CHILD-REARING PRACTICES

Judy (2000) quotes, “Child-rearing practices is a generalized term used to

refer to characteristic ways of handling or dealing with one’s children”. According
to Bouchard (1994) child-rearing practices are the “transmission of the tradition,
beliefs, culture and cognitive actions from parents to the off springs”. It is the
biggest, tricky, and most important business, parents are engaged in all over the
world without much of empirical confirmations.

Child rearing is one of the most critical responsibilities held by the adult
population in any society to assist the next generation to grow and develop to
become able bodies, healthy and responsible citizens of the society, they live in. It
is one of those activities that are highly influenced by the culture of the society, in
which the person lives. Each individual belongs not only to a society but also to a
sub-sect of that society. Interestingly, even sub-sects have their own idiosyncratic
cultural practices that reflect the manner in which they care for and train their
children.

Child-rearing practices have long-term effects on the development of the

children. Children brought up by different cultural groups indicate clear differences
in development even though they tend to fall in the normal range of development
for human-beings. Child-rearing practices and child care in every society occurs in
accordance with the cultural norms of the society. In most societies, however,
child-rearing practices and child care share common values: the preservation of life
and maintenance of health and well-being of children.

“infant care and feeding practices represent the beginning of socialization.

This socialization is deemed to begin before children develop verbal skills. The
pregnant women and young children are considered very vulnerable to society and
precautions are taken during and after pregnancy to avoid complications. From
very young age, rituals are performed with children which are intended to socialize
them.

Elaborate care is taken with children’s spiritual development until a child

speaks and runs, demonstrating physical independence. There are many food
prescriptions and prohibitions for women. This is a period of postpartum
abstinence. The father is perceived to have important role in the healthy
development of the child and his behavior is perceived to affect the child’s health.
Children and mothers are very close to each other until weaning which is basic and
essential for social interactions.”

Liamputtong (2007) mentioned “there is limited literature on child rearing

and infant care from a cross-cultural perspective suggests marked cultural
differences concerning the practices and beliefs of infant care. Differences in the
value system between two societies will make impact on how parents socialize
their children and the way they take care of their children.

In most cultures, the way mothers and others look after their
infants/children are linked to the moral values of motherhood within the culture.
He had given a few examples based on study of “Hmong” (an ethnic group found
in the mountain region of China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand) culture. Children in
Hmong culture are regarded as prosperity of the family, therefore having children
is highly desirable. Hmong women are expected to be able to produce many
children.

They consider sons are more important than daughters since sons care for
family altar, feed the ancestors and carry on the “Dab Q huas” (the clan spirit) to
the next generation. This ensures the continuation of family and clan. At a
psychological level, children are loved and bring joy to their mothers and family.
This is reflected in their child-rearing practices.” Proper child rearing is very
important since it influences development and behavior of children. Child rearing
is the process of taking care of and raising children. If it is not done properly due to
ignorance and poverty, it may result into innumerable problems for the family and
the society.

Child-rearing practices are related to child’s upbringing and it is imperative

for every parent to give proper attention to it since it affects a child’s adequate
growth and development. Improper diet, unsanitary or poorly ventilated house,
inadequate sleep, unguided or badly planned play activities, lack of medical care,
etc. may become hindrance in natural growth and progress. The child’s diet is
especially significant in its effect upon physical growth. Malnutrition affects the
child’s physical growth. It is a problem commonly seen in the rural area. The kind
of diet the child receives is more important than the amount of food he eats. A
child becomes a “human” being by living with other human being. The earliest
years are most crucial in the development of personality, adjustment, and the
emotional-social relationship. Without the environment, the child could not even
maintain himself at birth. Hence it is the environment in which the child grows and
it can accelerate or retard the child’s motor, physical, mental, social and emotional
development.

A supportive home environment is one where parents are sensitive and

responsive to the developmental needs of the child. Both heredity and environment
plays important role in the life of any individual. Environment has a profound
influence on the growth and development of the child. Even with good heredity,
normal development does not come automatically to men.

Both before and after birth, heredity potentialities can unfold only if the
environment, he is largely helpless in coping with it and needs a great deal of help
from his parents. “Many psychologists believe that the first six years of a person’s
life are the most important. They emphasize effect of physical conditions and
cultural pattern of home on the type of attitudes and the behavior which are being
developed in the child.

The manner in which parents satisfy the child’s needs, their attitudes
towards him, and the environment also influence their behavior. Gradually, the
child learns to react in more or less to the patterns of behavior that are peculiar to
the culture into which he has been born. Several studies have been made of the
effects upon the child of the culture in which he is reared.

The differences that exist in behavior of children reared in different cultures

seem to be the result of the culture themselves rather than of the native constitution
of the individuals. Both biological inheritance and acculturation exerts a potent
influence upon an individual’s integrated personality.

The kind of personality an individual eventually acquires is rooted in ways

in which he develops physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially during the
childhood” (Crow & Crow, 1956). The first group in the experience of a child is
his mother. Mother occupies key role in child-rearing practices. She represents the
whole world to her infant. She has a major role in rearing children. She along with
other family members provides proper environment for the proper growth and
development of children. Environment here includes nutrition, sanitation, health
etc.. Mother is sensitive and responsive to the needs of the child and organizes the
environment for the child. Mother’s sensitivity and responsivity are the key factors
that determine further growth and development of child. She needs to properly
organize the physical and temporal environment for the child’s social and
emotional well-being.

Mother is the most important person in a baby’s life for both his/her
physical as well as his/her psychological care and growth. The mother-infant
relationship is the most vital formative relationship for the child. From the very
first moment of life, a child begins interacting with his/her mother. Thus, mother’s
health, her education, her beliefs and attitudes regarding child rearing are important
milestones on the road of child’s health right from the pregnancy period.

She is required to play the main role in promoting and supporting the
physical, emotional, social and intellectual development of a child. From the
beginnings of human history, documenting child-rearing practices was considered
an important way to understand the socialization practices of the society. In the
Indian context where there are wide ranges of differences, documentation of this
information is even more relevant since it adds to the knowledge based on the
socialization practices of a country.

Naseem (1991) studied cross-cultural child-rearing practices and their

effects on the personality development of children reared in Peshawar (Pakistan)
and Nairobi (Kenya) environment. The main differences in child rearing
techniques were studied. The result revealed that “Kenyan mothers preferred
breast-feeding more as compared to Pakistani mothers. Bottle feeding, on the other
hand, was less preferred by Kenyan mothers as compared to Pakistani mothers. In
both the cultural groups, a higher percentage of mothers belonging to joint family
system preferred bottle feeding in contrast to nuclear family system. They further
revealed that a high percentage of Pakistani mothers weaned and toilet trained their
children earlier as compared to Kenyan mothers.” According to Silverstein (1991),
“growing children should be provided opportunities for realization of his
potentialities with love and affection, socially acceptable behavior such as toilet
training, eating, sleeping and social etiquettes are taught at an early age as soon as
child starts comprehending few verbal expressions.” [6] There are three major
aspects of child rearing- (i) Child care (ii) Child discipline (iii) General Child
rearing attitude.

(i) Child Care: Child care includes feeding, weaning, toilet training and bed-
habit training etc.. Mothers are crucial for the development of children. Hence, it is
imperative, that a mother should know when her child can be trained to use toilet,
be able to eat meals, play alone, etc.. As a child grows and begins to walk around
in a faltering manner, he starts to pull down anything that is within his reach and as
a mother a woman has to cope patiently with the phase of child development. The
care a child receives is directly dependent on the knowledge, perception, abilities,
skills and motivation of the mother. Mother’s involvement is the key factor in
child’s emotional development. She should respond to child vocalization. She has
to speak to the child and teach the words and praise when needed, embrace, hug
and express that she has affection towards him. Verma & Khadi (2000)
emphasized that “a conducive home environment for infants and young children is
necessary for their development. Mother needs to properly organize physical and
temporal environment for the child’s social and emotional well-being. Working
mothers should leave her baby under the supervision of a substitutive figure who
should provide adequate care and who can cater to the emotional and social needs
of the child. A sibling cannot provide the adequate care. The child needs to be
taken to clinics regularly for health check-ups. The child’s play environment needs
to be safe and free from hazards. Further, mother needs to keep the child within the
visual range and look at him often to ensure safety and some kind of inter personal
contact with him. Mother should provide toys that will encourage and foster further
development. Father also should provide some care- giving every day. Parental
involvement is very necessary. Utmost care needs to be taken to provide safety at
home. The child needs to be under constant supervision till he can safeguard
himself.”

(ii) Child Discipline: Discipline is the process of teaching child what type of
behavior is acceptable and what type of behavior is not acceptable. In other words,
discipline teaches a child to follow rules. Discipline may involve both punishment
and rewards. There may be some children who are disrespectful and do not listen
to their parents. There may be some who listen, but defy or deliberately disobey.
The discipline techniques which parents choose may depend on the type of
inappropriate behavior the child displays, child’s age, child’s temperament and
parental style. A few techniques may be followed by parents to encourage child for
his/her good behavior. If child does not follow instructions, time outs often work
better with younger kids for whom separation from parents is truly seen as a
deprivation. This time out discipline can work when the child is old enough to
understand the purpose of time out. Physical punishments like to open hand,
spanking, is common but not recommended since it may result to make children
more aggressive and violent and may harm a child. The techniques are such to fit
well with the child’s temperament. Before disciplining the child, it is necessary for
the parents to know whether the child really understands what the parents expect
him to do. “Many believe that physical punishment, when used appropriately, can
be effective form of discipline, despite the studies which show such punishment to
be associated with unwanted behavioral outcomes” (Litzow & Silverstein, 2008).
Discipline plays an important part in child rearing. It helps the child to develop an
understanding of right and wrong behavior. It is necessary for molding the
character, personality, talents and emotional and physical well-being of the child.
Parental involvement becomes necessary.

Hence, a proper guidance of the parents to the children becomes essential so

that they grow, develop and respond to life in a positive way, gain control over
emotions, learn self-discipline, solve problems, gain independence and interact
with their peers in a positive manner. Claire (2012) has presented an overview of
child rearing around the world. He asserts that “in China, the discipline practices
are based on ancient ethics and belief that infants arrive from god with an
inherently good nature that is to be respected. This belief fosters interdependence
within families requiring that elders’ responsibility to teach, train, educate,
discipline and govern their children.

The Chinese conceptualize childhood as two distinct periods called “age of

innocence” and the “age of understanding”. Chinese mothers nurture their children
and tend to fulfill their every need, often to an extent that would be considered the
lenient. This is because they believe that children lack cognitive competence at that
age. It is when children reach the “age of understanding” at around five to six years
that stricter methods and training are abruptly implemented. As a part of training,
there is an emphasis on culturally-approved behavior as well as academic
performance.”