Assignment

Q.1: Discuss the concept and scope of curriculum?

ANS: Curriculum Scope and Sequence
The Head Start Program Performance Standards identify key features of early childhood
curricula, including scope and sequence. The scope refers to the areas of development addressed
by the curriculum. The sequence includes plans and materials for learning experiences to support
and extend children’s learning at various levels of development. Education staff can use this
resource to select and implement curriculum that includes an organized scope and sequence.
What does "organized developmental scope and sequence" mean?
An organized developmental scope and sequence outlines what the early childhood curriculum
focuses on and how the plans and materials support children at different stages of development.
The scope refers to the areas of development addressed by the curriculum. Scope includes both
the breadth (the curriculum addresses development across all of the Head Start Early Learning
Outcomes Framework (ELOF) domains) and depth (curriculum content addresses specific
developmental goals within each sub-domain). A content-rich curriculum ensures that this scope
is sufficiently deep that it engages and sustains children's interests across multiple learning
experiences. The sequence includes plans and materials for learning experiences to support and
extend children's learning at various levels of development. A sequence of learning experiences
progress from less to more complex, with the goal of supporting children as they move through
the developmental progressions. An organized developmental scope and sequence:
• Helps education staff support children's development of skills, behavior, and knowledge
described in the ELOF and a state's early learning and development standards
• Includes examples of materials, teaching practices, and learning experiences that support children
at different levels of development
• Allows flexibility to respond to the needs of individual children, including dual or tribal language
learners and children with disabilities (or those suspected of having delays) and other special
needs
• Provides information to education staff that helps them plan and communicate with families and
other education partners

Why is a scope and sequence so important?

To be effective, curricula must be comprehensive in scope and provide learning experiences
specifically designed to support children at various levels of development. A scope and sequence
can be a helpful tool that education staff use to plan learning experiences tailored to children’s
ages and developmental levels. It helps staff look ahead to see where development is going, and
intentionally scaffold their learning. It also helps education staff implement research-based
teaching practices that support children as they move through the developmental progressions,
including those described in the ELOF.
What does a scope and sequence look like?
Read the following vignette to learn about the scope and sequence in the area of
mathematics development in Elmwood Head Start’s curriculum.
Elmwood Head Start education staff review their curriculum in the area of mathematics
development. The scope of the curriculum includes number sense, operations and algebra,
measurement, and geometry. The materials and plans for learning experiences are organized
around a sequence designed to support children at
Q.2: Explain the needs of philosophical foundations of
curriculum? ANS;
The philosophical foundation of curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of education,
as well as the roles of the various participants. While all foundations propose to set goals of
curriculum, philosophy presents the manner of thinking from which those goals are created.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS:
In light of essential convictions that emerge from one's way of thinking of Education, curricular
choices include thought of a few themes and issues. Absolutely hence, we consider theory one of
the significant establishment zones in educational plan. In this segment, we will investigate a few
unique ways of thinking of instruction that impact curricular choices.

Theory and Curriculum

Contemplating theory encourages us manage our very own frameworks of convictions and
qualities, i.e., the manner in which we see our general surroundings and how we characterize
what is critical to us. As philosophical issues have consistently impacted society and foundations
of learning, an investigation of the way of thinking of training as far as Curriculum advancement
is basic. Basically, a way of thinking of instruction impacts, and to a huge degree decides, our
instructive choices and options. The individuals who are answerable for curricular choices, along
these lines, ought to be clear about what they accept. On the off chance that we are muddled or
befuddled about our own convictions, at that point our curricular plans will undoubtedly be
indistinct and confounding. One significant advance in building up an individual way of thinking
of instruction is to comprehend the different options that others have created throughout the
years. Here we will investigate the accompanying four significant philosophical places that have,
up to this point, impacted educational program advancement. I) Idealism feedback on a
consistent basis, according to the Carnegie Mellon University. This type of assessment allows
educators and administrators to make changes as the school year progresses and adapt the
curriculum for different learning styles. Methods for formative evaluation may include collecting
student reflection papers after lessons, midterm course evaluations or reviewing summaries that
the students write on instructional units.
Summative Assessment
Unlike formative evaluations that take place on a consistent basis, giving ongoing feedback, the
summative type is done at the end of a course or school year or through standardized assessment
testing. Summative evaluations measure curricular success by reviewing the outcomes against
benchmark standards. These are evaluations of learning for accountability and are not necessarily
used to boost the educational process, according to educational consultant and learning specialist
Judith Dodge on the website Scholastic Teachers.

Methods and Models

Within both formative and summative evaluations, there are models that inform how you conduct
the individual assessments. Based on educational research and theory, evaluation models not only
guide the process of the assessment but also provide a framework for it. For example, the
objectives-centered model — created by theorist Ralph Tyler — is a systematic type of
evaluation that starts with setting behavioral objectives that include both the curricular content as
well as learning behaviors. In this model, the evaluator chooses and uses several assessment tools
and compares the results. In contrast, a goal-free model places the evaluator as an unbiased
observer who creates a need profile. The assessment then compares the effects of the curriculum
to the students’ needs.
Choice Considerations
Choosing a specific type of evaluation means reviewing the many different models. Teachers and
evaluators may have personal preferences or policy requirements, or they may choose a type
based on the most current research. Other considerations may include the process, cost-
effectiveness or the actual propose of the evaluation. For example, if you want to evaluate how a
new science curriculum is helping students learn through a child-centered process, you may want
a formative assessment. By contrast, if you want to evaluate the overall outcome of your
mathematics curriculum based on state standardized tests, you would use a summative
assessment. Evaluation is the process of examining a program or process to determine what's
working, what's not, and why. It determines the value of learning and training programs and acts
as blueprints for judgment and improvement. Evaluations are normally divided into two
categories: formative and summative.
Formative
A formative evaluation (sometimes referred to as internal) is a method for judging the
worth of a program while the program activities are forming (in progress). They can be
conducted during any phase of the ADDIE process. This part of the evaluation focuses on
the process.
Thus, formative evaluations are basically done on the fly. They permit the designers,
learners, instructors, and managers to monitor how well the instructional goals and
objectives are being met. Its main purpose is to catch deficiencies ASAP so that the proper
learning interventions can take place that allows the learners to master the required skills
and knowledge.
The various instruments used to collect the data are questionnaires, surveys, interviews,
observations, and testing. The model or methodology used to gather the data should be a
specified step-by-step procedure. It should be carefully designed and executed to ensure
the data is accurate and valid. Questionnaires are the least expensive procedure for external
evaluations and can be used to collect large samples of graduate information. The
questionnaires should be trialed (tested) before using to ensure the recipients understand
their operation the way the designer intended. When designing questionnaires, keep in
mind the most important feature is the guidance given for its completion. All instructions
should be clearly stated . . . let nothing be taken for granted.
History of the Two Evaluations
Scriven (1967) first suggested a distinction between formative evaluation and summative
evaluation. Formative evaluation was intended to foster development and improvement within an
ongoing activity (or person, product, program, etc.). Summative evaluation, in contrast, is used to
assess whether the results of the object being evaluated (program, intervention, person, etc.) met
the stated goals. In Paul Saettler's (1990) history of instructional technology, he describes the two
evaluations in the context of how they were used in developing Sesame Street and The Electric
Company by the Children's Television Workshop. CTW used formative evaluations for identify
and defining program designs that could provide reliable predictors of learning for particular
learners. They later used summative evaluations to prove their efforts (to quite good effect I
might add). While Saettler praises CTW for a significant landmark in the technology of
instructional design, he warns that it is still tentative and should be seen more as a point of
departure rather than a fixed formula.
Saettler defines the two types of evaluations as: 1) formative is used to refine goals and
evolve strategies for achieving goals, while 2) summative is undertaken to test the validity
of a theory or determine the impact of an educational practice so that future efforts may be
improved or modified. Thus, using Misanchuk's defining terms will normally achieve
more accurate measurements; however, the cost is higher as it is highly resource intensive,
particularly with time because of all the pre-work that has to be performed in the design
phase: create, trial, redo, trial, redo, trial, redo, etc.; and all preferably without using the
target population. However, most organizations are demanding shorter design times. Thus
the formative part is moved over to the other methods, such as the use of rapid
prototyping and using testing and evaluations methods to improve as one moves on.
Which of course is not as accurate but it is more appropriate to most organizations as they
are not really that interested in accurate measurements of the content but rather the end
product — skilled and knowledgeable workers. Misanchuk's defining terms puts all the
water in a container for accurate measurements while the typical organization estimates
the volume of water running in a stream. Thus, if you are a vendor, researcher, or need
highly accurate measurements you will probably define the two evaluations in the same
manner as Misanchuk. If you need to push the training/learning out faster and are not all
that worried about highly accurate measurements, then you define it closer to how most
organizations do and how Saettler describes the CTW example.
Student evaluation and feedback
Student feedback is a rich and valuable source of information for both formative and
summative purposes. For this reason, student feedback and evaluation are key components
of the University's Quality Enhancement Framework, as well as providing summative
evidence for staff promotion, probation and awards, and for internal and external quality
assurance reporting requirements. Methods of obtaining student feedback may be formal
or informal, structured, semi-structured or unstructured. They include surveys, minute
papers, focus groups and student consultations.
Peer observation and review
Colleagues from your own and other disciplines are often a good source of data for
evaluating your teaching and units, providing professional feedback and guidance. You
can find out how they perceive your teaching, how your unit prepares students for
involvement in subsequent units, and any aspects of your teaching you might try to
improve. Peer observation and review of teaching and/or curriculum can be undertaken
for a range of purposes, both formative and summative. Approaches range from
informal, semi-structured observation by, and feedback from, a friendly work colleague,
to highly structured, formal schemes aimed at providing evidence for promotion and
other reward processes.
Self-observation, self-assessment and critical reflection
Macquarie University encourages critically reflective practice in all areas of academic
work, including teaching and curriculum development. All the feedback you can obtain
from other sources is, of course, of little use unless you have a reflective and critical
approach to your own practice. In addition, for summative purposes such as promotion, it's
important for you to be able to demonstrate, through examples and accounts of practice,
that you have reflected on, and acted constructively in response to, formative feedback and
evaluation.
Method for the evaluation in AIOU
Evaluation method can be judge and analyze by the review of examination process in AIOU.
Examination Department remains associated with every student till the award of
Degree/certificate.
Department perform the following tasks:
1. Collection of result of continuous assessment component from Regions and its
inclusion in the final result.
2. Conduct of term final examination at the centers like conventional system and
compilation/processing of the result.
3. Issuance of Certificate/Degrees to successful students.
Assessment
Assessment of students in distance education system is made
by two mode: 1. Continuous Assessment 2. Term. Final
Examination on Continuous Assessment:
Assignments
Students are required to do two assignments for each half-credit course and four
assignments for each full credit course. The marks obtained in the assignments contribute
to the final course result. For successful completion of the course, it is imperative to obtain
a minimum 40% from Matric to Master level programmers and 50% for M.Phil. Ph.D.
programmers. Students failing in continuous assessment (Assignments) are not eligible to
appear in the final examination.
Purpose of Assignments
The main purpose of assignments is to test the student's comprehension of syllabus of
course and books, the students received from the University and also to help them to get
through these courses. The students are advised to take the assignments seriously. A
simple omission on their part may cause considerable loss to them, which can be avoided
by exercising proper care.
Submission of Assignments
The students should submit complete answers to all assignments' questions in their own words
and before submitting the assignments they should ensure that they have answered all questions
in all assignments. Normally after evaluation, teacher returns the marked assignments to the
students with comments and grading. All assignments are required to be submitted within due
date and no assignment will be accepted after due date. It is the responsibility of the students to
get back their duly evaluated marked assignments along with a copy of the assessments sheet
containing comments of the teacher on their performance.
Term Final Examination /
Need of Examination
Final examination is another component of overall assessment system of a course. Exams
help the students to review their studies and see the course as a whole. At the end of each
semester the University arranges a final three hours, written examination in each course on
the set dates, usually at the convenient center established near the home town of students.
The final examinations carry 70% weightage in the determination of final results. In order
to be eligible to appear in the final examination in any course, the student are required to
obtain at least minimum 40% from Matric to Master level programmes and 50% for M.Phil
& Ph.D. programmes qualifying marks in the assignments. The minimum passing marks in
the final examinations are 40% from Matric to Master level programme and 50% for
M.Phil & Ph.D. programmes. In case a student fails to get minimum qualifying marks in
the final examinations, he/she is allowed to re-appear in the examination of the same course
during the next semester. In case he again fails, one more final chance is given to qualify
the examinations in the next semester. If he does not obtain minimum passing marks in 3 rd
attempt in the final examinations, he/she is considered fail in overall evaluation of the
course; no matter he has secured passing marks in the assignments. In this circumstance,
he/she will have to re- enroll in that particular course(s) after paying the requisite admission
fee of course(s).
Viva Voce In Post-Graduate Programme thesis component is involved which also
carries weightage. After evaluation of the thesis by the external experts, the student has
to appear before a viva-voce committee to defend thesis.
General Information
Issuance of Roll No. Slips
The University send Roll Number Slip to each student to appear in the final
examination at least 10 days before the examinations in which Roll Number,
Registration, address of examination center and dated on which paper is held are
mentioned. If any student does not receive this intimation slip 10 days before the
commencement of examinations, he/she can contact Deputy Controller Examination
(Results) Block 3, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad Telephone No. 051
9250015 & Incharge, Complaints & Information Cell Phone No. 051 9250014 or
concerned Regional Office for obtaining duplicate Roll No. Slip. The same could also
be got printed from AIOU web site: www.aiou.edu.pk Change of Examination
Centre:
The University does not entertain the request for change of Examination Centre except
in exceptional circumstances wherein the student has genuine reasons for this change.
For this she/she has to apply at least 45 days before the commencement of
examinations. Eligibility for Appearing in Examinations:
Course and whether he/she is eligible to appear for the examination or not. If he/she
neglects this and take the examinations without being eligible for it, his/her results is
cancelled. The student must bring their National Identity Cards while appearing in
the examination centers to prove his/her identity.
Declaration of Results of Examinations
The results of examinations are declared within three months of completion of examinations
and dispatched at his/her postal address by ordinary mail. Results can be downloaded from
AIOU web site.
Weightage of Assignments & Final Examination
For calculation of final result of a student weightage of assignments & final examination is
considered as
30% and 70% respectively.
Preparation of Certificates/Degrees
On successful completion of the required number of courses for a programme, the student
has to apply to Certificate Section of Examinations Department for the issuance of
Certificate/Degree. The certificate/degree to the successful student is issued within the
period of two years.
Grading Scheme
The University has adopted the following grading scheme for its students:
80% and above A+
70% to 79% A
60% to 69% B 50%
 To 59% C
40% to 49% D Below
40%
FAIL

(The percentage in assignment and final examination do not apply to programmes like BBA,
MBA as indicated earlier).
A student who fails in the assignment component is not eligible to appear in the final
examination. He/she has to take re-admission in that particular course and repeat it. A
student who fails in the final examination is allowed two more chances to reappear in the
examination within next three semesters on payment of reappear fee only.
Credits Required for Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees: Qualifications are awarded
on credit basis. A full-credit course contains 18 units while a half credit course consists
of nine units to be studied during a semester. If assignments are completed successfully
and the final examination for the course is passed, a student is awarded a credit.

Q.4: Discuss the classroom implications of cooperative learning?

ANS: Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom
activities into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more to cooperative
learning than merely arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring
positive interdependence." Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward
academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning
cooperatively can capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for
information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc. Furthermore, the
teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning. Everyone
succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995) describe successful cooperative
learning tasks as intellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher order
thinking tasks.Cooperative learning has also been linked to increased levels of student
satisfaction.
Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in
the classroom:
• positive interdependence
• individual and group accountability
• promotive interaction (face to face)
• teaching the students the required interpersonal and small group skills
• Group processing.
According to Johnson and Johnson's meta-analysis, students in cooperative learning settings
compared to those in individualistic or competitive learning settings, achieve more, reason better,
gain higher self-esteem, like classmates and the learning tasks more and have more perceived
social support. Theoretical base
Social interdependence theory: Social interdependence exists when the outcomes of individuals
are affected by their own and others' actions. There are two types of social interdependence:
positive (when the actions of individuals promote the achievement of joint goals) and negative
(when the actions of individuals obstruct the achievement of each other's goals). Social
interdependence may be differentiated from social dependence,
 Independence, and helplessness. Social dependence exists when the goal achievement of Person
A is affected by Person B's actions, but the reverse is not true. Social independence exists when
the goal achievement of Person A is unaffected by Person B's actions and vice versa. Social
helplessness exists when neither the person nor other can influence goal achievement. Kurt
Lewin proposed that the essence of a group is the interdependence among members that results in
the group being a dynamic whole so that a change in the state of any member or subgroup
changes the state of any other member or subgroup. Group members are made interdependent
through common goals. As members perceive their common goals, a state of tension arises that
motivates movement toward the accomplishment of the goals.
Morton Deutsch extended Lewin's notions by examining how the tension systems of different
people may be interrelated. He conceptualized two types of social interdependence—positive and
negative. Positive interdependence exists when there is a positive correlation among individuals'
goal attainments; individuals perceive that they can attain their goal if and only if the other
individuals with whom they are cooperatively linked attain their goals. Positive interdependence
results in promotive interaction. Negative interdependence exists when there is a negative
correlation among individuals' goal achievements; individual perceive that they can obtain their
goals if and only if the other individuals with whom they are competitively like fail to obtain
their goals. Negative interdependence results in oppositional or content interaction. No
interdependence exists when there is no correlation among individuals' goal achievements;
individuals perceive that the achievement of their goals is unrelated to the goal achievement of
others. The basic premise of social interdependence theory is that how participants' goals are
structured determines the ways they interact and the interaction pattern determine the outcomes
of the situation.
Types
Formal cooperative learning is structured, facilitated, and monitored by the educator over time
and is used to achieve group goals in task work (e.g. completing a unit). Any course material or
assignment can be adapted to this type of learning, and groups can vary from 2-6 people with
discussions lasting from a few minutes up to an entire period. Types of formal cooperative
learning strategies include:
1. The jigsaw technique
2. Assignments that involve group problem-solving and decision making
3. Laboratory or experiment assignments
4. Peer review work (e.g. editing writing assignments).
Having experience and developing skill with this type of learning often facilitates informal and
base learning. Jigsaw activities are wonderful because the student assumes the role of the teacher
on a given topic and is in charge of teaching the topic to a classmate. The idea is that if students
can teach something, they have already learned the material.
Informal cooperative learning incorporates group learning with passive teaching by drawing
attention to material through small groups throughout the lesson or by discussion at the end of a
lesson, and typically involves groups of two (e.g. turn-to-your-partner discussions). These groups
are often temporary and can change from lesson to lesson (very much unlike formal learning
where 2 students may be lab partners throughout the entire semester contributing to one another's
knowledge of science). Discussions typically have four components that include formulating a
response to questions asked by the educator, sharing responses to the questions asked with a
partner, listening to a partner's responses to the same question, and creating a new well-
developed answer. This type of learning enables the student to process, consolidate, and retain
more information.
In group-based cooperative learning, these peer groups gather together over the long term (e.g.
over the course of a year, or several years such as in high school or post-secondary studies) to
develop and contribute to one another's knowledge mastery on a topic by regularly discussing
material, encouraging one another, and supporting the academic and personal success of group
members. Base group learning (e.g., a long-term study group) is effective for learning complex
subject matter over the course or semester and establishes caring, supportive peer relationships,
which in turn motivates and strengthens the student's commitment to the group's education while
increasing self-esteem and self-worth. Base group approaches also make the students accountable
to educating their peer group in the event that a member was absent for a lesson. This is effective
both for individual learning, as well as social support.
Think-pair-share
Originally developed by Frank T. Lyman (1981), think-pair-share allows students to contemplate
a posed question or problem silently. The student may write down thoughts or simply just
brainstorm in his or her head. When prompted, the student pairs up with a peer and discusses his
or her idea(s) and then listens to the ideas of his or her partner. Following pair dialogue, the
teacher solicits responses from the whole group. When teachers use this technique they don't
have to worry about students not volunteering because each student will already have an idea in
their heads; therefore, the teacher can call on anyone and increase discussion productivity.

Jigsaw
Students are members of two groups: home group and expert group. In the heterogeneous home
group, students are each assigned a different topic. Once a topic has been identified, students
leave the home group and group with the other students with their assigned topic. In the new
group, students learn the material together before returning to their home group. Once back in
their home group, each student is accountable for teaching his or her assigned topic.
Jigsaw II
Jigsaw II is Robert Slavin's (1980) variation of Jigsaw in which members of the home group are
assigned the same material, but focus on separate portions of the material. Each member must
become an "expert" on his or her assigned portion and teach the other members of the home
group.
Reverse jigsaw
This variation was created by Timothy Hedeen (2003) It differs from the original Jigsaw
during the teaching portion of the activity. In the Reverse Jigsaw technique, students in the
expert groups teach the whole class rather than return to their home groups to teach the
content.
Inside-outside circle
This is a cooperative learning strategy in which students form two concentric circles and take
turns on rotation to face new partners to answer or discuss the teacher's questions. This method
can be used to gather a variety of information, generate new ideas and solve problems.
Reciprocal teaching
Brown & Paliscar (1982) developed reciprocal teaching, which — as currently practiced —
pertains to the form of guided, cooperative learning that features a collaborative learning setting
between learning leaders and listeners; expert scaffolding by an adult teacher; and direct
instruction, modeling, and practice in the use of simple strategies that facilitate a dialogue
structure.
 In a model that allows for student pairs to participate in a dialogue about text, partners take turns
reading and asking questions of each other, receiving immediate feedback. This approach enables
students to use important metacognitive techniques such as clarifying, questioning, predicting,
and summarizing. It embraces the idea that students can effectively learn from each other. There
are empirical studies that show the efficacy of reciprocal teaching even in subjects such as
mathematics. For instance, it was found that children who were taught using this strategy showed
higher levels of accuracy in mathematical computations in comparison with those who were not.
The same success has been obtained in the cases of students learning in diverse situations such as
those with learning disabilities and those who are at risk of academic failure, among others.
These studies also cover learners from elementary to college levels.

The Williams
Students collaborate to answer a big question that is the learning objective. Each group has
differentiated questions that increase in cognitive demands to allow students to progress and meet
the learning objective.
STAD (or Student-Teams-Achievement Divisions)
Students are placed in small groups (or teams). The class in its entirety is presented with a lesson
and the students are subsequently tested. Individuals are graded on the team's performance.
Although the tests are taken individually, students are encouraged to work together to improve
the overall performance of the group.
Rally Table
Rally Table is another process of cooperative learning. In this process, the class or the students
are divided into groups. This is done to encourage group learning, team building and cooperative
learning. It is the written version of Robin Table.
TGT (or Team Game Tournament)
Students are placed into small groups to study and prepare for a trivia game. This gives students
incentive to learn and have some fun learning the material. This is a group exercise so not one
student is to blame Team game tournament is an effective technique of cooperative learning
wherein groups are created that function in the class for a period of time. In this technique the
groups revise a portion of material before writing a written test. This motivates those students
that have the fear of writing the test and to learn and reinforce what has been already learnt. This
method is one of the learning strategies designed by Robert Slavin for the purpose of review and
mastery in the learning. This method was basically to increase student's skills, increase
interaction and self-esteem between students. In this technique the students study in the class.
The material is supplied and are taught in groups or individually through different activities. The
students after receiving the material review it and then bring 2-6 points from their study into their
assigned groups. Since the tournament is based on a material there is a specific answer.
Characteristics
1. Students are working in heterogeneous groups.
2. Playing the games makes the students to move into homogeneous and higher level groups.
3. Understanding other's skills.
4. Method
The students compete in the tournament after a designated time to study by forming groups of 3-4
students where the stronger students compete with the weaker students and winner of the
respective teams is moved to a high level team while the students who don't score well are moved
 to an easier level. This ensures that students of the same ability are competing with each other."
Purpose
TGT enhances student cooperation and friendly competition which allows different students with
different capabilities to work together and acquire mastery in the topics assigned to them. The
students have the independence to have interactions with different students. The benefit of this
activity is that it holds the students responsible for the material they have to prepare.

Advantages
1. The involvement of students in higher learning.
2. The students get excited about learning.
3. Knowledge is obtained from the student rather than solely from the teacher.
4. Fosters positive attitude in the students, such as cooperation, tolerance.
5. Trains students to express or convey ideas.

Benefits of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning helps to:

Research shows cooperative learning helps to produce:
• Higher achievement.
• Increased retention.
• More positive relationships and a wider circle of friends.
• Greater intrinsic motivation.
• Higher self-esteem.
• Greater social support.
• More on-task behavior.
• Better attitudes toward teachers.
• Better attitudes toward school.
Hopefully you have already had some successful experiences with cooperative learning and you
can relate to many of the benefits listed above. If you haven't had any experiences with team or
group work, or if you have only had bad experiences, don't worry! Becoming skilled in
cooperative learning takes time, patience, and persistence. The more you learn about cooperative
learning and the more you practice your skills, the better you will become and the more benefits
you will experience. It takes time.
Additional Benefits of Cooperative Learning
• Here are some additional benefits of cooperative learning.
• When students are working toward a common goal, academic work becomes an activity valued
by peers.
• Students are motivated to help one another learn.
• Students are able to translate the teacher's language into "student language" for one another.
• Students who explain to one another strengthen their own learning.
• When students need to organize their thoughts in order to explain them to teammates, they must
engage in thinking that builds on other ideas (cognitive elaboration) which greatly enhances their
own understanding.
• Teammates can provide individual attention and assistance to one another.
• Regular and constructive collaborative study groups can assist you with mastery of material,
exam preparation, and better performance on tests.

Q.5: Analytical procedure for content selection is most widely used?

ANS:
Selection and organization of content.
ANS; Selection of content and organization of learning
Curriculum In formal education, a curriculum (; plural: curricula or curriculums) is the set of
courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. Textbook A textbook or course book
is a manual of instruction in any branch of study. Textbooks are produced according to the
demands of educational institutions.
Self-sufficiency To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency in the most economical
manner is the main guiding principle of subject matter or content selection as cited by Bilbao et
al. (2008). Although the economy of learning implies less teaching effort and less use of
educational resources, students gain more results. They can cope up with the learning outcomes
effectively. This criterion means that students should be given a chance to experiment, observe,
and do field study. This system allows them to learn independently. With this principle in mind, I
suggest that for a high school curriculum or preparatory year, there should be a one-day
independent learning activity each week. However, this should be carefully planned by the
teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs from the activity. Seven Criteria
for the Selection of Subject- matter or Content of the Curriculum
Significance
The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of
learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning
namely the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and considers the cultural aspects of the
learners. Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the
subject matter must be culture-sensitive. In short, select content or subject matter that can achieve
the overall aim of the curriculum.
Validity Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make
sure that the topics are not obsolete. For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be
learned by college students. It should be about the computer or Information Technology (IT).
Thus, there is a need to check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and
replace it if necessary. Do not wait for another 5 years to change it. Modern curriculum experts
are after current trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum; otherwise, the school or the
country becomes obsolete.
Interest this criterion is true to the learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject
matter is meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. However, if the
curriculum is subject- centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule
religiously and only teach what is in the book. This approach explains why many fail in the
subject.
Utility another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a
subject matter or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they
do not study. Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job?
Will it give meaning to my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it
be part of the test? Will I have a passing mark if I learn it? Students only value the subject matter
or content if it is useful to them.
Learn ability the subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be
within their experiences. Teachers should apply theories in the psychology of learning to know
how subjects are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the
students.
Feasibility Feasibility means full implementation of the subject matter. It should consider the real
situation of the school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within
the allowable time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible
to finish. For example, you have only one
Week left to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month for the students to complete.
Thus, this requirement is not feasible.

Selection and organization of methods.

Process of selecting curriculum elements form the subject, the current social life and the students
experience then designing the selected curriculum elements appropriately so thy they can form
the curriculum structure and type.
Integration Sequence Continuity Criteria for Effective Curriculum Organization
. A curriculum design is a framework or plan of action for preparing a course of study or a set of
students’ experiences .It is a deliberate process of devising, planning and selecting the elements,
techniques and
Procedures of curriculum. Curriculum design is a method of thinking. Curriculum Designs
. Curriculum design involves the creation of the set of operating principles or criteria, based on
theory, that guide the selection and organization of content and the methodology used to teach
that content .With the accelerated rate of social change, schools are preparing youth for
adulthood in a society not yet envisioned by its members .Hawley’s words still ring true: “it’s not
a question of whether or not to change, but whether or not we can control the way we are
changing. We are living in an Alice in an Wonderland world where you have to run just to stay
where you are .To get anywhere you have to run even faster than that. The pieces on the chess
board keep changing and the rules are never the same.” Importance of Curriculum Designs
. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? What educational experiences
can be provided that are likely to help attain these purposes? What educational purposes should
the school seek to attain? An effective curriculum must be built on a solid philosophical
foundation that answer the question of what educational purposes the school should seek to
achieve. The classical model for curriculum design, proposed by Tyler in 1949, asked four
questions of curriculum planners: Models of Curriculum Designs Tyler’s steps for curriculum
design included stating objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing the experiences,
and evaluating results. Tyler’s model is most closely aligned with the educational purposes of
preserving the social order and teaching skills and competencies needed to function effectively in
society.
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Models of Curriculum
Designs Cope with the knowledge explosion and the short “half-life” of scientific knowledge
respond to the educational needs of society and the immediate concerns of students. Derive and
test its concepts and theories in teaching process. Be consistent with the conceptual framework
and implement the conceptual framework commitments. The problems of curriculum change
become the criteria for determining the desirability of a curriculum. A list of the problems of
curriculum development, recapped and stated as criteria, following: Principles of Curriculum
Designs
Spend a reasonable length of the time accomplishing the goals of the curriculum. Produce a
graduate capable of delivering creative teaching care for the next fifteen to twenty years. Provide
for student testing of learned behavior in real situation. Enable utilization of cognitive teaching
input. Use teaching personnel in the most economical and efficient way (time, energy and
money). Use the logical, precise, effective, and efficient educational technology that is currently
available. Principles of Curriculum Designs
Fiorno and Nowak suggest the following steps in curriculum design:(1) Identification of the
problem.(2) Diagnosis of the problem.(3) Search for alternative solutions.(4) Selection for the
best solutions.(5) Ratification of the solution by the organization.(6) Authorization of the
solution.(7) Preparation for adopting of the solution.(8) Adoption of the solution.(9) Direction
and guidance of the staff.(10) Evaluation of the effectiveness of the solution Steps in Curriculum
Design.
Persons responsible for curriculum decisions include administrators, teachers, students, parents,
and community leaders. Most major innovations in the public school are introduced by teachers,
state boards or departments of
Education, and textbook publishers and instructional materials producers indirectly provide
educational leadership. Establish a Curriculum Committee
Core curriculum Activity/Experience based curriculum Subject-Centered Curriculum Categories
of Curriculum Designs
Broad Fields design Academic Disciplines design Subject design Subject centered curriculum is a
rigid curriculum , based on specific courses, which mandates specific amounts of material to be
covered over special periods of time regardless of student abilities or interests. Subject centered
curriculum assign the greatest importance to subject matter rather than to the students .It consists
of having students in classes for one subjects at a time such as mathematics for 45 minutes,
science for 45 minutes. And history for 45 minutes. Three related designs have emerged from
subject centered designs: Subject Centered Design
This is probably the oldest and most widely used form of curriculum organization found in
schools and educational systems .This is based on the classification and organization of subjects
matter into discrete groups, which we have called subjects .These groupings, which have become
known as school subjects, were initially based on evolving divisions of labour in research that
produced physics , history, literature and mathematics and so forth. In more recent times practical
areas such as typing , home economics and industrial arts have become accepted as subjects.
Subject Design
This approach to organizing curriculum is essentially a post second world war phenomenon
,gaining greatest support in the inherent organization of content, as is the subject design, the
academic discipline design emphasizes the role played by those distinct entities called academic
disciplines .In a school setting, the content of this design would focus on what an academician
does, that is ,how a biologist , historian , or a mathematician research is done , how that research
is carried out , how data are analysed, how research is reported , and so forth. The result , it is
hoped ,is that the school would produce mini versions of academic disciplinarians. Academic
Disciplines Design
This third design was developed to overcome a perceived weakness in the subject design that was
evident in the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries .Broad field design was deemed more
suited to younger learners.
The broad fields design is commonly found in primary and lower secondary schools. Broad
Fields Design Methodology applied and practised is largely teacher-centered and expository in
nature A hierarchy of subjects is commonly found according to their perceived value. Subjects
are clearly defined and distinguished. Classification and organization of all contents into subjects
or subjects-like groupings. This approach is efficient in a field in which resources for staff
development are scant. What students learn , they learn well. Students like it , they are used to it
and it fits their idea of what school should be. The advantages of subject-centered curriculum are:
Advantages of Subject Centered Design
Teachers are teaching the students to think inside the box in order to pass the exams. Students
simply memorize what they need to know in order to pas a test , instead of actually learning it.
Teachers wouldn’t be able to innovate their teaching style to help students learn in a creative
way. The disadvantages of subject centered curriculum are: Disadvantages of Subject Centered
Design
This approach is based on determine the genuine needs and interests of learner, which in turn
form the basis of the curriculum. An important claim of this approach is that “people only learn
what they experience”. According to M.K Gandhi, education is the development of all the
aspects i.e. body mind and spirit. So mind without activities can not develop the personality
perfectly .so education must give importance to activities.
Education, which has no link with life is meaningless. Activity/Experience Based Curriculum
Environmental Activity: These activities includes nature study, excursion ,survey , social visit.
These activities develop civic sense and love for nature in children. Physical Activities: These
activities aim at physical development of the child .it includes physical training, games and
sports. Activities Under Activity Based
Curriculum
Aesthetic activity: Music, arts creative crafts are included in this type of activities. These provide
opportunities for self-expression and development of inborn creative faculties. Constructive
Activity: With these activities love for work dignity of labor , production efficiency may be
developed. Handwork craft repairing of tools belong to this category of activities.
Community Activity: These Activities aim at community development and include community
projects, first aid, social service , etc these activities also help in the socialization of the child.
The teacher can provide information regarding history, geography, and economics with the help
of these activities.
It also helps learner psychologically as the can express their emotions through active
participation in something useful. It inspires the students to apply their creative ideas, knowledge
and mind in solving problems. The method also promote better understanding of a lesson among
students as they learn the lesson by practicing the task themselves. The most important feature of
Activity based curriculum is learning by doing .so this method can fulfill the natural urge of a
growing child on one hand also can help them learn their lesson. Advantages of Activity based
curriculum are: Advantages of Activity Based Curriculum The objective of this method can be
only be fulfilled if the planning of the lesson is flawless. Activity curriculum method require long
term planning with details of the whole process before engaging the learners, the teacher has to
make sure that all students have sufficient knowledge and skills regarding the task they are going
to perform .so this method can not be used on a regular and daily basis as it involves a lengthy
procedure. Disadvantages of Activity BasedCurriculum Activity curriculum is not applicable to
all stages of education. Personal supervision is needed for every activity which is not possible in
school. Activity curriculum attaches too much importance on activities. It neglects other
activities needed for intellectual development of the child. Limitations of Activity Based
 Curriculum The notion behind a core design, usually called a core curriculum, is that there exists
a set of common learnings (knowledge, skills and values) that should be provided to all learners
in order to function effectively in a society .The core concept, however, does vary considerably
in interpretation and one writer has suggested that it is possible to distinguish no less than six
forms of the core design. For our purposes, it is sufficient to understand that a curriculum may be
organized around the idea of a core as a set of learnings essential foe all students. The emphasis
of this approach to core curriculum was that all students would experience a set of common and
essential learnings that were necessary for learners to function effectively in society. Core
Curriculum
It Reduces Stress. It Facilitates Communication And Coordination of Projects. It Improves
economy of Time and efforts. It Improves the Probability of Success. It Focuses Attention On
Goal. Benefits of Curriculum Design

Curriculum Evaluation. The curriculum development process takes information from a subject
matter expert and, through much iteration, creates instruction. But how does information from an
expert get translated into educational content that is effective for learners? It goes through four
steps of design. In each step are important team members including project managers,
instructional designers, writers, copy editors, and subject matter experts. The team works
together to create effective content. Let’s have a look at the four steps in the curriculum
development process.

Gathering Information

The first step of the curriculum development process involves planning and determining who the
learner is and what they need to get out of the material. The team begins by initially identifying
what the scope is. Some examples of questions to ask at this stage are:
Design

Now that the team has extracted the information and identified the learner, it is time to begin
developing the content. Before designing the content, there needs to be clear objectives. Clear
objectives include action words such as:
• Identify
• Modify
• Plan
• Evaluate
As the instructional designers create the objectives, they carefully connect them to the content.
The objectives are measurable, which ensures that learning outcomes can occur. The team
examines the environment in which the content will be used. They ask questions such as: will the
learners be accessing the material on their mobile phones or in a classroom?
The team plans how to sequence the content and what delivery method to use. They perform
research, search for appropriate materials, and decide what graphics to use.

3. Building the Content

The third step of the curriculum development process is to build the content into a workable
instructional unit. The team combines written material with newly created graphics and, if
needed, animation. As the material is being built, there is constant communication between team
members. Copy editors work to keep the content consistent by ensuring the work is in the correct
style and lines up with the learning objectives. Instructional designers check that the material will
lead to measurable outcomes. Multiple iterations occur as material is discussed between team
members.
The final step of the curriculum development process is evaluation. Although the material has
gone through multiple iterations, it is evaluated once more. You could say that step four is
present throughout each of the prior steps. Each team member from the beginning is constantly
evaluating the material and ensuring that it serves the learner well. For example, the curriculum
developer makes sure to match the learning objectives against the material to ensure that the
material will lead to measurable results. The project manager tracks all team members’ changes
and ensures that they incorporate all necessary edits and revisions.
It takes a team to design excellent curriculum. Each step involves collaboration and constant
iterations of the material. As a result of this teamwork and dedication to the learner, it is possible
to build curriculum that leads to desired learning outcomes.
Content selection means selection of related syllabus of curriculum according to the need
.objectives and aims of education in specific country.

In reviewing the 36 content analyses, we determined that although a comprehensive methodology

for the conduct of content analyses was lacking, elements were distributed among the
submissions. We summarized the content analyses and reported the results when those results
could be used inferentially to inform the subsequent conduct of content analyses. We recognized
that no amount of delineation of method would produce identical evaluations, but suggested
rather that delineation of dimensions for review might help to make content analysis evaluations
more informative to curriculum decision makers. Toward this end, we recognized the importance
of involvement by mathematicians and mathematics educators in the process, and called for
increased participation by practitioners. We discussed the need for careful and thoughtful choices
on the standards to be used and the selection of comparative curricula. We acknowledged that
some content analysts would focus on the materials a priori, and others would prefer to conduct
analysis based on curricular use in situ. Find more effective means of identifying and discussing
differences. This might involve the use of panels of reviewers in discussion of particular
examples with contrasting perspectives.
In these content analyses—over time and particularly in the solicited letters—we see evidence
that the polarization that characterizes the mathematics education communities (mathematicians,
mathematics educators, teachers, parents) could be partially reconciled by more mutual
acknowledgment of the legitimacy of diverse perspectives and the shared practical need to serve
children better. It is possible, for example, that based on critical content analyses, subsequent
versions of reform curricula could be revised to strengthen weak or incomplete areas, traditional
curricular materials could be revised to provide more uses of innovative methods, and new
hybrids of the approaches could be developed.
At the same time, while the issue of content analysis is critical from philosophical, academic,
and logical viewpoints, it is not clear what degree or type of impact current content changes have
on student learning and achievement when curricula are implemented in classrooms. Learning is
taking place in a complex dynamical system, and one should consider whether the correction of
current curricular deficiencies, a process that obviously must be carried out, is the key pressure
point for changing the educational system. Will curricular content changes by themselves
actually reduce the disparities in learning that have been documented in many studies? Answers
to analogous questions exist in other fields. For example, although detailed understanding of the
immunology of HIV (resulting in the development of a robust vaccine) may be the key in the
long run, as of today, human behavior along with cultural practices and norms are the drivers
(pressure points) of the HIV epidemic. Efforts to alter behavior and cultural practices and norms,
at this point, are most likely to have immediate impact on HIV transmission dynamics.
Furthermore, changes in the social landscape will have a beneficial impact on the transmission
dynamics and control of many sexually transmitted diseases.
Analogously, in examining curricular effectiveness the role of content analyses, while critical, is
not the only pressure point in the system and may interact in fundamental ways with other
pressure points. Therefore it is essential to consider methods and approaches that take into
account the possible impact and implications of changing and evolving landscapes on a
curriculum’s implementation and effectiveness. The landscape shift illustrated in the 5-year
longitudinal study by Carroll (2001) of Everyday Mathematics highlights some of these
challenges. The next two chapters, on comparative studies and case studies, add indirect
consideration of other influences on the curricular effectiveness.
Nonetheless, as we transition to these, we emphasize the importance of content analysis in
relation to comparative and case studies. For example, content analyses can offer insights into the
designs of comparative analyses. A thorough content analysis provides a clear articulation of the
program theory from one point of
view. From a set of such reviews, researchers can identify contentious issues that merit further
basic research. One could examine questions such as, Do clear, concise materials used as primary
texts lead to stronger conceptual development than engaging, active challenges and tasks? or
Does the introduction of formal definitions facilitate further and deeper understanding and
mastery of new material? How and when does this work? Research is needed to determine
whether analyses of the intended curricula are validated by the empirical outcomes of the enacted
curricula. Content analyses are also valuable to inform the conduct of comparative studies. A
content analysis can help an evaluator to select appropriate outcome measures, to measure
particularly important content strands, and to concentrate on the essential aspects of
implementation and professional development. For these multiple reasons, careful and
increasingly sophisticated content analysis will make important contributions to the evaluation of
the effectiveness of a curricular program.