DISPERSION AND AGGREGATION OF SUSPENSIONS

Dispersion systems

Mayonaise Paints
Suspensions

A suspension: is a disperse system in which one substance (the disperse phase) is distributed in particulate form
throughout another (the continuous phase) (i.e. at least 2 phases).

According to the particle size of the

dispersed phase, suspensions are
divided into:

Coarse suspension: which is a

dispersion of particles with a mean
diameter greater than 0.5 µm.
 Colloidal suspension: a dispersion
of particles with a mean diameter
less than 0.5 µm.
Suspensions applications

Most common in pharmacy ??

Against solid dosage forms:

• If patient has a difficulty of swallowing solid dosage
forms (a need for oral liquid dosage form).
• Faster rate of dissolution and oral absorption than solid
dosage forms, yet slower than solutions.
• Bulky insoluble powders as kaolin or chalk are better
formulated as suspensions so that they are easier to
take.
Against solutions:
• Drugs that have very low solubility are usefully
formulated as suspensions.
• Drugs that have an unpleasant taste in their soluble forms (e.g., chloramphenicol (soluble) vs. chloramphenicol palmitate
(insoluble )).
• Prolongation of effect (e.g. I.M and S.C. suspensions).
• Stability and instability issues:
Insoluble forms of drugs may prolong the action of a drug by preventing rapid degradation of the drug in the presence of water
Suspensions applications

Important in paints production ?

Quality paints rely on decent pigment dispersion in the
manufacturing process. Without proper dispersion of
pigments, the paint will not hold up and maintain the
expected colour standards. Pigments are insoluble particles
that impart colour to paint and other materials. Proper
pigment and additive selection are vital to ensure the
finished paint or coating effectively displays the required
colour.

Dispersed pigments have a strong tendency to return to their initial agglomerated state. Pigments must be properly
wetted, de-agglomerated/dispersed and uniformly distributed and stabilized in order to achieve maximum color
intensity, gloss, and hiding power. Stabilization of a pigment dispersion requires time and energy.
Suspensions stability and affected factors

Suspensions stability Suspension behaviours

One aspect of physical stability in suspensions is concerned with keeping 1. Sedimentation.

the particles uniformly distributed throughout the dispersion. + Brownian movements

2. Thermodynamic instability.
While it is seldom possible to prevent settling completely over a prolonged
+ Flocculation and aggregation
period of time, it is necessary to consider the factors which influence the
3. Wetting.
velocity of sedimentation.

Particle size of any suspension is critical.

Larger particles will settle faster at the bottom of the container.

The particle size can be reduced by using mortar and pastel, but very fine
particles will easily form hard cake at the bottom of the container.
Suspensions stability and affected factors

Sedimentation Theory of suspension: Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the process of allowing particles in The velocity of sedimentation is expressed by Stoke’s
suspension in water to settle out of the suspension under law.
the effect of gravity. The particles that settle out from the
suspension become sediment.

r = the radius of the particle in cm.

σ = the density of the dispersed phase (particles).
 = the density of the dispersed medium.
g = the acceleration due to gravity
n = the viscosity of the dispersion medium in poise.
Suspensions stability and affected factors
Sedimentation
For particles having a diameter of about 2- 5 m Brownian
movement counteracts sedimentation to a measurable extent
at room temperature by keeping the dispersed material in
random motion.
Ideal/Optimal suspensions
Ideally, the particles in a suspension should not
sediment at any time during the storage period.
The particles which settle to the bottom of the
container must not form a hard cake.
Should be easily re-dispersed by gentle shaking and
should have the desired flow (Easy to pour yet not
watery).
Must remain sufficiently homogeneous for at least
the period of time necessary.
Suspensions stability and affected factors

Flocculation and aggregation

Flocculation refers to the process by which fine particulates are caused to clump together into a floc

• The natural tendency of particles towards aggregation will

determine the properties of a suspension. Whether or not a
suspension is flocculated or deflocculated depends on the
relative magnitude of repulsive/attractive forces between
particles.
• Deflocculated suspension: the dispersed solid particles remain
separate and settle slowly. However, the sediment that
eventually forms is hard to re-disperse and is described as a
'cake' or clay.
• Flocculated suspension, individual particles aggregate into
clumps or floccules in suspension. Because these flocs are larger
than individual particles, sedimentation is more rapid, but the
sediment is loose and easily re-dispersible. Excess flocculation
may prevent 'pourability' due to its effect on rheological
properties.
Suspensions stability and affected factors
Wetting
Diffusible solids (dispersible solids): These are insoluble
solids that are light and easily wetted by water.
+ They mix readily with water, and stay dispersed long
enough for measurement.
+ After settling they redisperse easily.
+ Examples: magnesium trisilicate, light magnesium
carbonate, bismuth carbonate and light kaolin.
Indiffusible solids: Most insoluble solids are not easily
wetted, and some particles may form large porous clumps
in the liquid, whereas others may remain on the surface.
+ These solids will not remain evenly distributed in the
vehicle long enough measurement.
+ They may not re-disperse easily.
+ Examples: aspirin, phenobarbital, calamine containing
zinc oxide, sulfadinidine and chalk, hydrocortisone…
 Role of the Surfactant in the Dispersion Process

Wetting of the Powder – Wetting agents

 It is difficult to disperse solid particles in a liquid vehicle

due to the layer of adsorbed air on the surface.

 Thus, the particles, even high density, float on the

surface of the liquid until the layer of air is displaced
completely.

 The use of wetting agent allows to remove this air from

the surface and to easy penetration of the vehicle into
the pores.

 Powders, which are not easily wetted by water and accordingly show a large contact angle, such as sulfur, charcoal
and magnesium stearate are called hydrophobic.

 Powders which are readily wetted by water are called hydrophilic e.g. zinc oxide, talc.

 The wettability of a powder may be ascertained easily by observing the contact angle and spreading coefficient.
Suspending agents

• Suspending agents increase the viscosity of the vehicle so-called thickening agents, thereby slowing
down sedimentation. Most agents can form thixotropic gels which are semisolid on standing, but flow
readily after shaking.

Natural gums (acacia, tragacanth, Xanthan gum ),

Sugars (glucose, fructose) Co-solvents
Some solvents which themselves have high viscosity are
Cellulose derivatives (sodium CMC, methyl
used as co-solvents to enhance the viscosity of dispersion
cellulose, MCC), medium: For example glycerol, propylene glycol, sorbitol.
Alginates & Gelatin  Glycerin viscosity is too high to pour easily and to
Clays (bentonite, veegum), spread on the skin.
 Carbomers,  It shows the undesirable property of stickiness.
Colloidal silicon dioxide (Aerosil)
 It is too hygroscopic to use in undiluted form.
 Suspending agents
• Should have a high viscosity at negligible shear, i.e., during
storage.
• Should have a low viscosity at high shearing rate, i.e., it
should be free flowing during agitation, pouring, and
spreading.
 A suspending agent which is thixotropic as well as pseudo-
plastic are useful since it forms a gel on standing and
becomes fluid when disturbed.
 Apart from above, suspending agents should also be inert,
non-toxic and compatible with other excipients used in
suspensions.
 They should be readily dissolved or dispersed in water
without need of special technique.
 They should not influence the absorption or dissolution
rate of the insoluble.
 Flocculating agents

Flocculating agents are added to enhance particle “re-dispersability”.

• In contrast to deflocculated particles, flocculated

suspensions can always be re-suspended with
gentle agitation.
• The best approach is to achieve a controlled
flocculation of the particles, where they appear as
floccules or like tufts of wool with a loose fibrous
structure.
• Controlled flocculation of particles is obtained by
adding flocculating agents, which are (1)-
electrolytes (2)- surfactants (3)- polymers
Flocculating agents

Electrolytes acts as flocculating agents by reducing

the electrical barrier between the particles, thus,

decrease the zeta potential, this leads to decrease

in repulsion potential and makes the particle come

together to form loosely arranged structure

 Flocculating agents

• Both ionic and non ionic surfactants could be used

to control flocculation, e.g. Tween 80, Sodium lauryl
sulfate.

• Optimum concentrations of surfactants bring down

the surface free energy by reducing the surface
tension between liquid medium and solid particles.

• The particles possessing less surface free energy are

attracted towards each other by van der-waals forces
and forms loose agglomerates.
Flocculating agents

 Polymers like Starch, alginates, cellulose

derivatives, carbomers, tragacanth are
long chain, high molecular weight
compounds containing active groups
spaced along their length.
 These agents act as flocculating agents
because part of the chain is adsorbed on
the particle surface with the remaining
parts projecting out in the dispersion
medium.
 Bridging between these portions leads to
the formation of floccules.
 Polymers exhibit pseudo-plastic flow in
solution promoting the physical stability
of suspension.