The status of 

women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few
millennia.[2][3] From equal status with men in ancient times [4]through the low points of the
medieval period,[5] to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women
in India has been eventful. In modern India, women have adorned high offices in India including
that of the President, Prime minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition, etc. The
current President of India is a woman.

Historical practices

Traditions among some communities such as sati, jauhar, and devadasi have been banned and are
largely defunct in modern India. However, some cases of these practices are still found in remote
parts of India. The purdah is still practised by Indian women among some communities, and
child marriage remains prevalent despite it being an illegal practice, especially under current
Indian laws.

Sati
Sati is an old, largely defunct custom, among some communities in which the widow was
immolated alive on her husband's funeral pyre. Although the act was supposed to be a
voluntary on the widow's part, it is believed to have been sometimes forced on the
widow. It was abolished by the British in 1829. There have been around forty reported
cases of sati since independence.[17] In 1987, the Roop Kanwar case of Rajasthan led to
The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act.[18]
Jauhar
Jauhar refers to the practice of the voluntary immolation of all the wives and daughters of
defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent molestation by the enemy.
The practice was followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who are known to
place a high premium on honour.
Purdah
Purdah is the practice among some communities of requiring women to cover their
bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. It imposes restrictions on the
 mobility of women, it curtails their right to interact freely and it is a symbol of the
subordination of women. It does not reflect the religious teachings of either Hinduism or
Islam, contrary to common belief, although misconception has occurred due to the
ignorance and prejudices of religious leaders of both faiths.[citation needed]
Devadasis
Devadasi is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which women are
"married" to a deity or temple. The ritual was well established by the 10th century A.D.
[19]
 In the later period, the illegitimate sexual exploitation of the devadasi's became a norm
in some parts of India.
Independent India

Women in India now participate in all activities such as education,sports, politics, media, art and
culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc.[5] Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime
Minister of India for an aggregate period of fifteen years is the world's longest serving woman
Prime Minister.[23]

The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination
by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), equal pay for equal work
(Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of
women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women
(Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and
humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).[24]

The feminist activism in India picked up momentum during later 1970s. One of the first national
level issues that brought the women's groups together was the Mathura rape case. The acquittal
of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station, led to a wide-scale
protests in 1979–1980. The protests were widely covered in the national media, and forced the
Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code and the Indian Penal
Code and introduce the category of custodial rape.[24] Female activists united over issues such as
female infanticide, gender bias, women health, and female literacy.

Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India, [25] many women
groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Haryana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and other states.[24] Many Indian Muslim women
have questioned the fundamental leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law
and have criticized the triple talaq system.[15]

In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented
NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) have
played a major role in women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local
movements. For example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment (Swashakti).
[15]
 The National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women came was passed in 2001.[26]

In 2006, the case of a Muslim rape victim called Imrana was highlighted in the media. Imrana
was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana should
marry her father-in-law led to widespread protests and finally Imrana's father-in-law was given a
prison term of 10 years, The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All India
Muslim Personal Law Board.[27]

In 2010 March 9, one day after International Women's day, Rajyasabha passed Women's
Reservation Bill, ensuring 33% reservation to women in Parliament and state legislative bodies.
[28]

Education and economic development

According to 1992-93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were female-headed.
However, approximately 35% of the households below the poverty line were found to be female-
headed.[36]

[edit]Education

Though it is gradually rising, the female literacy rate in India is lower than the male literacy
rate[37]. Compared to boys, far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.
[24]
According to the National Sample Survey Data of 1997, only the states
of Kerala and Mizoram have approached universal female literacy rates. According to majority
of the scholars, the major factor behind the improved social and economic status of women in
Kerala is literacy.[24]
Under Non-Formal Education programme (NFE), about 40% of the centres in states and 10% of
the centres in UTs are exclusively reserved for females.[citation needed] As of 2000, about 0.3 million
NFE centres were catering to about 7.42 million children, out of which about 0.12 million were
exclusively for girls.[citation needed] In urban India, girls are nearly at par with the boys in terms of
education. However, in rural India girls continue to be less educated than the boys.

According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female
education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female
teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being depicted as weak
and helpless).[38]

[edit]Workforce participation

Contrary to the common perception, a large percent of women in India work. [39] The National
data collection agencies accept the fact that there is a serious under-estimation of women's
contribution as workers.[24] However, there are far fewer women in the paid workforce than there
are men. In urban India Women have impressive number in the workforce. As an example at
software industry 30% of the workforce is female [40]. They are at par with their male counter
parts in terms of wages, position at the work place.

In rural India, agriculture and allied industrial sectors employ as much as 89.5% of the total
female labour.[36] In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55%
to 66% of the total labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 94%
of total employment in dairy production in India. Women constitute 51% of the total employed
in forest-based small-scale enterprises.[36]

One of the most famous female business success stories is the Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat
Papad. In 2006, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, who started Biocon - one of India's first biotech
companies, was rated India's richest woman. Lalita Gupte and Kalpana Morparia (both were the
only businesswomen in India who made the list of the Forbes World's Most Powerful Women),
run India's second-largest bank, ICICI Bank.[41]

[edit]Land and property rights

In most Indian families , women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a
share of parental property.[24] Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue
to have little access to land and property.[42] In fact, some of the laws discriminate against
women, when it comes to land and property rights.

The Hindu personal laws of mid-1956s (applied to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains) gave
women rights to inheritance. However, the sons had an independent share in the ancestral
property, while the daughters' shares were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a
father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral property,
but the son will continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters, even
those facing marital harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home. After
amendment of Hindu laws in 2005, now women in have been provided the same status as that of
men.[43]

In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an old divorced Muslim woman was
eligible for maintenance money. However, the decision was vociferously opposed by
fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law.
The Union Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of Rights Upon
Divorce) Act.[44]

Similarly, the Christian women have struggled over years for equal rights of divorce and
succession. In 1994, all the churches, jointly with women's organisations, drew up a draft law
called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still
not amended the relevant laws.[15]

[edit]Crimes against women

Police records show high incidence of crimes against women in India. The National Crime
Records Bureau reported in 1998 that the growth rate of crimes against women would be higher
than the population growth rate by 2010. [24] Earlier, many cases were not registered with the
police due to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation cases. Official statistics show
that there has been a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes against women.[24]

[edit]Sexual harassment

Half of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990 related to molestation and
harassment at the workplace.[24] Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or
molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidents of sexual harassment
against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent Representation of
Women (Prohibition) Act was passed[45] to prohibit indecent representation of women through
advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner.

In 1997, in a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual
harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for
prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently
elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.[24]

[edit]Dowry

Main articles: Dowry,  Dowry death, and Dowry law in India

In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act, [46] making the dowry
demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related domestic
violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such cases were
reported.[39]

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom)
rules were framed.[47] According to these rules, a signed list of presents given at the time of the
marriage to the bride and the bridegroom should be maintained. The list should contain a brief
description of each present, its approximate value, the name of whoever has given the present
and his/her relationship to the person. However, such rules are hardly enforced.

A 1997 report[48] claimed that at least 5,000 women die each year because of dowry deaths, and
at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The term for this is "bride
burning" and is criticized within India itself. Amongst the urban educated, such dowry abuse has
reduced considerably.

[edit]Child marriage

Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India and continues to this day. Historically,
young girls would live with their parents till they reached puberty. In the past, the child widows
were condemned to a life of great agony, shaving heads, living in isolation, and shunned by the
society.[22] Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice.[49]
According to UNICEF’s “State of the World’s Children-2009” report, 47% of India's women
aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, with 56% in rural areas. [50] The report also
showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.[51]

[edit]Female infanticides and sex selective abortions

Main article: Sex-selective abortion and infanticide

India has a highly masculine sex ratio, the chief reason being that many women die before
reaching adulthood.[24] Tribal societies in India have a less masculine sex ratio than all
other caste groups. This, in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower levels of
income, literacy and health facilities.[24] It is therefore suggested by many experts, that the highly
masculine sex ratio in India can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions.

All medical tests that can be used to determine the sex of the child have been banned in India,
due to incidents of these tests being used to get rid of unwanted female children before birth.
Female infanticide (killing of girl infants) is still prevalent in some rural areas. [24] The abuse of
the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective abortions and female
infanticides in India.

[edit]Domestic violence

The incidents of domestic violence are higher among the lower Socio-Economic Classes (SECs).
[citation needed]
 The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into force on
October 26, 2006.

[edit]Trafficking

The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956. [52] However many cases
of trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. These women are either forced into
prostitution, domestic work or child labour.

[edit]Other concerns

Health

The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has
shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, especially rural ones, the girls and
women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.[24]
The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world. [15] Only 42% of births in the
country are supervised by health professionals. Most women deliver with help from women in
the family who often lack the skills and resources to save the mother's life if it is in danger.
[24]
 According to UNDP Human Development Report (1997), 88% of pregnant women (age 15-
49) were found to be suffering from anaemia.[36]

Family planning

The average woman in rural areas of India has little or no control over her reproductivity.
Women, particularly women in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled
methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like
sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilization accounts
for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for almost 95% of
all sterilisations.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT is the ability of women to exercise full control over one’s
actions. In the past, women were treated as mere house-makers. They were expected to be bound
to the house, while men went out and worked. This division of labour was and is still in a few
parts of the country one of the major reason because of which certain evils took birth in our
society child marriage, female infanticide, women trafficking.
The government has passed many laws so as to empower the women. These rules have
empowered them socially, economically, legally and politically. Not only the government but
various non-governmental organisations have done a lot so as to improve the status of woman in
our society. Child marriages have also been stopped.

A study by the Centre for Economic and Social Studies  in Hyderabad found that child
marriage has declined among project participants. Groups have also started campaigns against
the trafficking of women and girl children with the support of police, the revenue administration
and NGOs.

In a bid to reduce child labour, new residential schools have been set up in six districts to provide
quality education to girl child labourers. Over 40,000 girls are now enrolled in these schools.
According to an impact evaluation, these schools have outperformed other public schools in
terms of regular attendance, academic results and facilities provided to students, leading to a fall
in the drop out rate from 14.8 per cent in 2001 to 4.3 per cent in 2005-2006.
The Jogini system in Andhra Pradesh is another social evil that requires to be eliminated. In this
system, women are forced to leave their houses and follow the temple concubine system. Then
there are also other problems like domestic violence.

In recent years many steps have been taken so as to increase the participation of women in the
political system. The Women's reservation policy bill is however a very sad story as it is
repeatedly being scuttled in parliament. Further, there is thePanchayati Raj system, where
women have been given representation as a sign of political empowerment. There are many
elected women representatives at the village council level. However their power is restricted, as
the men wield all authority. Their decisions are often over-ruled by the government machinery.

All this shows that the process of gender equality and women's empowerment still has a long
way to go and may even have become more difficult in the recent years. Empowerment would
become more relevant when women are actually treated as equal to men. This division of labour
that a women is supposed to do only household chores and the men are the only one who can
earn a living for the family, has to be removed.

Further, women should be better educated , better informed – only then can take rational
decisions. It is also necessary to sensitise the other sex towards women. It is important to usher
changes in the societal attitudes and perceptions with regard to the role of women in different
spheres of life. Adjustments have to be made in traditional gender specific performance of tasks.

Meanwhile, a woman needs to be physically healthy in order to work equally. This is sadly
lacking in a majority of women especially in the rural areas. They have unequal access to basic
health resources and lack adequate counselling. The result is an increasing risk of unwanted and
early pregnancies, HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases.
There is no doubt that the status of women has improved a lot. Evil practices such as the purdah
system, child marriage and the like, have not been completely eradicated but have seen a
downfall.

Thus, a clear vision is needed to remove the obstacles to the path of women's emancipation both
from the government and women themselves. Efforts should be directed towards all round
development of each and every section of Indian women by giving them their due share.

Women Empowerment - A reality or Myth

The Government of India had ushered in the new millennium by declaring the year 2001 as
'Women's Empowerment Year' to focus on a vision 'where women are equal partners like
men'. The most common explanation of 'women's empowerment' is the ability to exercise full
control over one's actions. The last decades have witnessed some basic changes in the status
and role of women in our society. There has been shift in policy approaches from the concept
of 'welfare' in the seventies to 'development' in the eighties and now to 'empowerment' in the
nineties. This process has been further accelerated with some sections of women becoming
increasingly self-conscious of their discrimination in several areas of family and public life.
They are also in a position to mobilize themselves on issues that can affect their overall
position.

The latest news items regarding violence committed against women reveal that women's
position has worsened. Tulsidas' verse from Ramayana 'Dhol, janwar, shudra, pashu, nari ye
sub nindan ke adhikari' highlights the discrimination and deep-rooted gender bias which still
exists in all sectors on the basis of caste, community, religious affiliation and class. The
Constitution of India grants equality to women in various fields of life. Yet a large number of
women are either ill equipped or not in a position to propel themselves out of their
traditionally unsatisfactory socio-economic conditions. They are poor, uneducated and
insufficiently trained. They are often absorbed in the struggle to sustain the family physically
and emotionally and as a rule are discouraged from taking interest in affairs outside home.
Oppression and atrocities on women are still rampant. Patriarchy continues to be embedded in
the social system in many parts of India, denying a majority of women the choice to decide on
how they live. The over-riding importance of community in a patriarchal sense ensures that
women rarely have an independent say in community issues. Female infanticide continues to
be common. Statistics show that there is still a very high preference for a male child in states
like UP, MP, Punjab etc. The male to female ratio is very high in these states. Domestic
violence is also widespread and is also associated with dowry. Leaving a meager number of
urban and sub-urban women, Indian women are still crying for social justice.

A review of government's various programmes for women empowerment such as Swashakti,

Swayamsidha, Streeshakti, Balika samrudhi yojana and another two thousand projects reveal
that little has been done or achieved through these programmes. The discrepancy in the
ideology and practice of the empowerment policy of women in India constitutes its continued
social, economic and social backwardness. Women make up 52% of our country's population.
Hence there can be no progress unless their needs and interests are fully met. Empowerment
would not hold any meaning unless they are made strong, alert and aware of their equal status
in the society. Policies should be framed to bring them into the mainstream of society. It is
important to educate the women. The need of the hour is to improve female literacy as
education holds the key to development.

Empowerment would become more relevant if women are educated, better informed and can
take rational decisions. It is also necessary to sensitize the other sex towards women. It is
important to usher in changes in societal attitudes and perceptions with regard to the role of
women in different spheres of life. Adjustments have to be made in traditional gender specific
performance of tasks. A woman needs to be physically healthy so that she is able to take
challenges of equality. But it is sadly lacking in a majority of women especially in the rural
areas. They have unequal access to basic health resources and lack adequate counseling. The
result is an increasing risk of unwanted and early pregnancies, HIV infection and other
sexually transmitted diseases. The greatest challenge is to recognize the obstacles that stand in
the way of their right to good health. To be useful to the family, community and the society,
women must be provided with health care facilities.

Most of the women work in agricultural sector either as workers, in household farms or as
wageworkers. Yet it is precisely livelihood in agriculture that has tended to become more
volatile and insecure in recent years and women cultivators have therefore been negatively
affected. The government's policies for alleviating poverty have failed to produce any
desirable results, as women do not receive appropriate wages for their labour. There is also
significant amount of unpaid or non-marketed labor within the household. The increase in
gender disparity in wages in the urban areas is also quite marked as it results from the
employment of women in different and lower paying activities. They are exploited at various
levels. They should be provided with proper wages and work at par with men so that their
status can be elevated in society.

In recent years there have been explicit moves to increase women's political participation. The
Women's reservation policy bill is however a very sad story as it is repeatedly being scuttled
in parliament. In the Panchayati Raj system, however, women have been given representation
as a sign of political empowerment. There are many elected women representatives at the
village council level. However their power is restricted, as it the men who wield all the
authority. Their decisions are often over-ruled by the government machinery. It is crucial to
train and give real power to these women leaders so that they can catalyst change in their
villages regarding women. All this shows that the process of gender equality and women's
empowerment still has a long way to go and may even have become more difficult in the
recent years.

The main reason for the contradiction is that, targeted schemes tend to have only limited
impact when the basic thrust of development is not reaching an average woman, making her
life more fragile and vulnerable. To make a positive change basic infrastructure should be
provided in every village and city. To begin with, providing safe drinking water supply and
better sanitation not only directly improved the lives and health of women but also reduces
their workload in terms of provisioning and ensuring such facilities. An access to affordable
cooking fuel reduces the need to travel long distances in search of fuel wood. Improved
transport connecting villages with each other and with towns can also directly improve living
conditions as well as unpaid labour time spent in transporting household items. It can also
lead to access to a wider range of goods and services plus a better access to health facilities.
Expenditure on food subsidy and better provisions for public distribution services directly
affects the lives of women and girl children in terms of adequate nutrition. The patterns of
 resource mobilization by government also have significant effects on women that are usually
not recognized. When taxes are regressive and fall disproportionately on items of mass
consumption, once again these tend to affect women more. This is not only because the
consumption of such items may be curtailed but also because the provisioning of such items is
frequently considered to be the responsibility of the women of the household. Also credit
policies reduce the flow of credit to small-scale enterprises thus reducing the employment
opportunities for women. There is a need to have women-friendly economic policies that can
enhance their social and economic position and make them self-reliant.

There is no doubt about the fact that development of women has always been the central
focus of planning since Independence. Empowerment is a major step in this direction but it
has to be seen in a relational context. A clear vision is needed to remove the obstacles to the
path of women's emancipation both from the government and women themselves. Efforts
should be directed towards all round development of each and every section of Indian women
by giving them their due share.

NAME OF SOME ORGANISATION WHICH HELPS IN WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

 Joint Women's Programme - NGOs Delhi

National Council of Women In India

Centre for Women's Development Studies 

Committee on the Portrayal of Women in the Media

\
Institute of Social Studies Trust

The YWCA of India  - NGOs Delhi

network of 7 women's organistions based in Delhi and works together with them on common
issues. 

National Commission of Women

All India Coordinating Forum of the Adivasi/Indigenous Peoples (AICAIP) 

Diverse Women for Diversity

Women's Foundation 

Centre for Social Research

Centre for Women's Development Studies

Saheli: A Women's Organisation

Sakhi: Lesbian Organisation

Kali for Women

(Feminist Publisher) 

Centre for Women's Studies and Development

Rajasthan
Social Work and Research Centre: 
Network for Self-reliance of the rural poor

SEWA (women and work) 

Center for Health Education, Training and Nutrition Awareness (CHETNA) 

Centre for Social Justice: Feminist Support Group. 

Single Women's Organisation: Networking Organisation. 

Women's Studies Research Centre

Women and Media Group