PETROTECH-4

ASSIGNMENT

Name: Asma Zameer Chogle

Roll Number: 15
Date: October 2018

1
Q23. Explain the following:
a) Slippage as mechanical adjustments during folding
b) Flowage or stretching during folding
c) Drag folds

Answer:

a) Slippage as mechanical adjustments during folding

b) Flowage or stretching during folding

Slippage and Stretching.

As sedimentary formations are folded, various mechanical adjustments must take place
between upper and lower beds and between different portions of the fold. These adjustments
consist in part in slippage between beds, flowage of beds, and fracturing and faulting owing to
stretching at the anticlinal axes. The only way in which a fold can have the same shape
throughout a great vertical extent of strata is by flowage or by slippage of one bed over
another. If this slippage did not take place, the strata near the crest and near the surface would
be pulled apart by the stretching, with the result that faulting would take place and blocks
would drop down near the anticlinal crest. The common occurrence of such grabens near the
anticlinal axes shows that this stretching does occur in many instances. On the other hand, the
fact that many pronounced anticlines are not faulted shows that adjustments must be made by
slippage or flowage.

Adjustments by flowage consist in a thickening of the formations near the anticlinal and
synclinal axes and a thinning in the intervening flanks. The thinning and thickening occur chiefly
in the more incompetent or plastic formations. If some formations are strong and competent
and others weak and plastic, all the thinning and thickening may occur in the latter.

Where the adjustments are made by slippage between beds, the upper strata move toward the
anticlinal axis, relative to the lower strata. This movement is entirely of one bed compared with
another; actually, points in both beds tend to stay the same relative distances from the axial
plane. These conditions are brought out in Fig.1. HJ is the axial plane of the anticline

2
 Figure 1: Diagram illustrating reason for slippage of beds in folding.

Before folding, point B was directly over A, and E was directly over D. Hence when the beds
were lying flat before folding, a line from A at right angles to the bedding would pass through B
and a similar line from D would pass through E. After folding, a line at right angles to the
bedding from A would still pass through B and a similar line from D would pass through E, but
the original points at B and E can no longer be at positions B and E after folding. If they were,
the line along the bed EFCB would be so lengthened by the bending that the bed would be
broken up by faulting. Accordingly, the original points B and E have slipped over the underlying
bed to positions C and F, the same distance from the axial plane as the points which were
originally directly beneath them when the strata were flat. The result is that the upper beds slip
toward the anticlinal axis, relative to the lower. This movement is toward the anticlinal axis all
the way from the synclinal axis. The movement becomes zero at the anticlinal and synclinal
axes. The frequent occurrence of grabens near the crests of anticlines, and of normal faults
dipping toward the anticlines, shows that in many cases the slippage is not sufficient to
eliminate stretching near the anticlinal axis. Normal faulting of this type seems to be more
common where thick, incompetent strata are folded.

3
c) Drag Folds.

In any sedimentary sequence containing relatively rigid and plastic beds or formations, the
rocks which are more rigid, stronger, and less easily deformed are known as competent. The
incompetent beds are relatively soft, plastic, and easily bent. If a fold consists of competent and
incompetent strata, the slippage due to movement of the competent beds is likely to produce
drag folds in the incompetent strata between them. The general relations are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 also shows the relations of the drag folds to the major folds that produce
them. These drag folds are produced in the incompetent strata as the competent formations
slide over one another. The friction causes the axial planes of these drag folds to be oriented as
shown in Fig. 2. The acute angles which the axial planes of the drag folds make with the
strata point in the direction of the relative movement of the beds during slippage.

Figure 2: Cross section showing relation of drag folds to major folds

4
The principle that the younger bed moves upward toward the anticline, relative to the lower
bed, may be used to determine the top and bottom of vertical strata in which drag folds are
observed. The bed which moves relatively upward must be younger and at the top. This is
illustrated in Fig. 3. An exposure consists of vertical strata, containing two competent beds A
and B, with incompetent beds showing drag folds between them. The direction of the acute
angles of the drag folds show that bed B moved upward, relative to bed A. Bed B is therefore
the younger, and the top is at the right of the exposure. The lines extending above the surface
indicate the former position of beds A and B before they were eroded. The solid lines show the
correct interpretation, that the anticline was to the left. The interpretation shown by the
dashed lines is incorrect because it would have involved relative movements of A and B just the
opposite of those observed.

Figure 3: Cross section showing how drag folds may be used to determine top and bottom of
vertical strata.

Although drag folds may be used in this manner in working out the structure, the method is not
infallible. Furthermore, well-defined drag folds are commonly associated with intensely
deformed sediments, and are not common in oil fields.

5
Q24. What are drag folds? How are they produced? Explain with neat diagrams, how
drag folds are useful in determining true top of bed and also to interpret major
structures with which they are associated.

Answer:

Drag-folds (friction folds), are asymmetrical folds produced in the weaker beds by differential
movements of the more resistant rocks above and below them. They are disharmonic folds,
usually confined to definite zones or groups of rocks. The weaker strata, being unable to resist
the frictional stress of effect induced by the movements of stronger beds above and below
them are dragged into these overturned or asymmetrical minor folds, the axes of which lie at
right angles to the direction of movement. The sense of the movement is indicated by the
inclination of the axial planes or the regard of the folds: they are typical monoclinic structures.

In size, drag-folds may vary between wide limits, from small plications in thin beds, to folds one
of which may form the whole face of a mountain - as for example, some of the autochthonous
folds of the Alps.

The most common setting for drag-folds is on the flanks of major folds; they may also occur in
regions of thrust tectonics and where the gliding of an approximately horizontally stratified
rock-mass has taken place. Rarely they may be found in the vicinity of normal faults. They
denote a slipping movement parallel or subparallel to the stratification.

In an area of simple flexural folding, the drag-folds are predominantly the result of the slip on
the planes of stratification produced while the major structures were being formed. As has
already been pointed out, such slip results from the upper strata moving upwards towards
anticlinal hinges, relative to the lower strata. The regard or asymmetry of the minor plications
declares the sense of this relative movement between the various beds; examples are given in
numerous publications. In a simple fold having a horizontal axis, the movement will be directly
up the dip of the beds: the plane of symmetry will be vertical, and the axes of the minor folds
will be horizontal, parallel to the axis of the major fold. If the major fold is plunging, the axes of
drag-folds will plunge likewise. Consequently, by plotting the orientations of the axes of the
minor folds, one may obtain a picture of the behaviour of the major structure on whose flanks
they lie (Fig. 4).

6
 Figure 4: Drag-folds on a major fold, showing parallelism of plunge.

In regions where the major folds are overturned both limbs dip in the same general direction;
and the drag-folds, like cleavage, can be used to distinguish normal (right way up) limbs from
those which are inverted. If the upper beds have moved upwards, one is on the normal limb. If
the asymmetry of the minor folds indicates that the lower beds have relatively moved upwards,
the strata are inverted, and one is on the inverted limb of the fold (Fig. 5a).

When one is working on poorly-exposed ground, a reversal in the sense of movement of gently
plunging drag-folds commonly indicates that one has crossed the hidden hinge of a major fold.

In regions where shear folding, rather than flexural folding, is dominant, the development of
minor folds on the flanks of major folds becomes more complex. Such minor folds are no longer
true drag-folds, though they may have been initiated by the slip on stratification planes in the
early stages of the movement. With the formation of an axial-plane cleavage, and the growth of
the fold by compression normal to, and extension parallel to the cleavage, the original minor
flexures likewise become amplified. Their forms are too drawn out to be the result of drag
alone. It has also been demonstrated that these parasitic folds will only develop in true shear
folds when the limbs are at an angle of over 45° to the axial plane. Thus, it has accounted for
the presence of strong minor folding or crenulations in the hinge region of folds of this type. If

7
the limbs of the fold are closed to less than 45° to the axial plane, they will no longer fold, but
become attenuated or even boudins. Because many large folds are formed by a combination of
flexure-folding and shear-folding, it is probable that many parasitic folds may likewise be
produced by both mechanisms working together or in sequence. This results in the production
of minor folds which are compressed and drawn out, but which can still be used by the field
geologist in the same way as simple drag-folds (Figs 5b)

Figure 5: (a) Drag-folding on the overturned limb of a fold, Kopaonik Mountains, Jugoslavia. (b)
Isoclinal parasitic folds of a semipelitic schist band in mica schist. A syncline is known to lie to
the left of the sketch and an anticline to the right. Ross of Mull, Scotland

Minor folds which accord with the major-fold structure are said to obey 'Pumpelly's Rule' and
have been termed dependent drag-folds. Independent drag-folds are those which are the
product of some secondary movement, and so are not parallel to the main tectonic axes.

One common cause for the production of independent drag-folds is a horizontal movement
parallel to the planes of stratification in beds which are already steeply inclined. Such
movement may occur after the main regional folding has taken place, and the more or less
vertical strata become dragged into folds which have steep axial plunges.

8
The same mechanism may also result in the formation of a steeply inclined cleavage in the
rocks. Under these circumstances the plunges of the structures are controlled, not only by the
direction of the movements, but also by the dip of the beds affected.

Drag-folding of strata is also commonly associated with large thrusts. The minor fold-axes are
parallel to the b-direction of the major structure, and the asymmetry or regards of the folds
declare the sense of movement on the thrust. They may also be developed below such
structures as nappes, where the movement of the upper tectonic units has acted as a traineau
ecraseur (crushing sledge) on the rocks below. The autochthonous folding in the Alps can be
cited as an example. Overturned drag-folds occur in the Cambrian strata below the Moine
Thrust in north-west Scotland; there, because of the relatively brittle nature of the rocks, they
rapidly grade into minor thrusts and imbricate structure. The direction and the sense of the
Post-Cambrian movement on this great dislocation is shown not only by these structures, but
also by the stretching of pebbles and by the bending of annelid tubes - like a candle flame in a
draught.

Similar structures are also found in regions of gliding tectonics, where the main movements
have been the even sliding of the rocks along planes of stratification or of schistosity. Locally,
this even movement has been interrupted by the surfaces becoming corrugated and
asymmetrically folded. Under ordinary conditions these minor folds and corrugations are
oriented at right angles to the main movement; but in rocks where the deformation was one of
shear-folding it is quite possible that the symmetry of the minor structures is not in accord with
that of the major tectonic movement.

Individual drag-folds and parasitic folds, when traced along their lengths - in North Devon they
are popularly known as 'fossil trees' - behave like ordinary folds. They are more or less
cylindrical in their central portions but die out or become conical at their ends (Fig. 6). In
consequence the plunges of individual minor folds, when seen in profile, may not always be
parallel to that of the major structure; but if the plunges of several minor folds be measured,
the statistical average will, in general, closely accord with the plunge of the major structure.

In general, we can say that the minor disharmonic asymmetrical folds - drag-folds and parasitic
folds - which are found in rocks, can normally be used as indications of the direction and sense
of local differential rock-movement. In a folded terrain they commonly indicate the order of the
stratigraphical succession; but in zones of thrusting this is not true. Gently-plunging minor folds
are commonly parallel to the major tectonic axes. Steeply-plunging folds suggest secondary
horizontal slip on beds which were already steeply inclined, or possibly the upturning of early
gently-plunging folds by a later movement.

9
 Figure 6: Parasitic drag-folds crossed by tension gashes and plunging parallel to the major
structure

Nevertheless, there are exceptions to the general rules, and care must be taken here, as
elsewhere, in extrapolating from the minor structures to the major - especially when working in
regions of highly metamorphosed rocks, or where tectonic movements of different ages may
have been active.

Q25. Write notes on:

a) Drag folds in relation to major fold

b) Competent and Incompetent rocks

Answer:

a) Drag folds in relation to major fold

In any sedimentary sequence containing relatively rigid and plastic beds or formations, the
rocks which are more rigid, stronger, and less easily deformed are known as competent. The

10
incompetent beds are relatively soft, plastic, and easily bent. If a fold consists of competent and
incompetent strata, the slippage due to movement of the competent beds is likely to produce
drag folds in the incompetent strata between them. The general relations are shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 also shows the relations of the drag folds to the major folds that produce
them. These drag folds are produced in the incompetent strata as the competent formations
slide over one another. The friction causes the axial planes of these drag folds to be oriented as
shown in Fig. 7. The acute angles which the axial planes of the drag folds make with the
strata point in the direction of the relative movement of the beds during slippage.

Figure 7: Cross section showing relation of drag folds to major folds.

11
The principle that the younger bed moves upward toward the anticline, relative to the lower
bed, may be used to determine the top and bottom of vertical strata in which drag folds are
observed. The bed which moves relatively upward must be younger and at the top. This is
illustrated in Fig. 8. An exposure consists of vertical strata, containing two competent beds A
and B, with incompetent beds showing drag folds between them. The direction of the acute
angles of the drag folds show that bed B moved upward, relative to bed A. Bed B is therefore
the younger, and the top is at the right of the exposure. The lines extending above the surface
indicate the former position of beds A and B before they were eroded. The solid lines show the
correct interpretation, that the anticline was to the left. The interpretation shown by the
dashed lines is incorrect because it would have involved relative movements of A and B just the
opposite of those observed.

Figure 8: Cross section showing how drag folds may be used to determine top and bottom of
vertical strata.

Although drag folds may be used in this manner in working out the structure, the method is not
infallible. Furthermore, well-defined drag folds are commonly associated with intensely
deformed sediments, and are not common in oil fields.

12
b) Competent and Incompetent rocks
Competence refers to the degree of resistance of rocks to either erosion or deformation in
terms of relative mechanical strength.

Incompetent rocks flow or fold with relative ease. They tend to be comparatively soft or plastic.
Competent beds are relatively more rigid and offer more resistance to bending or flowing.
Characteristics which make a rock competent are hardness, rigidity, massive rather than thin-
bedded nature, resistance to fracturing, and ease of healing fractures by cementation. Shales,
clays, gypsum, anhydrite, and salt are generally incompetent. Massive limestones, dolomites,
and quartzites are competent. Sandstones, if massive and well cemented, may also be
competent.

Whether a rock is regarded as competent or incompetent is determined more by comparison

with adjacent rocks than by its absolute hardness or plasticity. Competent rocks conform to the
larger folds of the region. Incompetent strata are affected by minor crumplings and drag folds.
These small folds may cause mistakes in working out the structure unless their nature is
realized. In areas of intense deformation even the most competent beds may be crumpled and
sharply bent, but oil is rarely found in association with such structures.

Competent rocks are more commonly exposed at outcrop as they tend to form upland areas
and high cliffs or headlands, where present on a coastline. Incompetent rocks tend to form
lowlands and are often poorly exposed at the surface. The relative competence of rocks may
change with temperature, such as in metamorphosed limestones, which are relatively
competent at low metamorphic grade but become highly incompetent at high metamorphic
grade.

Q26. How do folds behave with depth? Explain with neat figures, the method to find
out depth of folding, commenting on limitations of the method.

Answer:

Change in Size of Folds with Depth

The question of the continuity of a fold with depth is perhaps even more important than the dip
of its axial plane. Many folds get neither much larger nor much smaller with depth. A number of
folds grow steeper and more pronounced with depth. A few grow smaller with depth and
eventually die out. It is often difficult or impossible to determine in advance of drilling to which

13
of these classes a fold belongs. A few general observations may, however, be of some
assistance. Where the regional convergence is known, its effect on the closure of folds with
depth may be predicted in advance of drilling. In southeastern Oklahoma the interval between
the middle Pennsylvanian and the Ordovician increases toward the southeast at a rate of about
250 ft per mile. This has a very pronounced effect on the closure to be expected on surface
anticlines in the deeper formations.

Figure 9: Structure of Garrison field, Okfuskee county, Okla., at various horizons. The
geologic column at the right shows the relative positions of the horizons contoured. D is
the difference between A and C, and may be considered to be a structure-contour map at the
time of the deposition of the top of the Calvin series.

14
Figs. 9 and 10 illustrate this. Fig. 9 shows structure maps at three different levels of the fold on
which the Garrison field, Oklahoma, is located. There is no closure on the uppermost horizon,
while on the lowest there is 200 ft of closure. Fig. 10 shows how the same fold will appear as a
closed dome or as a terrace owing to the effect of convergence. The manner in which the effect
of convergence or regional thinning may be allowed for in changing the horizons on which the
structure contours are drawn has been described on earlier pages. Not all the increase in size of
folds with depth in regions of convergence is necessarily due to
the convergence. Much of it may be in some cases ascribed to the effect of repeated folding
with the same structural axes during the time interval between the deposition of the strata at
depth and that of the surface strata.

A fold is supratenuous if the folding continued during the deposition of the sediments which
are folded. If folding took place during the time gaps in sedimentation represented by
unconformities, there will be an angular unconformity and an increase in closure at the
unconformity. In many cases there is no way of determining from surface observations whether
the fold is supratenuous at depth or not. Measurements made of the exposed formations may,
it is true, show whether folding was going on when they were deposited, but the important
point is how much folding took place between the time when the prospective producing
formations were deposited and the time when the surface strata were laid down. In many
regions, however, it is already known that surface or shallow folds increase greatly in closure
with depth because of folding that is repeated along the same axes.

For example, in north central and northeastern parts of Oklahoma and adjacent portions of
Kansas small anticlines in the Pennsylvanian strata are very frequently underlain by very large
anticlines in Ordovician formations. In some regions it has been noted that all anticlines change
in a certain manner with depth. In others, the nature of the changes with depth is related to the
shape, size, or orientation of the shallow anticlines. Thus the results of drilling on anticlines in a
region may be used to predict the character at depth of the untested anticlines in the same
region.

It is known that some anticlines do die out with depth. Usually the information as to such
anticlines is meager, because they are very likely to be dry. If there are no wildcat wells in the
vicinity, the geologists in charge of the operation may not even know whether the test well ran
low or high on the deeper formations. In an area in which there has been considerable
wildcatting, it is usually known whether the test ran low or high. However, even when it is
known that the test ran low, there may be doubt as to whether this was because the anticlinal
axis shifted with depth or because the fold died out completely.

15
Figure 10: Cross section showing how convergence may cause change in closure and horizontal
shift of the crest of an anticline.

Usually it is not possible to plot a detailed section to show how the fold dies out with depth
unless production happens to be found at a lower horizon. It is not definitely known why some
anticlines persist with depth while others die out, and there seems to be no sure means of
determining which ones will die out. In general, the larger the area covered by a fold and
the larger its closure, the more likely it is to persist with depth. Salt domes and other folds due
to movement of a salt layer cannot persist below the layer from which the salt is derived.

Calculating depth of folding

A method of calculating the depth of folding has been described by Chamberlin.2 The principle
of this method is illustrated in Fig. 11. Let it be assumed that before folding the cross section of
the block of sediments constituted the rectangle ACDG, and that this rectangle has been
deformed by lateral pressure into the rectangle ABFE. If it is assumed that there is no change in
volume, these two rectangles have the same area. If GD is a stratum at the top of the original
rectangle before folding, it is represented after folding by the curved line from E to F. The
average elevation of this folded line is equal to the elevation of the straight line EF, and if the
curved line were straightened out its length would equal the line GD. Since the two rectangles
GEFH and BHDC have the same area, if GH, HF, and HD are known, FB, the assumed depth of
folding, can be calculated. HD is the shortening due to folding. GD, the length of the section
before folding, is determined by straightening out the curved line from E to F and adding to it

16
the heaves of the thrust faults, if any. EF is the present map distance between the two ends of
the cross section. GD — EF = HD, the shortening. The height of uplift, HF, is the difference
between the average elevation of the key bed where it is undeformed, and its average
elevation where it is deformed.

Figure 11: Cross section to illustrate principle of method for calculating depth of folding.

Because EF x FH = HD x DC,

𝐷𝐶 =

17
Since all these lengths can be determined except DC, it is possible to determine the depth of
folding, if all the assumptions are correct. The important points to be remembered about this
method are the assumptions on which it is based and the evidence for and against them. One
fundamental assumption is that there is a definite base at which folding stops. This is true only
where folding is bounded downward by a thrust fault or decollement. Another assumption is
that the uplift of the average position of the key horizon in the deformed area is due to folding.
This is frequently not the case where the deformed area is very large. In such cases the general
elevation may be determined by isostasy. It is also in many cases very difficult to determine
with reasonable accuracy the difference in average elevation of the key horizon before and
after folding. Furthermore, the final elevation may be determined by faulting or by broad
upwarps that have nothing to do with folding. This method would be very useful to petroleum
geologists if it could determine how far down a given anticline would persist. It is sometimes
very difficult or impossible to find out in advance of drilling whether or not a promising surface
anticline continues down to the horizons where production is expected. Unfortunately, it does
not appear that this method of calculating depth of folding is generally useful in such cases. The
conditions under which it can be used accurately seem to be limited to decollements. The
discussion of this method is given in detail to show how a structural theory should be criticized,
and how it is affected by the various assumptions on which it is based.

Q27. State the characteristics of folds important to petroleum geologists and explain
with neat diagrams any two of them.

Answer:

The common occurrence of oil and gas fields on anticlines gives these folds a greater
importance than any other type. Among the properties of anticlines which are useful for
indicating their nature are length, breadth, height, shape, symmetry, and angle of dip. There
are in addition several characteristics of anticlines which have a special bearing on their value
as potential producing structures. The most important of these characteristics are closure and
closed area.

18
a) Closure
The closure is the total amount of dip away from the crest of an anticline in the direction in
which the dip is least. If the structure-contour interval were infinitely small, it could also be
defined as the difference in elevation between the highest structure contour on the anticline
and the lowest structure which completely surrounds it. The anticline would have no closure if
there were no areas on it completely surrounded by some of these structure contours.

Figure 12: Structure contour map showing how closure of anticline is estimated.

19
 Of course synclines may have closure also, but because oil and gas production is rarely found in
them there is comparatively little interest in the closure of synclines. The rules for determining
the closure of anticlines apply in reverse to determining the closure of synclines. If an
impervious layer is assumed to have exactly the same configuration as the key horizon on which
the structure contours are drawn, and if water is poured into depressions in this impervious
layer until the water overflows, then the depth of the water in these structural depressions is
equal to their closure.

Figure 13: Cross-section showing how closure of anticline is estimated.

Figs. 12 and 13 show how the closure of an anticline may be estimated from a structure map.
The anticline extends from A to B with a closed area in the vicinity of X and a saddle at Y. The
closure is clearly the difference in elevation along the axis AB from the crest of the anticline
near X to the bottom of the saddle at Y. The structure-contour map indicates that the key bed
rises to between 500 and 600 ft elevation near X and descends to between 300 and 400 ft
elevation near Y, but the map does not show the exact position of the key bed between the
structure contours. The reason for this uncertainty is shown in Fig. 13. At the crest near point X
the highest possible position of the key bed is just below 600 ft elevation, as shown by the
dotted line, and the lowest possible position just above 500 ft as shown by the dashed line.
Similarly, in the saddle at Y the highest possible position is just below 400 ft elevation, shown
by the dashed line, and the lowest just above 300 ft, shown by the dotted line. Hence the

20
minimum possible value of the closure is 100 ft, and the maximum possible 300 ft. The most
reasonable or likely value would seem to be halfway between the two extremes, which would
give a closure of 200 ft. The position of the key bed which would give a closure of 200 ft is
shown by the solid line in Fig. 13.

The principle that the closure is halfway between the maximum and minimum values gives the
rule that the closure is equal to the number of structure contours completely enclosing the
closed area times the structure-contour interval. The fact that the uncertainty is always twice
the structure-contour interval should not be forgotten. It is evident that the ratio of the
uncertainty or range in possible values to the closure decreases as more structure contours
encircle the closed area. If only one structure contour surrounds the closed area, the
uncertainty is twice as large as the estimated closure.

Figure 14: Structure contour map showing how estimation of closure is affected by configuration
of structure contours at point of closure.

There are some exceptions to the rule given in the last paragraph. It is sometimes possible to
make a better estimate of the elevation of the key bed at the top of the structure and at the
point of closure than by assuming that these elevations are halfway between the elevations of

21
the nearest structure contours. The point of closure is the point at which the closure is
determined. It is where the key horizon reaches its lowest point along the axis in the saddle
which establishes the closure. This point of closure is at Y in Figs. 12 and 13 and at C in Fig. 14.
The configuration of the structure contours suggests that in Fig. 14 the elevation of the key
horizon at the top of the closed area would be about 720 ft, not 750, and at the point of closure
about 490 ft, and not 450. Thus the closure in this case would be estimated as 230 ft, and not
300 ft., as it would be according to the rule.

b) Closed Area
The closed area is the area covered by the portion of the anticline which is closed. If the
structure-contour interval were infinitely small, the area surrounded by the lowest structure
contour would be the closed area. In a structure map with ordinary structure-contour intervals,
there would be some uncertainty about the exact position of the boundary of the closed area.
Thus in Fig. 12 it is assumed that at the point of critical closure, Y, the key bed is at an elevation
halfway between the next structure contour below and above, or 350 ft. The closed area would
therefore be bounded by a structure contour at an elevation of 350 ft, which is shown by the
dashed line, and which would presumably cross the anticlinal axis at a point midway between
the points where the two 400-ft structure contours cross it, and would pass around the closed
area midway between the 300- and 400-ft structure contours.

Q28. Explain oil and gas production in relation to closure and closed area.
Answer:
The closures and closed areas of anticlines are their most important characteristics for
determining their prospective value for oil and gas production. In advance of the drill, a
geologist does not know the relative proportions of oil, gas, and water in a reservoir, though he
may be able to make rough estimates from conditions found in drilling other structures in the
region. If the amount of oil or gas is very small compared with the volume of the reservoir, only
the highest part of the reservoir in the closed area may contain oil or gas. If relatively large
volumes of oil or gas reach the reservoir, the whole of the closed area may be filled. Since it is
possible that the whole of the closed area may produce, it is generally advisable to lease it in
advance of drilling, provided that the leases can be obtained on reasonable terms.
In general, the promise and value of a structure increases with the amount of closure. One
reason why a structure with large closure is better than one with small closure is that there is
more chance that it persists to great depths. Possibly the steep dips associated with large
closures are better traps for oil or gas than the gentle dips associated with small closures.

22
 Figure 15: Cross section along the anticlinal axis through a close dome on an anticline.
However, the most important factor in making the closure so important is the relation between
the closure and the thickness of the producing zone. Where the reservoir dips at a low angle, a
given producing zone cannot be thicker than the reservoir in which it occurs, but it may be
much thinner. If a reservoir is 200 ft thick, only the upper 10 ft of it may produce oil or gas in a
given well, the remaining portion being filled with water. The terms "oil column," "gas column,"
and "productive relief" have been introduced to describe the difference in elevation between

23
the top and bottom of the producing zones. These terms are used where the producing zones
are underlain by water in part of the reservoir, and where the reservoir contains water down
the dip. They are illustrated by Fig. 15, which is a cross section showing a series of four reservoir
rocks, W, X, Y, and Z, folded into an anticline. It is assumed that the vertical cross section
coincides with the axial plane of the fold.
The closure is determined in the saddle along the line AB. The amount of closure is the
difference in elevation of the top of the various reservoir rocks along the line AB and at the
crest of the anticline along the line CD. The elevation of each of the reservoir rocks at the crest
of the anticline and the elevation of each of the fluid contacts have been projected horizontally
to the left to the line AB, and the points at which these lines intersect the line AB are
designated by letters. Thus the top of the reservoir W is at point 0 on the crest of the anticline,
and this point has been projected horizontally along the line OE to point E on line AB. Similarly,
point F is the horizontal projection of the fluid contact at P on line AB.
The height of the oil zones in reservoirs W, X, Y, and Z is respectively FE, IG, LK, and NM, and the
height of the gas zone in reservoir Y is KJ. It is evident from this figure that the height of the oil
zone plus the height of the gas zone may equal the closure, but would not exceed it. Where the
closure is greater than the thickness of the reservoir rock, and where the closed area is all
productive, the thickness of the producing zone in any well is limited by the thickness of the
reservoir rock. On the other hand, where the reservoir rock is thicker than the amount of
closure, and the closed area is completely filled with oil or gas, the maximum thickness of the
producing zone is limited by the amount of closure, as in reservoir Z, Fig. 15.

24
Q29. State the characteristics of folds important to petroleum geologist and explain
with neat figures cross folding and multiple axes in relation to closure.

Answer:
The common occurrence of oil and gas fields on anticlines gives these folds a greater
importance than any other type. Among the properties of anticlines which are useful for
indicating their nature are length, breadth, height, shape, symmetry, and angle of dip. There
are in addition several characteristics of anticlines which have a special bearing on their value
as potential producing structures. They are:
i) Closure
ii) Closed Area
iii) Cross folding and multiple axes in relation to closure
iv) Reversal
v) Character of anticline after subtracting regional dip
vi) Determining dips of Axial and Crestal planes
vii) Change in size of folds with depth

Cross-folding and Multiple Axes in Relation to Closure.

It is quite common for two or more folds to intersect, producing what is known as cross-folding.
Cross-folding is of considerable importance in petroleum geology, because of the fact that
domes or closures are likely to be produced where two anticlines intersect. Each fold has an
axis, and it may be advisable for special reasons to show all the axes on a structure map. The
anticlinal axes are illustrated in Fig. 16. The anticlinal axis AB is clearly cut by the minor
anticlinal axis FE, producing a closure or dome with its crest at C. The anticlinal axes ON and AB
may be considered to be intersected by the minor anticline IK, producing domes at G and D. It is
evident that whether cross folds are considered to be present or not depends somewhat on the
point of view and on what it is desired to emphasize. Geologists looking at the structure map of
the anticline ON might not think of it as the result of cross-folding unless there were some
special reason to bring out this aspect. At F there is an irregular or ameboid structure with
several anticlinal axes radiating from it. It should be noted that the point of closure may not be
on the major axis of the anticline. The point of closure of the anticline JK is at M, on the
insignificant anticlinal axis LM. There is always a saddle at the point of closure.

25
Figure 16: Structure map showing anticlinal axes.

26
Q30. State the characteristics of folds important to petroleum geologists and define
regional dip and reversal. Explain the concept of regional dip and reversal,
describing how you would calculate these parameters.

Answer:
The common occurrence of oil and gas fields on anticlines gives these folds a greater
importance than any other type. Among the properties of anticlines which are useful for
indicating their nature are length, breadth, height, shape, symmetry, and angle of dip. There
are in addition several characteristics of anticlines which have a special bearing on their value
as potential producing structures. They are:
i) Closure
ii) Closed Area
iii) Cross folding and multiple axes in relation to closure
iv) Reversal
v) Character of anticline after subtracting regional dip
vi) Determining dips of Axial and Crestal planes
vii) Change in size of folds with depth

Reversal
Reversal is dip opposite to the regional dip. Except along faults, a reversal always implies an
anticline, the position of the anticlinal axis being in the direction of the regional dip from the
reversal. All closed anticlines have a reversal at least as great as the closure, but an anticline
without closure may have a large reversal. The surface geologist, in making a reconnaissance
for structures suitable for testing, searches particularly for reversals, because in some cases
they are the most conspicuous indications of the presence of a closed structure.
In general, the larger the reversal, the more promising the anticline. An anticline with 20 ft of
closure and 200 ft of reversal would in general be more promising than an anticline with 20 ft of
closure and 20 ft of reversal.
Two steps are necessary to determine the reversal of anticlines. The first is to determine the
direction of the regional dip. Until this is done, it is generally impossible to estimate the
reversal. After the direction of the regional dip is determined, each anticline in the area under
consideration is examined to determine where it has the greatest amount of dip in the opposite
direction. The anticline AC in Fig. 17 shows the greatest dip opposite to the regional dip from A

27
to B. This dip amounts to 700 ft, while the closure of this anticline is 400 ft. The closure and
reversal of the anticline at K are both 300 ft. The anticline extending from F to G has no closure,
but shows 400 ft of reverse dip from H to I.

Figure 17: Structure map illustrating how reversal is calculated.

The direction of the regional dip is simply the general or average dip. It cannot be determined
accurately unless the structure map covers a large enough area to distinguish the general dip
from the dips produced by the individual folds.

28
Character of Anticline after Subtracting Regional Dip.

Figure 18: Map illustrating method of regional dip removal.

It occasionally becomes advisable to find out what the structure of a given area would be like if
the regional dip were removed. The way to remove the regional dip from a structure map is as
follows: First the regional dip and strike are determined. The regional strike is the direction in
which the strata are, on the average, level, when the whole area is taken under consideration.

29
The direction of the regional dip must be at right angles to this. The amount of regional dip is
computed by taking the average elevation of an area far down the dip and far up the dip, and
dividing the difference between these two by the component of the distance between them
which is at right angles to the regional strike. Lines are then drawn on the map parallel to the
regional strike with sufficient distance between them for the regional dip to amount to one
structure-contour interval. Thus if the structure-contour interval is 100 ft and the regional dip is
200 ft per mile, the lines will be half a mile apart.

One of these lines is given a number equal to the average elevation of the key horizon along the
line, and the other lines are lower in the direction of the regional dip and higher in the opposite
direction. The numbers of each line are higher or lower than the next by one structure-contour
interval. By means of these lines, the correction to be subtracted or added to any point to
eliminate the effect of regional dip can be estimated. The whole map is then divided into
squares of a suitable width. The elevation of the key horizon at the corner of each square and
the correction number are estimated, and the correction number is subtracted from the
elevation. The remainder is then contoured. The result is a structure-contour map with the
regional dip eliminated.

This method is illustrated in Fig. 18. The solid lines are structure contours, indicating a regional
dip to the north at a rate of 100 ft per mile. An anticline with around 50 to 100 ft of closure is
shown. The dotted lines are contours on the amount of correction. By means of
these lines and the structure contours, it is possible to estimate at any point on the map both
the elevation of the key bed and the amount of correction needed to eliminate the regional dip.
In order to get enough corrected values to draw structure contours, squares 1 mile in width
were drawn on the map. The elevation of the key horizon and the amount of correction are
estimated at the corner of each square; the correction is subtracted from the elevation of the
key horizon and the remainder plotted at the corner of each square. When these values are
contoured, the heavy dashed lines of Fig. 18 are obtained. These lines show the structure with
the regional dip eliminated. Evidently eliminating the regional dip increases the closure of the
anticline from 50 to 100 ft to about 200 ft and moves the crest of the anticline about 2 or 2.5
miles north. If the regional dip originated after the folding, the heavy dashed lines show the
anticline as it was before the formation of the regional dip.
There are several situations in which it is desirable to know how an anticline would look with
the regional dip eliminated. It may be known from regional studies that the regional dip and the
folds on it were formed at entirely different times. For example, the anticlines might have
developed in the Pennsylvanian, while the tilting that caused the regional dip may have
occurred in the Pliocene. Under these conditions, a map of the structure with regional dip
eliminated is needed to show where the oil and gas would have accumulated from the
Pennsylvanian to the Pliocene. If the crest of the anticline was in a different position in pre-
Pliocene time, the oil might have been sealed in the former crest by reactions with the connate

30
water. The walls of the pores may have absorbed substances from the oil while it was in its
earlier position. This may give the reservoir different properties where it contained oil in pre-
Pliocene time from those found where it contained oil only after the Pliocene tilting.

Q31. What is regional dip? Explain with a structure contour map, how you would
remove regional dip. Comment on character of anticline after subtracting regional
dip.
Answer:
Regional dip is a characteristic of strata over a great area. It is characterized by dips in about
the same direction and amount over a great area. Of course the amount of dip may be quite
different in horizons separated by great thicknesses of strata, but the dip at the same horizon is
more or less uniform. It is the average dip over a great area. It is generally recognized that
the regional dip may be interrupted by local folds. Some local irregularities are seen due to
folding.
It occasionally becomes advisable to find out what the structure of a given area would be like if
the regional dip were removed. The way to remove the regional dip from a structure map is as
follows: First the regional dip and strike are determined. The regional strike is the direction in
which the strata are, on the average, level, when the whole area is taken under consideration.
The direction of the regional dip must be at right angles to this. The amount of regional dip is
computed by taking the average elevation of an area far down the dip and far up the dip, and
dividing the difference between these two by the component of the distance between them
which is at right angles to the regional strike. Lines are then drawn on the map parallel to the
regional strike with sufficient distance between them for the regional dip to amount to one
structure-contour interval. Thus if the structure-contour interval is 100 ft and the regional dip is
200 ft per mile, the lines will be half a mile apart.
One of these lines is given a number equal to the average elevation of the key horizon along the
line, and the other lines are lower in the direction of the regional dip and higher in the opposite
direction. The numbers of each line are higher or lower than the next by one structure-contour
interval. By means of these lines, the correction to be subtracted or added to any point to
eliminate the effect of regional dip can be estimated. The whole map is then divided into
squares of a suitable width. The elevation of the key horizon at the corner of each square and
the correction number are estimated, and the correction number is subtracted from the
elevation. The remainder is then contoured. The result is a structure-contour map with the
regional dip eliminated.

31
 Figure 19: Map illustrating method of regional dip removal.
This method is illustrated in Fig. 19. The solid lines are structure contours, indicating a regional
dip to the north at a rate of 100 ft per mile. An anticline with around 50 to 100 ft of closure is
shown. The dotted lines are contours on the amount of correction. By means of
these lines and the structure contours, it is possible to estimate at any point on the map both

32
the elevation of the key bed and the amount of correction needed to eliminate the regional dip.
In order to get enough corrected values to draw structure contours, squares 1 mile in width
were drawn on the map. The elevation of the key horizon and the amount of correction are
estimated at the corner of each square; the correction is subtracted from the elevation of the
key horizon and the remainder plotted at the corner of each square. When these values are
contoured, the heavy dashed lines of Fig. 19 are obtained. These lines show the structure with
the regional dip eliminated. Evidently eliminating the regional dip increases the closure of the
anticline from 50 to 100 ft to about 200 ft and moves the crest of the anticline about 2 or 2.5
miles north. If the regional dip originated after the folding, the heavy dashed lines show the
anticline as it was before the formation of the regional dip.
There are several situations in which it is desirable to know how an anticline would look with
the regional dip eliminated. It may be known from regional studies that the regional dip and the
folds on it were formed at entirely different times. For example, the anticlines might have
developed in the Pennsylvanian, while the tilting that caused the regional dip may have
occurred in the Pliocene. Under these conditions, a map of the structure with regional dip
eliminated is needed to show where the oil and gas would have accumulated from the
Pennsylvanian to the Pliocene. If the crest of the anticline was in a different position in pre-
Pliocene time, the oil might have been sealed in the former crest by reactions with the connate
water. The walls of the pores may have absorbed substances from the oil while it was in its
earlier position. This may give the reservoir different properties where it contained oil in pre-
Pliocene time from those found where it contained oil only after the Pliocene tilting.

Q32. Explain determination of dips of axial planes and crestal planes of folds.
Answer:
A geologist who makes a location on a structure for a test below horizons previously drilled
should always consider the possible effects of a shifting of the axial and crestal planes with
depth. The effects of shifting axes are more likely to be serious in steep folds than in those
which are gently dipping. In broad, flat-topped folds axial shifting does not produce as much
effect as in folds with sharper crests. If the anticlines are symmetrical, then the axial and crestal
planes are vertical. There are, in general, three types of folds in which the crests demonstrate a
horizontal shift with depth. One type consists in folds which have undergone two or more
periods of deformation. The strata at the depth at which production is expected may have been
folded before the deposition of the beds used to map the known structure. If there is no
relation at all between the axes of the earlier and the later folding, it would be misleading to
say that the axes of the folds were shifted with depth; it would be more precise to say that the

33
axes were different at depth. If, however, the axial planes of the earlier and the later folding
correspond fairly closely, but not exactly (as commonly happens), the effect will be that the
axial planes of the anticlines appear to be shifted in the deeper strata. The structure of the
shallower formations does not indicate the direction or amount of this shifting of the axial
plane. However, some idea of how the axial plane is likely to be affected by depth in such cases
may be obtained by studies of the results of drilling similar folds in the region.
Asymmetrical anticlines appear to be of two types. In one type the axial plane dips toward the
gentler side; in the other the axial plane dips toward the steeper side. The first type is evidently
produced by compression, and is much more common than the latter. It is therefore advisable
to assume that the axial plane dips toward the gentler side of an anticline unless there is
definite evidence to the contrary. To find the dip of the axial plane in this type of fold, bisect
the angle formed by the average dip of the strata on both flanks. In some folds the axial plane is
of irregular configuration, and no rule can predict its location in depth under such conditions.
The other type of asymmetrical fold is apparently produced by the combination of a fault or
monocline with regional dip or with one limb of a fold. In this case the steeper side either
overlies a fault or consists of a fold of monoclinal nature. The dip on the other flank is usually
gentle, frequently only a few degrees and in many cases less than 1°. In some cases, the
monoclinal nature of the fold on one side may be recognized by its steepness and straightness.
The results of drilling have shown that certain of these monoclines pass downward into faults.
However, many monoclines are known which do not pass downward into faults within the
sedimentary section. If it is known that the steep flank of an anticline is produced by a normal
fault at depth or by a monocline, the axial plane probably but not certainly dips steeply toward
the steep side.

34
Q33. Discuss the change in size of folds with depth.
Answer:

The question of the continuity of a fold with depth is perhaps even more important than the dip
of its axial plane. Many folds get neither much larger nor much smaller with depth. A number of
folds grow steeper and more pronounced with depth. A few grow smaller with depth and
eventually die out. It is often difficult or impossible to determine in advance of drilling to which
of these classes a fold belongs. A few general observations may, however, be of some
assistance. Where the regional convergence is known, its effect on the closure of folds with
depth may be predicted in advance of drilling. In southeastern Oklahoma the interval between
the middle Pennsylvanian and the Ordovician increases toward the southeast at a rate of about
250 ft per mile. This has a very pronounced effect on the closure to be expected on surface
anticlines in the deeper formations.
Figs. 20 and 21 illustrate this. Fig. 20 shows structure maps at three different levels of the fold
on which the Garrison field, Oklahoma, is located. There is no closure on the uppermost
horizon, while on the lowest there is 200 ft of closure. Fig. 21 shows how the same fold will
appear as a closed dome or as a terrace owing to the effect of convergence. The manner in
which the effect of convergence or regional thinning may be allowed for in changing the
horizons on which the structure contours are drawn has been described on earlier pages. Not
all the increase in size of folds with depth in regions of convergence is necessarily due to
the convergence. Much of it may be in some cases ascribed to the effect of repeated folding
with the same structural axes during the time interval between the deposition of the strata at
depth and that of the surface strata.
A fold is supratenuous if the folding continued during the deposition of the sediments which
are folded. If folding took place during the time gaps in sedimentation represented by
unconformities, there will be an angular unconformity and an increase in closure at the
unconformity. In many cases there is no way of determining from surface observations whether
the fold is supratenuous at depth or not. Measurements made of the exposed formations may,
it is true, show whether folding was going on when they were deposited, but the important
point is how much folding took place between the time when the prospective producing
formations were deposited and the time when the surface strata were laid down. In many
regions, however, it is already known that surface or shallow folds increase greatly in closure
with depth because of folding that is repeated along the same axes.

35
Figure 20: Structure of Garrison field, Okfuskee county, Okla., at various horizons. The
geologic column at the right shows the relative positions of the horizons contoured. D is
the difference between A and C, and may be considered to be a structure-contour map at the
time of the deposition of the top of the Calvin series.

36
For example, in north central and northeastern parts of Oklahoma and adjacent portions of
Kansas small anticlines in the Pennsylvanian strata are very frequently underlain by very large
anticlines in Ordovician formations. In some regions it has been noted that all anticlines change
in a certain manner with depth. In others, the nature of the changes with depth is related to the
shape, size, or orientation of the shallow anticlines. Thus the results of drilling on anticlines in a
region may be used to predict the character at depth of the untested anticlines in the same
region.
It is known that some anticlines do die out with depth. Usually the information as to such
anticlines is meager, because they are very likely to be dry. If there are no wildcat wells in the
vicinity, the geologists in charge of the operation may not even know whether the test well ran
low or high on the deeper formations. In an area in which there has been considerable
wildcatting, it is usually known whether the test ran low or high. However, even when it is
known that the test ran low, there may be doubt as to whether this was because the anticlinal
axis shifted with depth or because the fold died out completely.

Figure 21: Cross section showing how convergence may cause change in closure and horizontal
shift of the crest of an anticline.

37
Usually it is not possible to plot a detailed section to show how the fold dies out with depth
unless production happens to be found at a lower horizon. It is not definitely known why some
anticlines persist with depth while others die out, and there seems to be no sure means of
determining which ones will die out. In general, the larger the area covered by a fold and
the larger its closure, the more likely it is to persist with depth. Salt domes and other folds due
to movement of a salt layer cannot persist below the layer from which the salt is derived.

Q34. Write notes on:

a) Equal area and stereographic projections
b) Pi diagrams
c) Contour diagrams
d) Beta diagrams
e) Preparation of Pi diagrams and Beta diagrams by computers

Answer:

a) Equal area and stereographic projections

PRINCIPLES
The basic principles of these projections are illustrated in Fig. 22. Figure 23 is a stereographic
net and Fig. 24 is an equal-area net. Figure 22 A shows a sphere; the AF axis is vertical, the BD
5
axis is horizontal east-west, and the CE axis is horizontal north-south. BCDE is a horizontal
plane, ACFE is e vertical north-south plane, and BFDA is a vertical east-west plane. Let us
consider a line that plunges due east at an angle of 40 degrees. The point on the sphere
penetrated by the line is called a pole. Now assume, as is always done in these projections, that
the line passes through O, the center of the sphere. Since the line plunges due east, it must lie
in the plane BFDA. The pole of this line is G on the lower hemisphere and L on the upper
hemisphere. If G were projected vertically upward to plane BCDE, the point of projection would
be K.

38
Figure 22: Principles involved in plotting trace of plane on an equal area net.

39
In the stereographic projection the line is drawn from G to the uppermost pole of the sphere
(A), so that the point of projection is H.
OH = OD x tan (α/2) (1)

where α = angle GOF.

In the equal-area projection, for reasons explained below,

OH =· 2 x 0.707 x OD x sin(α/2) (2)

Figure 23: Meridian stereographic net

40
Thus in these projections, HO represents GO in space, which is a line plunging east at an angle
of about 40°(GOF=50°). Thus the distance from the center of the projection is a function of the
value of the plunge. A line bearing east-west and plunging zero would be represented by OD (or
by OB). A line bearing north and plunging zero would be represented by OE (or by OC). A
vertical line would be represented by a point at O. Fuller treatment of the methods of
preparation of the equal-area projection are available.
It is apparent that only one hemisphere need be used. If the upper hemisphere were used, the
projection would be the mirror image of the lower hemisphere. Of course, there is ambiguity in
lines with zero plunge—they can be represented by points at either end of the line. In each
instance one of two points can be chosen arbitrarily. In statistical analysis, as will be shown
below, the method of counting the points automatically takes care of the problem.
In most structural problems, the lines have no vector properties, that is, there is no directional
preference. But in paleomagnetic problems the vectoral properties may be significant. In such
cases the plot can be made on the lower hemisphere, but special symbols may indicate that the
point on the upper hemisphere is meant.
In Fig. 22A assume that a line plunges 25°SW. The pole on the lower hemisphere is at I, the
projection of which is J on the plane of projection.
The method of representing planes is shown in Fig. 22B and 22C. Assume a plane that strikes
north-south and dips 50°E. If such a plane is imagined to pass through the center of the sphere
at O (Fig. 22B), its intersection with the lower hemisphere is CGE. The projection of G onto the
BCDE plane is H, and the line CGE is represented by CHE. If a reader were presented with this
projection, he could tell that the plane strikes north. Because CHE lies east of O, the plane dips
east. The distance HD gives the dip of the plane; it depends on the projection used. A horizontal
plane would be represented by the circumference of the plane of projection. A vertical north-
south plane would be represented by COE; a vertical east-west plane by the line BOD.
If a plane strikes northwest and dips 50°SW, its projection on the plane of projection is HJ I (Fig.
22C).
The stereographic and equal-area nets are equally satisfactory for many purposes in structural
analysis. But the equal-area net is constructed in such a way that areas of equal size on the
surface of the sphere are also of equal size on the projection. For example, all areas covering
one square centimeter on the surface of the sphere will cover 0.5 square centimeters on the
projection, because

41
where Ac is area of the projection circle, Ah is area of the surface of a hemisphere, and r is the
radius of the sphere and circle.

Figure 24: Schimdt equal-area net

42
The data plotted on an equal-area net may be analyzed statistically. The equal-area net to be
used in the problems is shown in Fig.24. There is, of course, a great similarity to the meridians
of longitude and parallels of latitude on ·maps of the world. But the use of such terms should be
avoided in referring to the equal-area net, because these lines are not compass directions.
The arcs convex toward the circumference represent great circles (Fig. 24). They are the
projections of the trace on the surface of the sphere of the various planes that contain the line
YY'. Henceforth they will be called great circles. The arcs convex toward the center. of the net
represent small circles. They are the projections of the trace on the surface of the sphere of the
various planes perpendicular to YY'. Henceforth they will be called small circles.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
Plotting a plane.
Assume a plane striking N30°W and dipping 60°NE. An overlay (Fig. 25A) is then prepared on a
piece of paper showing the circumference of the net, the center (O) and a few principal points
of the compass, N, E, S, ad W. A square on this and ensuing figures is drawn with its sides
perpendicular to the cardinal compass directions. The equal-area net serves as an underlay: The
north direction on the overlay is kept toward the top of the page (Fig. 25B). The underlay is
then rotated counterclockwise 30° so that the line YY' bears N30°W. The proper arc on the
underlay is chosen, the 60° being measured in from the circumference of the net. Of course,
two arcs represent the two planes dipping 60°; the arc toward the northeast is chosen and
traced on the overlay (YFY').
If one wishes to plot the pole of the perpendicular to the plane, a distance of 90° is measured
along the line XX' and G is plotted.
But in practice it is much easier to rotate the overlay rather than the underlay (Fig. 25C). The
overlay is rotated in the opposite direction of the strike of the plane being plotted; but the
amount of rotation is the same. That is, in the case cited above, the overlay is rotated 30°
clockwise. Of the two possible arcs representing a 60° dip, the one convex toward the NE on the
overlay is chosen. With experience, it is not necessary to draw the strike-line of the plane.
Plotting a line.
A line is plotted as follows. Assume a line plunging 30° N.20°E. A line striking N.20°E. (OD) is
drawn on the overlay (Fig. 25D). The overlay is rotated until OD is parallel to XX' or YY' (Fig. 25E)
and 30° is measured from the circumference to establish point F, the projection of the pole of
the line plunging 30°NE.

43
Figure 25: Method of plotting planes and lines on an equal-area net.

44
b) Pi diagrams
Pi diagrams and beta diagrams are used extensively in analyzing folds. The strike and dip of the
bedding is recorded at many points of observation. If the attitude of the bedding is relatively
uniform at an outcrop, one observation is sufficient. But if the outcrop displays folds, several
observations on dip and strike will be necessary.
The projection of the planes representing all bedding planes will be arcs except for those beds
that are vertical or horizontal. The projection of a vertical bed will be a straight line striking in
the same direction as the bed. The projection of a horizontal bed will coincide with the
circumference of the net.
A few examples are shown in Fig. 26. Arc a is the projection of a plane striking N.20°E. and
dipping 70°SE. Arc b is the projection of a plane striking N.80°W and dipping 20°SW. Line c is the
projection of a vertical bed striking N.30°W. Circle d is the projection of a horizontal bed.
Normally-except for vertical beds-the strike lines are not shown on the projection.

Figure 26: Equal-area plots of several planes and perpendiculars to them. Trace of planes
marked a, b, c, and d. Projections of poles of perpendiculars to these planes are marked Pa, Pb,
Pc, and Pd.

45
Pi diagrams are the projection of the poles of the perpendiculars to the planar feature, in this
case the bedding. In Fig. 26 the perpendiculars plot as Pa, Pb, Pc, and Pd. The projection of the
perpendicular to a horizontal plane will coincide with the center of the projection. A vertical
plane will be represented by two diametrically opposed poles. In statistical studies each such
pole counts as a half pole; however, either point may be plotted and the, method of contouring
makes the necessary adjustments.

Figure 27: Pi diagrams of bedding planes shown in Fig A

Figure 28: Pi diagram of bedding planes shown in Fig B

46
Figure 27 is a pi diagram of Fig.A. Each point in Fig. 27 represents a strike-dip symbol in Fig.A;
each point in Fig. 27 is identified by a numeral corresponding to the dip as given in Fig.A. To
avoid crowding, some of the points have been moved slightly. The points lie on a girdle that is a
straight line trending east-west. This girdle is the projection of the plane containing all the
perpendiculars to the bedding. Similarly, Fig. 28 is the pi diagram for Fig.B. The points lie on a
girdle that is convex toward the north. This girdle is the trace of the projection of the plane
containing all the perpendiculars to the bedding. Neither Fig. 27 nor 28 has points on the
periphery of the circle, because none of the beds are vertical.
The pi diagram is analyzed on the assumption that the folds are cylindrical. A cylindrical fold is
the surface generated by a line moving through space parallel to itself. In such folds the axis is
perpendicular to the plane represented by the girdle. In Fig. 27, since the girdle is the projection
of a vertical plane striking east-west, the axis of the fold strikes north-south and is horizontal. In
Fig. 28 the girdle is the projection of a plane dipping 75°N.; the axis of the fold therefore
plunges 15°S.
This preparation of pi diagrams may thus be used to determine the direction and value of the
plunge of folds. They may also indicate more than one orientation of the folds. Figure 29
suggests two sets of folds. One set, shown by dots, is relatively open, because the points are
evenly distributed on the east-west line; the axes are horizontal and trend north-south. A
second set consists of chevron folds, shown by crosses, because only steeply dipping limbs are
shown; the axes are horizontal and trend east-west.

Figure 29: Pi diagram of area with two sets of folds. Axis of open fold is horizontal and bears
north-south. Axis of chevron fold is horizontal and bears east-west.

47
But there are many limitations to the use of pi diagrams. Anticlines and synclines give the same
diagram. Figures 27 and 28 can represent either anticlines or synclines. Moreover, many fold
may be present instead of one. In Fig. 29, it is impossible to tell whether the two sets of folds
are in different parts of the area, or intimately associated. Finally, if the value of the plunge
changes, the folds are no longer cylindrical; the greater the variation in the value of the plunge,
the greater the complexity of the diagram.
It is thus apparent much of the interpretation must be based on the geographic distribution of
the observations. Thus, after preparing the pi diagrams, it is usually necessary to go back to the
field notes and maps; if these are inadequate it may be necessary to go back into the field to
make additional observations. But the best procedure is to prepare and analyze the pi diagrams
as the field work is proceeding.

c) Contour diagrams

Figure 30: Point diagram, projection of 152 poles of perpendiculars to 152 bedding plane
measurements. Area in Peterborough quadrangle, New Hampshire.

48
Figure 31: Contour diagram of point diagram shown in Fig 30. Contours are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12
percent.

The data are often shown by contour diagrams. Figure 30 is a point diagram based on the
perpendiculars to 152 bedding planes in Devonian schists in the Peterborough Quadrangle of
New Hampshire. From this diagram it is apparent that most of the bedding strikes east,
northeast, and north, and dips 10° to 60° north, northwest, and west. Figure 31 is a contour
diagram based on Fig. 30. The solid black area, labeled 12-14 percent, means the 12 to 14
percent of all the points shown in Fig. 30 lie within an area equal to one percent of the total
area of the diagram. That is, if a small circle, covering an area equal to one percent of the area
of the large circle, were placed over this solid black area, it would contain 12 to 14 percent of
the points. This is a so-called maximum in the figure. A maximum is not necessarily an average
or mean. But the diagram taken as a whole shows that the beds strike northeast and dip
northwest. The beds could be on the southeast limb of a syncline and face consistently
northwest; they could be on the northwest limb of a syncline and face consistently southeast,
that is, be overturned; or there could be many isoclinal and overturned folds, the axial planes of
which dip northwest.

49
The preparation of such a contour diagram from a point diagram is illustrated by Fig. 32. A piece
of tracing paper is placed over the point diagram. The center counter, CC of Fig. 32, consists of a
circular hole in the center of a piece of paper, cardboard, celluloid, or any satisfactory material.

Figure 32: Method of counting points in making contour diagram. CC, center counter. PC,
peripheral counter.

The area of this circle is equal to one percent of the area of the large circle; if the large circle
has a radius of 10 centimeters, the small circle has a radius of 1 centimeter. Two hundred
points are plotted on Fig. 32. (Some of the 200 points are covered by the counters.) Six of these
points lie within the center counter; six points are three percent of the total number of points
in the large circle, and the figure 3 is written in the center of the center counter.
The center counter is moved over the whole diagram, and the percentage of points at each
place is recorded. In order that the sampling may be systematic, a grid system is placed on the

50
point diagram - or beneath it if the point diagram is on tracing paper - and the center counter is
moved from left to right one centimeter at a time. After a traverse from left to right has been
completed, the counter is moved down one centimeter, and a second traverse is run. It should
be noted that a single point in the point diagram may lie within the center counter several
times in its successive positions. The point is counted each time.
For points closer to the circumference than a distance equal to the diameter of the center
counter- one centimeter if the large circle is 10 centimeters - a special technique is required.
The peripheral counter (PC of Fig. 32) - is used for such points; it is made of paper, cardboard,
celluloid, or satisfactory material. Half of each of the two circles at either end extends beyond
the circumference of the large circle. The points in each circle are added together. In Fig.32
they total 8, which is 4 percent of the total 200. The figure ‘4’ is then entered on the diagram in
the center of both circles at the ends of the peripheral counter.
After the diagram has been covered with percentage figures, contours are drawn in the same
manner by which topographic contours are prepared from points of known altitude.

d) Beta diagrams

Beta diagrams involve the projection of the planes rather than the perpendiculars to the planes.
The plunge of a fold may be calculated if the attitudes of the bedding on the opposite limbs are
known. The same principle may be applied by projecting the bedding onto an equal-area net
using the lower hemisphere.
Figure 33 is the projection of three northerly bedding planes shown in Fig B. The three arcs
intersect at a common point called β (beta). This intersection shows that the fold plunges
south. The angle of plunge is determined by rotating the line connecting β with the center of
the diagram until it is parallel with the vertical line of the net. The value of the plunge, 26°, is
the distance, in degrees, between the periphery of the circle and β.

51
 Figure 33: Beta diagram. Traces of three northerly bedding planes in Fig 4-6B intersect in β.

The number of intersections in such diagrams is:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
2

where n is the number of planes. If 25 planes are plotted, the number of intersections is 300.
But such a diagram is so cluttered up with lines that it may be difficult to interpret.
Figure 34 is an example from an area in New Zealand. Figure 34-A is a pi diagram of the
perpendiculars to 22 bedding and schistosity plane. The girdle trends northeasterly through the
center of the diagram. This suggests horizontal fold axes trending northwest. Figure 34-B shows
the trace of the 22 planes on the equal-area net. As one would expect, there is a spread in the
231 intersections. Figure 34-C is the contour diagram of the intersections. It shows a strong
concentration of 25 percent in the southeast corner, meaning that the fold axes bear
northwest-southeast and are horizontal.
The same limitations apply to the interpretation on beta diagrams as to the interpretation of pi
diagrams.

52
Figure 34: Twenty-two bedding and foliation planes from East Otago, New Zealand. (A) Pi
diagram. (B) Plot of 22 planes with 231 intersections. (C) Contour diagram of the 231
intersections. Contours are 1 to 10, 15 (dashed), 20, and 25 (dashed) percent.

53
e) Preparation of Pi and Beta diagrams by computers

Use of Computers in Geology

Many problems in geology are now analyzed by the use of computers. Four major computer-
oriented techniques have been utilized in geology: statistics, correlation and classification,
trend analysis, and simulation. Many of these techniques, although known before 1960, were
too involved or complicated before computers became readily available.
Statistics, formerly largely descriptive, are now more analytical; in structural geology statistics
are largely concerned with the extent of preferred orientation and its significance. Correlation
and classification is of concern to structural geology because stratigraphy is, after all, the
fundamental basis of much structural analysis. Trend analysis is concerned, as far as structure is
concerned, primarily with the shape of surfaces, both before and after deformation. Simulation
is the mathematical analysis of scale models by computer techniques; such analyses are far
more rapid and complete than the use of physical scale models.
The main objective in using a computer is to save time in analyzing rather simple problems or to
solve problems that otherwise could not be undertaken because the time involved would be
prohibitive. It takes time to prepare a program. It may be quicker to analyze a problem by
simple algebraic or graphical methods. On the other hand, although any one individual in a
large organization may not have enough problems of a certain type to justify a program, the
group as a whole may find that a program is highly desirable. Of course, for a highly
sophisticated research project a very elaborate program may be fully justified.
The raw data or input is placed on cards or tape. A code system is used, as will be shown below.
The results or output may be expressed as numerals, maps, sections, or even as motion pictures
on television screens.
Preparation of Pi diagrams and Beta diagrams by computer:
Pi diagrams may be prepared by computer. The raw material consists of the strikes and dips of
the planar feature; this is the input. In the specific example cited (Fig. 35), from a portion of the
Buckfield quadrangle in Maine, measurements on 162 bedding planes were utilized. The
problem was to discover whether there is any preferred orientation of these bedding planes. It
is a statistical problem. As in the manual construction of pi diagrams, the plot is based on the
perpendiculars to these planes. The output may be expressed in one of the following ways:
1. The equal-area net is divided into one hundred or more compartments of equal area.
The computer prints out in tabular form the number of poles in each compartment.
These figures are manually transferred to the net and contoured by hand.
2. The same procedure is followed, but the number of poles in each compartment is
converted to a percentage.

54
3. The results, in percentages, are printed on a net by the computer. Figure 35 is such a
plot. The capital letters A to F represent percentages from 10 to 15. Contouring is done
by hand.
4. The contours are printed directly by the computer.

Figure 35: Pi diagram prepared by computer. Perpendiculars to 162 bedding planes, part of
Buckfield quadrangle, Maine, given as percentage of points falling within 1 percent areas.
Capital letters A to F represent numbers 10 to 15.

55
Figure 35 shows that the average strike is north, but the dip shows considerable range, with the
greatest concentration around 60°W.
Beta diagrams can also be prepared by computer. Since the number of intersections increases
astronomically with an increase in the number of planes, the manual method is very difficult to
use if the number of planes exceeds 25. Figure 36 contains two beta diagrams for two adjacent
areas in north-central Massachusetts.

Figure 36: Contoured beta diagram prepared by computer. Shows percentages of beta
intersections within 1-percent areas. (A) 162 planes, contours are 1 to 12 percent. (B) 120
planes, contour interval 1 to 6 percent.

56
Figure. 36-A is a beta diagram prepared from 162 bedding-foliation planes giving 13,041
intersections. In this case the number of intersections per compartment were printed out in
tabular form. These data were converted to percentages, entered into each compartment on
the equal-area net, and manually contoured. The fold axes plunge, on the average, 20°N. 10°E.
Figure 36-B, based on 120 planes (7140 intersections) indicates fold axes with an average
plunge of 10° in a direction S.10°E.

57
 REFERENCES
 http://www.geographynotes.com/geology-2/structural-geology/folds-definition-parts-
and-types-structural-geology-geology/1313
 Wilson, Gilbert, and John W. Cosgrove. Introduction to Small-Scale Geological
Structures. G. Allen & Unwin, 1982.
 https://www.revolvy.com/page/Competence-%28geology%29
 Billings, Marland Pratt. Structural Geology. Prentice-Hall, 1972.
 Russell, William Low. Structural Geology for Petroleum Geologists. UMI, Books on
Demand, 1995.

58