Government College University, Faisalabad

Department of Electrical Engineering & Technology

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Lab Manual

Prepared by:
Engr. Athar Baig

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2
TABLE OF LAB EXPERIMENTS

Sr. Page
No. Experiment
Introduction to the softwares:
1.  Proteus
 LABVIEW 7
 Matlab
To understand the basic working principle of lab view with the help of an
2. example of virtual instrumentation and hardware connection covering signal 12
analysis, signal operations, filtering- etc.
Simple Analogue to Digital conversion (Proteus Simulation of A/D conversion).
3. The ability to convert analog signals to digital and vice-versa is very important in signal
processing. The objective of an A/D converter is to determine the output digital word waveform 18
corresponding to an analog input signal.
Hardware implementation of Simple Analog to Digital conversion.
4. The ability to convert analog signals to digital and vice-versa is very important in signal 21
processing. The objective of an A/D converter is to determine the output digital word waveform
corresponding to an analog input signal.
Pulse -Code –Modulation simulation on MATLAB.
5. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the pulse code modulation. Students are expected to 24
right the Matlab code that will help them to understand the fundamentals of PCM. Later on they
will implement the hardware of this experiment.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (Proteus Simulation)
6. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the pulse amplitude modulation. Students are 29
expected to perform Proteus simulation that will help them to understand the fundamentals of
PAM.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (Hardware Implementation)
7. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the pulse amplitude modulation. Students are 33
expected to implement the hardware
Pulse Width Modulation(Proteus Simulation)
8. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the pulse width modulation. Students are expected 37
to perform Proteus simulation that will help them to understand the fundamentals of PWM.
Pulse Width Modulation(Hardware Implementation)
9. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the pulse width modulation. Students are expected 41
to perform hardware implementation of PWM.
Amplitude Shift Keying(Proteus Simulation)
10. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the amplitude shift keying. Students are expected to 45
perform Proteus simulation that will help them to understand the fundamentals of ASK.
Amplitude Shift Keying(Hardware Implementation)
11. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the amplitude shift keying. Students are expected to 48
perform the hardware implementation
Phase Shift Keying(Proteus Simulation)
12. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the amplitude phase keying. Students are expected 51
to perform Proteus simulation that will help them to understand the fundamentals of PSK.

3
 Phase Shift Keying(Hardware Implementation)
13. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the amplitude phase keying. Students are expected 55
to perform hardware implementation of PSK

Frequency Shift Keying(Proteus Simulation)

14. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the frequency shift keying. Students are expected to 58
perform Proteus simulation that will help them to understand the fundamentals of FSK.
Frequency Shift Keying(Hardware Implementation)
15. The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the frequency shift keying. Students are expected to 61
perform hardware implementation of FSK

4
 PREFACE

Communication is the transfer of information from source to destination in the form

of electrical signals. These signals are manipulated by electronic circuits, analog or
digital, for making it possible to transmit and receive the messages. This transfer can be
through physical links or space using the electromagnetic spectra. So a student must be
familiar with the type of message signals they need to handle and an insight into the
systems that can be used for processing the signals. Analog and digital communication
processes depend primarily on some well defined techniques which can be realized with
the help of the systems. The aim of all efficient communication technique is to recognize
the information signal, however weak it may be, from the accompanying undesirable
noise that is invariably present in the system as internal noise or picked up from the
channel as external ones, during transfer.

With Regards
Engr. Athar Baig

5
General Lab Instructions
 Each student group consists of a maximum of 2-4 students. Each group member is
responsible in submitting lab report upon completion of each experiment on their
practical Note book.
 Students are to wear proper attire i.e. shoe or sandal instead of slipper. Excessive
jewelleries are not advisable as they might cause electrical shock.
 A permanent record in ink of observations as well as results should be maintained
by each student and enclosed with the report.
 The recorded data and observations from the lab manual need to be approved
and signed by the lab instructor upon completion of each experiment.
 Before beginning connecting up, it is essential to check that all sources of supply
at the bench are switched off.
 Start connecting up the experiment circuit by wiring up the main circuit path, then
adds the parallel branches as indicated in the circuit diagram.
 After the circuit has been connected correctly, remove all unused leads from the
experiment area, set the voltage supplies at the minimum value, and check the
meters are set for the intended mode of operation.
 The students may ask the lab instructor to check the correctness of their circuit
before switching on.
 When the experiment has been satisfactory completed and the results approved by
the instructor, the students may disconnect the circuit and return the components
and instruments to the locker tidily. Chairs are to be slid in properly.

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Experiment No. 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE SOFTWARE USED
FOR SIMULATION.
OBJECTIVE
 To make the students familiarize with the most useful tools of simulation as well as
industrial automation and laboratory usage.

EQUIPMENT

 Proteus 8.0V
 Lab view 8.6V
 Matlab 7.0V

Proteus Introduction:
Proteus is software for microprocessor simulation, schematic capture, and printed
circuit board (PCB) design. It is developed by Lab-center Electronics.

System components

ISIS Schematic Capture - a tool for entering designs.

PROSPICE Mixed mode SPICE simulation - industry standard SPICE3F5 simulator

combined with a digital simulator.

ARES PCB Layout - PCB design system with automatic component placer, rip-up and
retry auto-router and interactive design rule checking.

VSM - Virtual System Modeling lets co-simulate embedded software for popular micro-
controllers alongside hardware design.

System Benefits Integrated package with common user interface and fully context
sensitive help.

7
The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB was written originally
to provide easy access to matrix software developed. Matlab is a tool for doing numerical
computations with matrices and vectors. It can also display information graphically. The
best way to learn what Matlab can do is to work through some examples at the computer.

Fig 1.1 Front Panel of MATLAB

Here is a sample session with Matlab.

>> a = [ 1 2; 2 1 ]

a =
1 2
2 1

>> a*a

ans =

5 4
4 5

8
Graphing

Functions of one variable

To make a graph of y = sin(t) on the interval t = 0 to t = 10 we do the following:

>> t = 0:.3:10;
>> y = sin(t);
>> plot(t,y)
Here is the result:

Fig 1.2 The graphical interface to the MATLAB workspace

MATLAB offer many pre-defined mathematical functions for technical computing which
contains a large set of mathematical functions. Typing help elfun and help specfun calls
up full lists of elementary and special functions respectively. There is a long list of
mathematical functions that are built into MATLAB. These functions are called built-ins.
Many standard mathematical functions, such as sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), ex , ln(x), are
evaluated by the functions sin, cos, tan, exp, and log respectively in MATLAB.

TABLE 1.1 Lists some commonly used functions, where variables x and y can be numbers,
vectors, or matrices.

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LabVIEW Environment

Diagram for a simple LabVIEW VI (virtual instrument) that multiplies and divides two
numbers. The front panel is the interactive user interface and is shown in Figure 1a. The
block diagram directs the flow of data through the VI and is shown in Figure 1b. Al
LabVIEW VIs have these two main components.

Fig 1.3 The two main components of a LabVIEW VI, called mult & div, that multiplies and
divides two numbers: (a) front panel and (b) block diagram.

Building a VI

To create a VI, the following general approach is used.

1. Define the function of your VI. What do you want your VI to do?

2. Create the user interface on the front panel. Determine the inputs and outputs you need
and then place the appropriate controls and indicators on the front panel.

3. Build the block diagram in the diagram window. Using the functions and structures
from the LabVIEW VI libraries, construct the block diagram to perform the required
functions. If a block diagram becomes too cluttered with a large number of icons, they
can be grouped and made into separate modules called subVIs (analogous to a subroutine
in conventional programming) to maintain clarity and simplicity of the block diagram.

4. Debug. If your VI has errors and won’t run, LabVIEW has some debug features to help
you find the errors.

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Questions.
 Can LabVIEW be integrated into existing software engineering practices?
 What assurance do I have that LabVIEW is a high-quality software product?
 Is LabVIEW a compiled programming language?
 Do LabVIEW VIs work with source code control providers?
 Can I merge LabVIEW Vis?
 What is MATLAB?
 What are the main features of Matlab?
 What is SIMULINK?

Assignment:

Students are advised to go through getting started files of the software and write
down the main applications of these software.

11
Experiment No. 2
BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLES OF LABVIEW
OBJECTIVE
To understand the basic working principle of lab view with the help of an example of
virtual instrumentation and hardware connection covering signal analysis, signal
operations, filtering- etc.

EQUIPMENT
 Lab view 8.6V
THEORY:
Building a Virtual Instrumentation.

PROCEDURE / CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PART A:
Complete the following steps to scale the signal by 10 and display the
results in the graph on the front panel.

1. On the block diagram, use the Positioning tool to double-click the wire that
connects the Simulate Signal Express VI to the Waveform Graph terminal,
shown at left.
2. Press the <Delete> key to delete this wire.
3. If the Functions palette, shown in Figure 1-6, is not visible, select
View»Functions Palette to display it. The Functions palette opens with the
Express sub palette visible by default. If you have selected another sub palette,
you can return to the Express sub palette by clicking Express on the Functions
palette.
4. On the Arithmetic & Comparison palette, select the Formula Express VI, shown
at left, and place it on the block diagram inside the loop between the Simulate
Signal Express VI and the Waveform Graph terminal. You can move the
Waveform Graph terminal to the right to make more room between the Express
VI and the terminal. The Configure Formula dialog box appears when you place

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 the Express VI on the block diagram. When you place an Express VI on the block
diagram, the configuration dialog box for that VI always appears automatically.
5. Click the Help button, shown at left, in the bottom right corner of the Configure
Formula dialog box to display the LabVIEW Help topic for this Express VI. The
Formula help topic describes the Express VI, the configuration dialog box
options, and the inputs and outputs of the Express VI. Each Express VI has a
corresponding help topic you can access by clicking the Help button in the
configuration dialog box or by right-clicking the Express VI and selecting Help
from the shortcut menu.
6. In the Formula topic, find the dialog box option whose description indicates that
it enters a variable into the formula.
7. Minimize the LabVIEW Help to return to the Configure Formula dialog box.
8. Change the text in the Label column of the dialog box option you read about,
shown at left, from X1 to Sawtooth to indicate the input value to the Formula
Express VI. When you click in the Formula text box at the top of the Configure
Formula dialog box, the text changes to match the label you entered.
9. Define the value of the scaling factor by entering *10 after Sawtooth in the
Formula text box.
10. Click the OK button to save the current configuration and close the Configure
Formula dialog box.
11. Move the cursor over the arrow on the Sawtooth output of the Simulate Signal
Express VI.
12. When the Wiring tool appears, click the arrow on the Sawtooth output and then
click the arrow on the Sawtooth input of the Formula ExpressVI, shown at left, to
wire the two objects together.
13. Use the Wiring tool to wire the Result output of the Formula Express VI to the
Waveform Graph terminal. Examine the wires connecting the Express VIs and
terminals. The arrows on the Express VIs and terminals indicate the direction that
the data flows along these wires. The block diagram should appear similar to
Figure

13
PART B:
To compare the signal generated by the Simulate Signal Express VI
and the signal modified by the Formula Express VI on the same graph, use
the Merge Signals function.

Complete the following steps to display two signals on the same graph.
1. On the block diagram, move the cursor over the arrow on the Sawtooth output of
the Simulate Signal Express VI.
2. Use the Wiring tool to wire the Sawtooth output to the Waveform Graph
terminal. The Merge Signals function, shown at left, appears where the two wires
connect. A function is a built-in execution element, comparable to an operator,
function, or statement in a text-based programming language. The Merge Signals
function takes the two separate signals and combines them so that both can
display on the same graph.
3. Press the <Ctrl-S> keys or select File»Save to save the VI.
4. Return to the front panel, run the VI, and turn the knob control. The graph plots
the original sawtooth wave and the scaled sawtooth wave with 10 times the
amplitude, as you specified in the Formula Express VI. The maximum value on
the y-axis automatically scales as you turn the knob.
5. Click the STOP button to stop the VI.

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PART C:
In the current state, the VI runs once, generates one signal, and then stops
running. To run the VI until a condition occurs, you can use a While Loop.

Complete the following steps to add a While Loop to the block diagram.

1. Display the front panel and run the VI.The VI runs once and then stops. The front
panel does not have a stop button.
2. Display the block diagram.
3. Click the Search button, shown at left, on the Functions palette, and enter While
in the text box. LabVIEW searches as you type and displays any matches in the
search results text box. LabVIEW displays a folder glyph to the left of sub-
palettes in the search results and displays a light blue glyph to the left of express
VIs in the search results.
4. Double-click While Loop <<Execution Control>> to display the Execution
Control subpalette and temporarily highlight the While Loop on the sub-palette.
5. Select the While Loop on the Execution Control palette.
6. Move the cursor to the upper left corner of the block diagram. Click and drag the
cursor diagonally to enclose all the Express VIs and wires, as shown in Figure

15
PART D:
Using a Table to Display Data

Complete the following steps to display a collection of mean values in a table on the front
panel.
1. On the front panel, search for the Express Table indicator on the Controls palette

and place it on the front panel to the right of the waveform graph.
2. Display the block diagram. LabVIEW wired the Table terminal to the Build
Table Express VI. If the Build able Express VI and the Table terminal are not
selected already, click an open area on the block diagram to the left of the Build
Table Express VI and the Table terminal. Drag the cursor diagonally until the
selection rectangle encloses the Build Table Express VI and the Table terminal,
shown at left. A moving dashed outline, called a marquee, highlights the Build
Table Express VI, the Table terminal, and the wire joining the two.
3. Drag the objects into the While Loop to the right of the Sample Compression
Express VI. If you drag objects near the border of the While Loop, the loop
resizes to enclose the Build Table Express VI and the Table terminal. When you
place an object in a While Loop near the border, the loop resizes to add space for
that object.
4. Use the Wiring tool to wire the Mean output of the Sample Compression Express
VI to the Signals input of the Build Table Express VI.
5. The block diagram should appear similar to Figure 2-5

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Output waveforms:

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Experiment No. 3
SIMPLE ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
(PROTEUS SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 Introduction of Proteus 7.8V.
 The ability to convert analog signals to digital and vice-versa is very important in
signal processing. The objective of an A/D converter is to determine the output
digital word waveform corresponding to an analog input signal.

EQUIPMENT
 Proteus 7.8V  Data sheet of ADC0808
 ADC0808
THEORY
Normally analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) needs interfacing through a
microprocessor to convert analogue data into digital format. This requires hardware
and necessary software, resulting in increased complexity and hence the total cost.
The circuit of A-to-D converter shown here is configured around ADC 0808,
avoiding the use of a microprocessor.
The ADC 0808 is an 8-bit A-to-D converter, having data lines D0-D7. It works on the
principle of successive approximation. It has a total of eight analogue input channels,
out of which any one can be selected using address lines A, B and C. Here, in this
case, input channel IN0 is selected by grounding A, B and C address lines.
Usually the control signals EOC (end of conversion), SC (start conversion), ALE
(address latch enable) and OE (output enable) are interfaced by means of a
microprocessor. However, the circuit shown here is built to operate in its continuous
mode without using any microprocessor. Therefore the input control signals ALE and
OE, being active-high, are tied to Vcc (+5 volts). The input control signal SC, being
active-low, initiates start of conversion at falling edge of the pulse, whereas the

18
 output signal EOC becomes high after completion of digitisation. This EOC output is
coupled to SC input, where falling edge of EOC output acts as SC input to direct the
ADC to start the conversion.
As the conversion starts, EOC signal goes high. At next clock pulse EOC output
again goes low, and hence SC is enabled to start the next conversion. Thus, it
provides continuous 8-bit digital output corresponding to instantaneous value of
analogue input. The maximum level of analogue input voltage should be
appropriately scaled down below positive reference (+5V) level.
The ADC 0808 IC requires clock signal of typically 550 kHz, which can be easily
derived from an astable multivibrator constructed using 7404 inverter gates. In order
to visualise the digital output, the row of eight LEDs (LED1 through LED8) have
been used, wherein each LED is connected to respective data lines D0 through D7.
Since ADC works in the continuous mode, it displays digital output as soon as
analogue input is applied.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 3.1 Simple Analog to Digital Converter)

19
PROCEDURE
1. Make the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Write the step by step procedure of simulation of Analog to Digital converter.

Fig 3.2 Proteus Simulation of A/D conversion

Output waveform:

20
Experiment No. 4
SIMPLE ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
(HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION)
OBJECTIVE
 The ability to convert analog signals to digital and vice-versa is very important in
signal processing. The objective of an A/D converter is to determine the output
digital word waveform corresponding to an analog input signal.

EQUIPMENT
 ADC0808  LED
 Function generator  Connecting wires
 Battery  Bred board

THEORY

Normally analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) needs interfacing through a

microprocessor to convert analogue data into digital format. This requires hardware
and necessary software, resulting in increased complexity and hence the total cost.
The circuit of A-to-D converter shown here is configured around ADC 0808,
avoiding the use of a microprocessor.
The ADC 0808 is an 8-bit A-to-D converter, having data lines D0-D7. It works on the
principle of successive approximation. It has a total of eight analogue input channels,
out of which any one can be selected using address lines A, B and C. Here, in this
case, input channel IN0 is selected by grounding A, B and C address lines.
Usually the control signals EOC (end of conversion), SC (start conversion), ALE
(address latch enable) and OE (output enable) are interfaced by means of a
microprocessor. However, the circuit shown here is built to operate in its continuous
mode without using any microprocessor. Therefore the input control signals ALE and
OE, being active-high, are tied to Vcc (+5 volts). The input control signal SC, being

21
active-low, initiates start of conversion at falling edge of the pulse, whereas the
output signal EOC becomes high after completion of digitisation. This EOC output is
coupled to SC input, where falling edge of EOC output acts as SC input to direct the
ADC to start the conversion.
As the conversion starts, EOC signal goes high. At next clock pulse EOC output
again goes low, and hence SC is enabled to start the next conversion. Thus, it
provides continuous 8-bit digital output corresponding to instantaneous value of
analogue input. The maximum level of analogue input voltage should be
appropriately scaled down below positive reference (+5V) level.
The ADC 0808 IC requires clock signal of typically 550 kHz, which can be easily
derived from an astable multivibrator constructed using 7404 inverter gates. In order
to visualise the digital output, the row of eight LEDs (LED1 through LED8) have
been used, wherein each LED is connected to respective data lines D0 through D7.
Since ADC works in the continuous mode, it displays digital output as soon as
analogue input is applied.

PROCEDURE
Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 4.1 Simple Analog to Digital Converter

22
Output waveform:

23
Experiment No. 5
PULSE CODE MODULATION, MATLAB
IMPLEMENTATION.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this lab is to familiarize with the pulse code modulation. Students are
expected to right the Matlab code that will help them to understand the fundamentals
of PCM. Later on they will implement the hardware of this experiment.

EQUIPMENT
 Matlab V7.0

THEORY
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a digital representation of an analog signal where the
magnitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, then quantized to a
series of symbols in a digital (usually binary) code.
PCM has been used in digital telephone systems and is also the standard form for digital
audio in computers and the compact disc red book format. It is also standard in digital
video, for example, using ITU-R BT.601. However, straight PCM is not typically used
for video in consumer applications such as DVD or DVR because it requires too high a
bit rate (PCM audio is supported by the DVD standard but rarely used). Instead,
compressed variants of PCM are normally employed. However, many Blu-ray Disc
movies use uncompressed PCM for audio. Very frequently, PCM encoding facilitates
digital transmission from one point to another (within a given system, or geographically)
in serial form.
Modulation

Sampling and quantization of a signal (red)

for 4-bit PCM

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In the Diagram, a sine wave (red curve) is sampled and quantized for PCM. The sine
wave is sampled at regular intervals, shown as ticks on the x-axis. For each sample, one
of the available values (ticks on the y-axis) is chosen by some algorithm (in this case, the
ceiling function is used). This produces a fully discrete representation of the input signal
(shaded area) that can be easily encoded as digital data for storage or manipulation. For
the sine wave example at right, we can verify that the quantized values at the sampling
moments are 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 14, 15, 15, 15, 14, etc. Encoding these values as binary
numbers would result in the following set of nibbles: 1001, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1110,
1111, 1111, 1111, 1110, etc. These digital values could then be further processed or
analyzed by a purpose-specific digital signal processor or general purpose CPU. Several
Pulse Code Modulation streams could also be multiplexed into a larger aggregate data
stream, generally for transmission of multiple streams over a single physical link. This
technique is called time-division multiplexing, or TDM, and is widely used, notably in
the modern public telephone system.

There are many ways to implement a real device that performs this task. In real systems,
such a device is commonly implemented on a single integrated circuit that lacks only the
clock necessary for sampling, and is generally referred to as an ADC (analog-to-digital
converter). These devices will produce on their output a binary representation of the input
whenever they are triggered by a clock signal, which would then be read by a processor
of some sort.

PROCEDURE
Matlab Headings for implementation of PCM.

 Sampling

 Quantization

 Encoding

 SNR Calculation

25
  Plots.

STEP BY STEP MATLAB CODE FOR PCM IMPLEMENTATION AS

DESCRIBED ABOVE.

function [y Bitrate MSE Stepsize QNoise]=pcm(A,fm,fs,n)

%A=amplitute of cosine signal
%fm=frequency of cosine signal
%fs=sampling frequency
%n= number of bits per sample
%MSE=Mean Squar error, QNoise=Quantization Noise
t=0:1/(100*fm):1;
x=A*cos(2*pi*fm*t);
%---Sampling-----
ts=0:1/fs:1;
xs=A*cos(2*pi*fm*ts);
%xs Sampled signal

%--Quantization---
x1=xs+A;
x1=x1/(2*A);
L=(-1+2^n); % Levels
x1=L*x1;
xq=round(x1);
r=xq/L;
r=2*A*r;
r=r-A;
%r quantized signal

%----Encoding---
y=[];
for i=1:length(xq)
d=dec2bin(xq(i),n);
y=[y double(d)-48];
end
%Calculations
MSE=sum((xs-r).^2)/length(x);
Bitrate=n*fs;
Stepsize=2*A/L;
QNoise=((Stepsize)^2)/12;

figure(1)
plot(t,x,'linewidth',2)
title('Sampling')
ylabel('Amplitute')

26
xlabel('Time t(in sec)')
hold on
stem(ts,xs,'r','linewidth',2)
hold off
legend('Original Signal','Sampled Signal');

figure(2)
stem(ts,x1,'linewidth',2)
title('Quantization')
ylabel('Levels L')
hold on
stem(ts,xq,'r','linewidth',2)
plot(ts,xq,'--r')
plot(t,(x+A)*L/(2*A),'--b')
grid
hold off
legend('Sampled Signal','Quantized Signal');

figure(3)
stairs([y y(length(y))],'linewidth',2)
title('Encoding')
ylabel('Binary Signal')
xlabel('bits')
axis([0 length(y) -1 2])
grid

27
Output Graphs of Matlab for PCM.

Fig 5.1Sampling Fig 5.2 Quantization

Fig 5.3 PCM Encoded Waveform

28
Experiment No. 6
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(PROTEUS SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To study the waveform of pulse amplitude modulation.

EQUIPMENT
 PROTEUS 7.7

THEORY

PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION is modulation in which the amplitude of each

pulse is controlled by the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal at the time of
each pulse. PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation. This technique transmits data
by varying the voltage or power amplitudes of individual pulses in a timed sequence of
electromagnetic pulses. In other words, the data to be transmitted is encoded in the
amplitude of a series of signal pulses. PAM can also be used for generating additional
pulse modulations.
Pulse-amplitude modulation has also been developed for the control of light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), especially for lighting applications. LED drivers based on the PAM
technique offer improved energy efficiency over systems based upon other common
driver modulation techniques such as pulse-width modulation (PWM) as the forward
current passing through an LED is relative to the intensity of the light output and the LED
efficiency increases as the forward current is reduced.
Pulse-amplitude modulation LED drivers are able to synchronize pulses across multiple
LED channels to enable perfect colour matching. Due to the inherent nature of PAM in
conjunction with the rapid switching speed of LEDs it is possible to use LED lighting as
a means of wireless data transmission at high speed.

29
 Figure 6.1: PAM signal at different frequencies

PROCEDURE:
1. Connection are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the square wave carries signal of 2V peak to peak amplitude with
frequency fc = 5 k Hz.
3. Apply sine wave modulating signal with frequency fm = 100 Hz with 5Vpp
amplitude and 3V DC shift(use function generator.
4. Observe the PAM output.
5. Observe the demodulation signal at the output of the low pass filter.
6. Repeat the steps 2 to 5 for fc = 2 fm & fc < 2 fm

30
 Figure 6.2: Proteus Simulation of PAM

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

Figure 6.3: Proteus Simulation output of PAM

31
Question :
Q.1 What is the relationship between fc and fm?
Q.2 What will happen if fc>fm ?
Q.3 What will happen if fc<fm?
Q.4 What are the maximum ratings of SL100 NPN?(Consult Datasheet)
Q.5 At the demodulator part of the circuit LPF is used. State how LPF is working here? And
find the relationship between R and C.

32
Experiment No. 7
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To study the waveform of pulse amplitude modulation.

EQUIPMENT
 SL 100  Capacitors
 Resistors  Function generator

THEORY

PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION is modulation in which the amplitude of each

pulse is controlled by the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal at the time of
each pulse. PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation. This technique transmits data
by varying the voltage or power amplitudes of individual pulses in a timed sequence of
electromagnetic pulses. In other words, the data to be transmitted is encoded in the
amplitude of a series of signal pulses. PAM can also be used for generating additional
pulse modulations.
Pulse-amplitude modulation has also been developed for the control of light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), especially for lighting applications. LED drivers based on the PAM
technique offer improved energy efficiency over systems based upon other common
driver modulation techniques such as pulse-width modulation (PWM) as the forward
current passing through an LED is relative to the intensity of the light output and the LED
efficiency increases as the forward current is reduced.
Pulse-amplitude modulation LED drivers are able to synchronize pulses across multiple
LED channels to enable perfect colour matching. Due to the inherent nature of PAM in
conjunction with the rapid switching speed of LEDs it is possible to use LED lighting as
a means of wireless data transmission at high speed.

33
 Figure 7.1: PAM signal at different frequencies

PROCEDURE:
 Connection are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Apply the square wave carries signal of 2V peak to peak amplitude with
frequency fc = 5 k Hz.
 Apply sine wave modulating signal with frequency fm = 100 Hz with 5Vpp
amplitude and 3V DC shift(use function generator.
 Observe the PAM output.
 Observe the demodulation signal at the output of the low pass filter.
 Repeat the steps 2 to 5 for fc = 2 fm & fc < 2 fm
 Get the output on the oscilloscope.

34
Fig.7.3 Hardware circuit for PAM

35
Output waveform:

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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36
Experiment No. 8
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
(PROTEUS SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To study the waveform of pulse width modulation.

EQUIPMENT
PROTEUS 7.7

THEORY
To transmit a signal f(t) that is band limited to fm Hz, it is only necessary to transmit the
information about its sample values at (2fm)-1 second interval (recall Nyquis Theory). It
is possible o represent each sample by a pulse. Certain parameters of thr pulse(such as
amplitude, width or position)can be varied depending on the value of he sample. In other
words, one of the parameters of the pulse vary in proportion to f(t). Thus, a series of
modulation scheme are evolved. Consider Figure given below where types of modulation
scheme are illustrated.

Fig 8.1 Types Of Modulation

37
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

As it was mentioned in the above, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) encodes a signal into
periodic pulse of equal amplitude but varying width. The width of a pulse at a given point
in time is proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at the time. For example, a
large value of the message signal corresponds to the width pulse, and a small value of the
message yields a narrow pulse. The width of the pulse can be described in terms of its
duty cycle, which is defined as:

Where, tw = width of the pulse

td = period of the pulse.
Here, td is constant and tw varies.

Fig.8.2 Defination of duty cycle

In PWM, there is a linear relationship between the duty cycle (d) and amplitude of message
signal (Vin). This relationship can be written as following:

Where, Md is the modulation index.

PROCEDURE
1. Connections are made according to the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the modulating signal with the minimum amplitude, observe the output at
pin 3.

38
 Fig 8.3 Proteus Simulation for PWM

Output waveform:

Fig 8.4 OUTPUT OF PWM

39
Questions
Q1. Write the pin configuration of 555 IC?
Q2. What is the difference between mono stable and astable 555IC?
Q3. What are the uses of PWM Wave.?
Q4. What is the difference between PWM and PAM?
Q5. What is duty cycle? What is the relation between duty cycle and pulse width?

40
Experiment No. 9
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
(HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To study the waveform of pulse width modulation.

EQUIPMENT
 Resistors  Diodes IN4148
 Capacitors  555 Timer IC
 Function generator

THEORY
To transmit a signal f(t) that is band limited to fm Hz, it is only necessary to transmit the
information about its sample values at (2fm)-1 second interval (recall Nyquis Theory). It
is possible o represent each sample by a pulse. Certain parameters of thr pulse(such as
amplitude, width or position)can be varied depending on the value of he sample. In other
words, one of the parameters of the pulse vary in proportion to f(t). Thus, a series of
modulation scheme are evolved. Consider Figure given below where types of modulation
scheme are illustrated.

Fig 9.1 Types Of Modulation

41
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

As it was mentioned in the above, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) encodes a signal into
periodic pulse of equal amplitude but varying width. The width of a pulse at a given point
in time is proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at the time. For example, a
large value of the message signal corresponds to the width pulse, and a small value of the
message yields a narrow pulse. The width of the pulse can be described in terms of its
duty cycle, which is defined as:

Where, tw = width of the pulse

td = period of the pulse.
Here, td is constant and tw varies.

Fig.9.2 Defination of duty cycle

In PWM, there is a linear relationship between the duty cycle (d) and amplitude of message
signal (Vin). This relationship can be written as following:

Where, Md is the modulation index.

PROCEDURE
3. Connections are made according to the circuit diagram.

4. Keep the modulating signal with the minimum amplitude, observe the output at
pin 3.

42
Check Points:-
With modulation signal zero, the voltageat pin 5 of 555 timer should be 2/3
Vcc.Ensure that modulation signal is clamped.

43
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 9.3 Circuit for PWM

Output waveform:

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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44
Experiment No. 10
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING, MODULATION
AND DEMODULATION (PROTEUS
SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To understand the waveform of amplitude shift keying.

EQUIPMENT
 PROTEUS 7.7

THEORY
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as
variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.

Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital
data. ASK uses a finite number of amplitudes, each assigned a unique pattern of binary
digits. Usually, each amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits
forms the symbol that is represented by the particular amplitude. The demodulator, which
is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the
amplitude of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus
recovering the original data. Frequency and phase of the carrier are kept constant.

Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation
conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and demodulation
processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is also commonly used to
transmit digital data over optical fiber. For LED transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a
short pulse of light and binary 0 by the absence of light. Laser transmitters normally have

45
a fixed "bias" current that causes the device to emit a low light level. This low level
represents binary 0, while a higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1.

PROCEDURE
Write the step by step procedure of Proteus simulation of Amplitude Shift Keying.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 10.1 Schematic of ASK Modulation

46
RESULTS

Fig 10.2 Output Waveforms of ASK Modulation

Questions:

1. What is Amplitude shift keying ASK?

2. What is the function and characteristics of SL100 in ASK?
3. State advantages of amplitude shift keying?
4. What is the application for amplitude shift keying?
5. What is the difference between amplitude shift keying and AM modulation
system?

47
Experiment No. 11
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING, MODULATION
AND DEMODULATION (HARDWARE
IMPLEMENTATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To understand the waveform of amplitude shift keying.

EQUIPMENT (Hardware implementation)

SL100, 47kΩ, 1kΩ, BY127, 1μF, IC741, 10kΩ potentiometer

THEORY
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as
variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.

Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital
data. ASK uses a finite number of amplitudes, each assigned a unique pattern of binary
digits. Usually, each amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits
forms the symbol that is represented by the particular amplitude. The demodulator, which
is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the
amplitude of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus
recovering the original data. Frequency and phase of the carrier are kept constant.

Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions, propagation
conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation and demodulation
processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is also commonly used to
transmit digital data over optical fiber. For LED transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a
short pulse of light and binary 0 by the absence of light. Laser transmitters normally have

48
a fixed "bias" current that causes the device to emit a low light level. This low level
represents binary 0, while a higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Apply the input voltage m(t) as 500Hz. Apply carrier square pulse as 1kHz.
3. Observe the waveforms for ASK
4. Use the demodulation circuit to obtain m(t) back.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 11.1 Circuit Diagram for Modulation of ASK

Fig.11.2 Waveform for ASK Modulation

49
 Fig 11.3 Circuit for Demodulation of ASK

Output waveform:

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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50
Experiment No. 12
BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PROTEUS
SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To understand the waveform of phase shift keying.

EQUIPMENT (Simulation)
 Function generator  Function generator
 LM 324  Oscilloscope
 4053 Multiplexer/ de-multiplexer  Capacitor
 555 Timer IC  Resisters

THEORY
In PSK we change the phase of sinusoidal carrier to indicate information. Phase in this
context is the starting angle at which the sinusoid starts. To transmit 0, we shift the phase
of the sinusoid by 180 degree. Phase shift represents the change in the stat of the
information in this case.

BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, Phase Reversal Keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest
form of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180° and so
can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation
points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and 180°.
This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest level of noise
or distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only
able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-
rate applications.

51
 Fig 12.1 Binary PSK carrier (NOTE the 180o phase shift at bit edges

PROCEDURE
Write the step by step procedure of Proteus simulation of Phase Shift Keying.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 12.2 Schematic of PSK Modulation

RESULTS

Fig 12.3 Output Waveforms of PSK Modulation

53
Questions.

1. What is Phase Shift Keying modulation?

2. Advantage and disadvantages of BPSK?
3. What are the applications of BPSK?
4. What are the other forms of Phase shift keying?

54
Experiment No. 13
BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING
(HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To understand the waveform of phase shift keying.

EQUIPMENT
LF398, IC741, IC4053, IC555, 47kΩ, 10kΩ, 10kΩ potentiometer.

THEORY
In PSK we change the phase of sinusoidal carrier to indicate information. Phase in this
context is the starting angle at which the sinusoid starts. To transmit 0, we shift the phase
of the sinusoid by 180 degree. Phase shift represents the change in the stat of the
information in this case.

BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, Phase Reversal Keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest
form of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are separated by 180° and so
can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation
points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and 180°.
This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest level of noise
or distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only
able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-
rate applications.

Fig 13.1 Output waveform for BPSK

55
 Fig 13.2 Binary PSK carrier (NOTE the 180o phase shift at bit edges

PROCEDURE
5. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
6. Apply the input voltage m(t) at 1kHz 2V P-P.
7. Observe the waveforms for BPSK.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 13.3 Circuit Diagram for BPSK

56
Output waveforms:

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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57
Experiment No. 14
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
(PROTEUS SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To understand the waveform of frequency shift keying.

EQUIPMENT (Simulation)
 Function generator  Oscilloscope
 4053 Multiplexer/ Demultiplexer  Capacitor
 555 Timer IC  Resisters

THEORY
In FSK, we change the frequency in response to information, one particular frequency for
a 1 and another frequency for a 0 as shown below for the same bit sequence as above. In
the example below, frequency f1 for bit 1 is higher than f2 used for the 0 bit.

Fig14.1 Binary FSK Signal.

58
The FSK signal may be viewed as a sum of two interleaved ASK signals, one with a
modulating frequency f1, and the other with a modulating frequency f2. Hence, the
spectrum of FSK is the sum of two ASK spectra at frequencies f1 and f2. No discrete
components appear in this spectrum. It can be shown that by properly choosing f1 and f2,
discrete components can be eliminated. Note that the bandwidth of FSK is higher than
that of ASK or PSK.

PROCEDURE
Write the step by step procedure of Proteus simulation of Frequency Shift Keying.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 14.2 Schematic of FSK Modulation

RESULTS

Fig 14.3 Output Waveforms of FSK Modulation

Questions:
1. What is frequency shift keying and its working principle?
2. What are the applications of FSK?
3. What is multiple frequency shift keying?
4. What are the features of LF398? (Consult data sheet)

60
Experiment No. 15
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING(PROTEUS
SIMULATION)
OBJECTIVE
 To understand the waveform of frequency shift keying.

EQUIPMENT (Hardware implementation)

LF398, IC741, 47kΩ, 10kΩ, 10kΩ potentiometer.

THEORY
In FSK, we change the frequency in response to information, one particular frequency for
a 1 and another frequency for a 0 as shown below for the same bit sequence as above. In
the example below, frequency f1 for bit 1 is higher than f2 used for the 0 bit.

Fig15.1 Binary FSK Signal.

The FSK signal may be viewed as a sum of two interleaved ASK signals, one with a
modulating frequency f1, and the other with a modulating frequency f2. Hence, the

61
spectrum of FSK is the sum of two ASK spectra at frequencies f1 and f2. No discrete
components appear in this spectrum. It can be shown that by properly choosing f1 and f2,
discrete components can be eliminated. Note that the bandwidth of FSK is higher than
that of ASK or PSK.

Fig 15.2 Waveform for FSK Modulation and Demodulation

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply the input voltage c1(t) at 50kHz and c2(t) at 100kHz.
3. Observe the waveforms for FSK.

4. Use the demodulation circuit to obtain Binary data back.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig15.3 Circuit Diagram for FSK Modulation

62
 Fig 15.4 Circuit Diagram for FSK De-modulation

Output waveforms:

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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63