
2. Instantaneous rate of the reaction:
It is defined as the rate of change in concentration of any one of the reactant or product at a
particular time. It gives the tendency of the reaction at a particular point of time during the
course.
Mathematically,
Instantaneous rate = [Average rate]∆t→0
dx/dt =
where dx = very small change in concentration
dt = very small change in time
for instantaneous rate, t1 ≈ t2 and ∆t → 0.
Expressing the rate of the reaction:
Example: aA + bB -- cC + dD
The expression for the rate of the reaction is
Rate, R = -1/a d [A]/ dt = - 1/b d[ B]/ dt = + 1/c d [C] /dt = + 1/ d d [D]/ dt
Rate of disappearance of A, -d [A ]/dt = a x rate of the reaction
Rate of disappearance of B, - d [B]/dt = b x rate of the reaction
Rate of appearance of C, + d[C]/dt = c x rate of the reaction
Rate of appearance of D, + d [D] /dt = d x rate of the reaction

Factors affecting the rate of the reactions:

Think!
What are some ways we can increase the speed of a reaction?
And how do these reasons relate to collision theory?
1. Nature of Reactants
Rate of Homogenous Reactions is higher than the Heterogeneous Reactions
Rate depends on the physical state of reactants, e. g. liquid/gaseous/solid
Rate depends on the number of collisions or encounters between the reacting species
2. Surface Area of Reactants
The larger the surface area of a solid, the faster the reaction. Finely divided substances have
much larger surface area than large chunks of a solid. This is due to increased collisions
between reacting particles.
3. Concentration of Reactants
The higher the level of concentration (or pressure in gases), the faster the reaction. This is
due to increased collisions between reacting particles.
4. Temperature
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction. This is due to increased and more
energetic collisions between reacting particles. A 10 0C rise in temperature often results in a
doubling of the reaction rate.
5. Catalysts
 A catalyst is a substance which can change the rate of reaction.
There are 2 types of catalyst: * positive catalyst (increase the rate of reaction), and negative
catalyst( reduce the rate of reaction).
When a positive catalyst is used in a reaction, the catalyst prepares an alternative path with
lower activation energy for the reaction. As a result, the frequency of effective collisions
increases and hence increases the rate of reaction.
For example, iron is a catalyst in the production of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen
(the Haber process). Another is nickel, is a catalyst in the production of margarine
(hydrogenation of vegetable oils).
Why are catalysts so important for industry?
 Products can be made more quickly, saving time and money.
 Catalysts reduce the need for high temperatures, saving fuel and reducing pollution.
Catalysts are also essential for living cells.
Biological catalysts are special types of protein called enzymes.

Scientific Knowledge to Enhance Quality of Life

1. Keeping food in a refrigerator
 If food is kept in the fridge, the food will keep longer because the low temperature will
slow down the rate of the chemical reaction which destroys food.
2. Cooking food in a pressure cooker
 In a pressure cooker, the high pressure causes the water in the cooker to boil at a
temperature of more than 1000C.
 At a higher temperature, the time for the food to get cooked is decreased.
3. Cooking Food in Small Pieces
 Food in the shape of big pieces has a surface area per volume which is small, so the heat
takes a longer time to reach the inside of the food. So, to cook faster, the food needs to
be cut into smaller pieces.
4. Making Margarine
 Vegetable oil is an organic compound that is not saturated and exists in liquid state at
room temperature.
 Vegetable oil can be changed to margarine through the process of hydrogenation using
nickel as catalyst at a temperature of 180 0C.
5. Burning of Coal
 Coal contains element carbon.
 A big piece of coal takes a long time to burn because the total surface area that is
touched by the fire is small.
 The rate of burning pieces of coal which are small is higher because the total surface
area is bigger. With this, it provides a lot of heat energy in a short period of time.

Summary:

References:

Lesson 2: Concentration and Rate:/Rate and Order of Reaction

Concept of order of reaction
Methods for the determination of order of reaction
Pharmaceutical importance and applications of rate and order of reaction
Rate Laws
The rate law or rate equation or rate expression is a mathematical explanation of the variation
of the rate of a chemical reaction at a function of time.
The reaction rate depends on concentration of reactants at a fixed temperatures.
The rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the reactant concentrations, each concentration
bring raised to some power.
Rate of reaction ∞ [A]m or rate of reaction = k [A]m
“k” is the proportionality constant known as rare constant
It is independent of concentrations and time
Has a specific value at a given temperature

Order of Reaction
The order of reaction is defined as the manner in which the rate of reaction varies with the
concentration of the reactants.
Types of Reactions With Respect to their Order
1. Zero-Order Reaction
2. First-order Reaction
3. Second-Order Reaction
4. Pseudo-Zero-Order Reaction
5. Pseudo-First-Order Reaction
Sum of the power of concentration; Rate =k [A] m [B]n
The order of such reaction is (m+n).
Order or reaction: positive, negative zero, and fractional.
Example: H2 + l2 --- 2HI reaction order = 1+1 = 2
Reaction order is determined by experiment.
Rate law Reaction order
Rate= k [N2 O5] 1
Rate = k [H2] [NO]2 1+2=3
Rate = k [CHCl3 ][ Cl2]1/2 1 + ½ = 3/2
Zero order reaction:
In Zero-Order reaction the reaction rate is independent of the concentration of the reacting substance
or reaction rate depends on the zero power of the reactant.
Example : degradation of solution. When solubility is the factor, only that amount of drug that is solution
undergoes degradation.
A reactant whose concentration does not affect reaction rate is not included in there in effects,
the concentration of such a reactant has the power 0.
Zero order reactions is one rate is independent of concentration.
The common rate or reaction: d [X ]/dt = k 0
For the zero-order reaction the rate of reaction is written as k 0 = X/t
The half-life period of a zero order reactions is directly proportional to the initial concentration
of the reactant and is referred as t 1/2 = a/ 2k0.
For example: photochemical reaction between Hydrogen and Chlorine, H 2 + Cl2 -- 2HCl
Another reaction of zero-order reaction is decomposition of hydrogen iodide in Gold
enzyme catalysed reactions at higher substrate concentration.
First order reaction
A reaction is said to be first-order if the reaction rate depends on the first power of concentration of a
single reactant.
Example: decomposition of H2O2 catalyzed by iodine ions.

Second order reaction

A reaction is said to be second-order if the reaction rate depends on the concentration of two reactant
spices.
Example: Saponification of Ethyl Acetate

Pseudo-Zero-Order Reaction
 Many drugs, in a solid state, decompose according to pseudo-zero order rates as
reactions occur between the drug and the moisture in the solid dosage form. The
system behaves as a suspension, and b/c of the presence of excess solid drug, the first-
order reaction rate becomes a pseudo-zero-order rate, and loss is linear with time.
 r = dCa/dt k1Ca
 In suspension formulations the concentration of the drug, the aqueous phase remains
constant (i.e. saturated) until the suspended drug particles are completely exhausted

Pseudo-First-Order Reaction

Lesson 3: Reaction Mechanism of a Chemical Reaction

A mechanism is a series of step-wise reactions that show how reactants become products.
Reactions may occur all at once or through several discrete steps. Each of these processes is known as
an elementary rxn or elementary process. The molecularity of an elementary step is equal to the
number of reactant molecules in the elementary reaction.
Reactions can be divided on the basis of Reaction mechanism
1. Elementary Reactions
Only one step reactions
No intermediate
Only one transition state further divided in unimolecular, bimolecular and termolecular rxn
based on molecularity
2. Complex Reactions
Two or more steps
With intermediate formation
Multiple transition state
Rate of overall complex rxn is the rate of slowest rxn step (rate determining step)

Summary:
You have been introduced to chemical kinetics. Rate laws which relate the reaction rate to the
concentrations of the species participating in the reaction were defined for reactions of different orders.
The integrated rate laws for integer orders were obtained by integrating the differential forms of the
rate laws. Order and molecularity were distinguished. When one of the species is present in large
excess, its concentration hardly changes with time and the order of that reaction appears to be lower by
one unit, as exemplied by a pseudo first order reaction. Half- lives and relaxation times were defined
and were computed for typical examples. It was shown that units of the rate constant depend on the
reaction order. The half- lives for reactions of different orders depend on the initial concentrations
uniquely and this dependence can be used as a method for ascertaining the orders. The main purpose of
determining the rate laws, rate coefficients and half- lives is to rationalize the enormous amount of
kinetic data in a compact form, analogous to rationalizing the PVT data of gases and liquids into compact
equations of state. Towards the end of the lecture, a few illustrative examples were given.