Exposure Assessment

Tom Burke, PhD, MPH

Johns Hopkins University
Four Steps of Risk Assessment

!  Hazard identification
!  Dose response
!  Exposure assessment
!  Risk characterization

2
Section A

Introduction to Exposure Pathways

The material in this video is subject to the copyright of the owners of the material and is being provided for educational purposes under
rules of fair use for registered students in this course only. No additional copies of the copyrighted work may be made or distributed.
Southern California Basin

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Testing the Waters

5
Sludge Applications to Agricultural Land

6
Dust Devils over Riverside

7
Airborne Exposure over Manhattan

8
High Volume Samples

9
Trade Center Worker

10
High Risk Exposure

11
Nearby Homes

12
Anthrax Exposure

13
Surviving

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Vulnerable Population

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Cleanup Exposure

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What Is Exposure?

!  Contact
!  Contact with something harmful
!  Examples
  Environmental pollutants
  Bacteria
  Drugs

17
Section B

Understanding Exposure

The material in this video is subject to the copyright of the owners of the material and is being provided for educational purposes under
rules of fair use for registered students in this course only. No additional copies of the copyrighted work may be made or distributed.
Exposure Definition from EPA’s 1992 Exposure
Guidelines

!  Defines exposure as taking place at the visible external boundary

(i.e., nostril, mouth, skin)
!  Exposure is the condition of a chemical contacting the outer
boundary of a human (nostril, mouth, skin)

2
Exposure Assessment Questions

!  Who is exposed?
  Population characteristics
!  How are they exposed?
  Exposure route
!  How long have they been exposed?
  Duration
!  How often is the population exposed?
  Frequency
!  How much are they exposed to?
  Magnitude

3
Exposure Assessment Questions

!  Who is exposed?
  Population characteristics
!  How are they exposed?
  Exposure route
!  How long have they been exposed?
  Duration
!  How often is the population exposed?
  Frequency
!  How much are they exposed to?
  Magnitude
!  How much variability and uncertainty?

4
Exposure Assessment Approaches

!  Qualitative or quantitative
!  Past, present, and future exposures

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Exposure Assessment Approaches

!  Exposure estimation techniques

  Modeling
  Measurement
  Biological samples

6
Four Major Uses of Human Exposure Information

7
Exposure Assessment: A Tool

!  How is the tool applied to risk assessment?

!  Requires looking at the goal of population based risk assessment

8
Components of an Exposure Assessment for Risk
Assessment

!  Quantify the exposure (at the contact point, but external to body)
!  Identify the dose parameters of interest (define the rate at which
the chemical crosses into the body for each relevant route)
!  Perform calculations that link exposure and dose

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Define the Population

!  Describe who is there and what are they doing

!  Identify more and exposed subpopulations
!  Identify vulnerable subpopulations

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Source to Effect Continuum

Source Emissions and Effluent

Fate and Transport

Ambient Conditions
(Air, Water, Soil)

Human Activities

Human Exposure
(Inhalation, Dermal, Ingestion)

Toxicological and Pharmacokinetic Properties

Dose

Individual Variability and Susceptibility

Effect

11
Section C

Pathways to Exposure

The material in this video is subject to the copyright of the owners of the material and is being provided for educational purposes under
rules of fair use for registered students in this course only. No additional copies of the copyrighted work may be made or distributed.
Important Exposure Assessment Terms

!  Multiple sources
!  Fate and transport

2
Important Exposure Assessment Terms

!  Multiple sources
!  Fate and transport
!  Transformation and accumulation
!  Multi-media (air, water, soil, food)
!  Multi-pathways of exposure
!  Multiple routes of exposure
  Inhalation, ingestion, dermal

3
Vocabulary

!  Pathway
  How a substance travels from its source to result in a given
exposure
!  Media
  The environmental components of a pathway (i.e., air, water,
soil/dusts, foods)
!  Route
  How the person becomes exposed (inhalation, dermal,
ingestion)
!  Bioaccumulation
  The process of chemicals collecting in living tissue
!  Bio-concentration
  The increase of concentration in living tissue over the
concentration in the exposure medium

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 Simple Pathway: Aflatoxin

!  Source—moldy food (e.g., corn, peanuts)

!  Medium—food
!  Route
  Eating for public
  Inhalation for workers who process food

Photo Source: Purdue University, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology

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Complex Exposure Pathways Examples

!  WTC Contaminants
!  Pesticides
!  Incinerator emissions
!  Katrina contaminants

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 Multiple-Exposure Pathways to Environmental
Pollutants

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Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Energy materials
Common Human Exposure Pathways for Environmental
Pollutants

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Complicated Pathways to Risk Assessment

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Common Human Exposure Pathways for Environmental
Pollutants

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Frequency and Duration: Human Activity Data

!  Personal interview
!  Self-administered questionnaires and diaries
!  Observation
!  Physiological measurements

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Human Exposure Data Collection Approaches

!  Environmental measurements along with human activity information

(modeled estimates)
!  Air quality measurements on the person (current exposure)
!  Biological measurements of past exposure (biomarkers)

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Exposure Factors

!  Examples
  Length of time in transit by gender and stage in life cycle
  Amount of bread eaten by age group
!  Guidance—agency specific
!  Best estimates—either averages or maximums
!  Defaults

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 EPA Exposure Handbook

Estimated Daily Soil Ingestion Based on Aluminum, Silicon,

and Titanium Concentrations

Soil Ingestion (mg/day)

Estimation
Method 95th Geometric
Mean ± SD Median Range
Percentile Mean

Aluminum 181 ± 203 121 25-1,324 584 128

Silicon 184 ± 175 136 31-799 578 130

Titanium 1,834 ± 3,091 618 4-17,076 9,590 401

Minimum 108 ± 121 88 4-708 386 65

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Source: Adapted by CTLT from Binder, et al. (1986)
 EPA Exposure Handbook: Water Contact

Range of Recommended Defaults for Dermal Exposure

Water Contact
Soil Contact
Factor Bathing Swimming

Central Upper Central Upper Central Upper

10 min/event 15 min/event 0.5 hr/event 1.0 hr/event 350

Event time and 40
1 event/day 1 event/day 1 event/day 1 event/day events /
frequencya events/yr
350 days/yr 350 days/yr 5 days/yr 150 days/yr yr

Exposure
9 30 9 30 9 30
duration (years)

a Bathing event time is presented to be representative of baths as well as showers

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Source: U.S., E.P.A. (1992)
Estimating Ambient Concentrations (i.e., the
Magnitude of Exposure)

!  Agent
  Chemical and physical properties
!  Sources
  Production
  Use
  Release
!  Environmental fate
  Transport
  Geographic distribution

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Section D

From Exposure to Risk: Who Is at Risk?

The material in this video is subject to the copyright of the owners of the material and is being provided for educational purposes under
rules of fair use for registered students in this course only. No additional copies of the copyrighted work may be made or distributed.
Personal Exposure Measurements

!  Passive monitoring
  Volatile organic compounds
  Radiation
!  Active monitoring
  Particles
  Nitrogen dioxide

2
Biological Samples

!  Blood
!  Urine
!  Saliva
!  Cerebral spinal fluid
!  Amniotic fluid and cells
!  Semen
!  Hair
!  Feces
!  Teeth
!  Nails

3
Exposure Method Depends Upon . . .

!  Data availability
!  Technical feasibility
!  Funding
!  Time constraints
!  Potential errors and their consequences
!  Acceptable level of uncertainty
!  Knowledge of exposure/dose/effect relationships
  Biologically relevant interval of exposure
  Biologically relevant metric of exposure

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Uncertainty and Variability in Exposure Measurement

!  Reliability
  Stability of measurement
!  Validity
  A test measures what it purports to measure
!  Variability
!  Range of values in quantities
  Differences among people’s activities
  The spatial distribution of pollutants
  The temporal distribution of pollutants

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EPA Handbook: Exposure Estimates
Relationship between Exposure Estimators and their
Costs and Ability to Predict/Classify Human Exposures to
Environmental Pollutants

6
Exposure to Dose

!  Intake or uptake rates

!  Body weight
!  Averaging time
!  Defaults

7
Toxicological Continuum

Ambient/Exposure/Dose

Ambient: How much material is present in the environment?

x time

Exposure: How much contact with material takes place?

x factor

Dose: How much material enters the exposed person?

x factor

Biologically How much material reaches the target site?

Effective
Dose:

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Dose and Exposure: EPA Guidelines

9
The Exposure to Dose Continuum

The material in this video is subject to the copyright of the owners of the material and is being provided for educational purposes under
rules of fair use for registered students in this course only. No additional copies of the copyrighted work may be made or distributed.
Applied Dose and Potential Dose

► Applied dose
► Is the amount of chemical at the absorption barrier (skin, lung, GI tract)

► Potential dose
► Is an approximation of applied dose
► Is the amount of chemical ingested, inhaled, or applied to skin
► For inhalation and ingestion is analogous to administered dose in dose-response
assessment

2
Internal Dose, Delivered Dose, Biologically Effective Dose

► Internal dose
► Amount of chemical absorbed and available for interaction with biologically significant
receptors

► Delivered dose
► Amount transported to individual organ, tissue, or fluid of interest
► May be a small part of internal dose

► Biologically effective dose

► Amount reaches cells, sites, or membranes where adverse effects occur
► May be a part of delivered dose

3
Benzene
Example

4
Measurements of Internal Dose: Biomarkers

► Marker of exposure: qualitative relationship to exposure or dose

► Blood cotinine and nicotine levels

► Marker of dose: quantitative relationship to exposure or dose

► NNK and cigarette smoking

► Measure of body burden, e.g. fat concentrations of PCBs—marker of deposited dose

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Concentration, Exposure, or Dose?

► Lead content of outdoor air ► Nicotine level in a train station

► Blood lead level ► Number of particles in a liter of air

► Lead level in pottery ► Level of breath benzene

► Cigarettes smoked per day

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Application to Risk Assessment: Exposure or Dose?

► Depending on the type of dose data used in the dose response portion of an assessment

► Most risk assessments use a dose-response relationship that is based on potential and
internal dose

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Tylenol Dose—1

► A single tablet contains 200 mg of

acetaminophen

► Adult takes four tablets in one day by

mouth

► What is the dose?

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Tylenol Dose—2

► A single tablet contains 200 mg of 200 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 × 4 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

acetaminophen 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
70 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

► Adult takes four tablets in one day by = 11.4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

mouth

► What is the dose?

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Tylenol Dose—3

► A single tablet contains 200 mg of 200 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 × 4 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

acetaminophen 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

► Adult takes four tablets in one day = 40 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

by mouth

► What is the dose?

► Child = 20 kg

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Exposure: Dose Conversion for Risk Assessment

► Component 1—concentration at point of contact

► Component 2—calculate exposure

► Component 3—determine intake rate

► Component 4—estimate potential dose

► Component 5—calculate time weighted dose (e.g., lifetime average daily dose)

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Quantitative Tools of Exposure Assessment
Patti Truant Anderson, PhD, MPH
Johns Hopkins University
Circle this Slide!

► Quantitative tools of exposure ► Equation to remember

assessment ► for ED, ADD, and LADD
► Exposure dose (ED)
► Average daily dose (ADD) 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = (𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)⁄𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
► Lifetime average daily dose (LADD)

2
Exposure Dose (ED)

► Where:
► C = concentration
► IR = intake rate
► EF = exposure factor
► BW = body weight
𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 =
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ► ED is often used to represent an
immediate dose

3
Average Daily Dose (ADD)

► Where:
► C = concentration
► IR = intake rate
► EF = exposure factor
► BW = body weight
𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷 =
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ► ADD is used to characterize acute, sub-
chronic, and chronic exposures

► ADDs are used for non-cancer endpoints

4
Lifetime Average Daily Dose (LADD)

► Where:
► C = concentration
► IR = intake rate
► EF = exposure factor
► BW = body weight
𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ► LADDs are used to characterize lifetime
exposures

► LADDs are used for carcinogenic

endpoints

5
Defaults to Know

► Adult body weight: 70 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 80 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ► Adult inhalation rate: 22 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

► Child body weight: 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ► Adult water ingestion rate: 2 𝐿𝐿⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

► Adult lifetime: 70 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ► Child water ingestion rate: 1 𝐿𝐿⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

6
Components of Exposure Equations

► Concentration (C)

► Intake rate (IR)

► Exposure factor (EF)

► Body weight (BW)

7
Concentration

► Concentration is a measure of the mass ► Examples of these units are:

of a chemical contaminant in a particular ► For concentrations in food: 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
type of media ► For concentrations in water: 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝐿𝐿
► For concentrations in air: 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚3
► Units for concentration are:

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

8
Intake Rate

► Intake rate is a measure of media ► Examples of these units are:

ingested, inhaled, or absorbed via dermal ► For intake of solids: 𝑘𝑘𝑔𝑔⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
contact over a given time period. ► For intake of liquids: 𝐿𝐿⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
► For intake of air: 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
► Units for intake rate are:

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

9
Exposure Factor

► The exposure factor (EF) is a unit-less ► You will want your exposure duration and
term used to time-weight the actual averaging time to have the same units so
exposure that they cancel and leave the exposure
factor unit-less
► EF =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

10
Exposure Duration

► The exposure duration for either an LADD or an ADD is the fraction of time in which a
person is actually exposed multiplied by the time period of interest

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) ∗ (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)

► Do not confuse the exposure duration with exposure dose!

11
Averaging Time

► Averaging time for a LADD is always assumed to be lifetime

► Default: 70 years

► The averaging time for an ADD is the total time period of interest

► For an ADD, the averaging time and time period of interest are usually the same

12
Body Weight

► Body weight is an approximation of the body weight of the population of interest

► The units for body weight are kgBW

13
LADD: Occupational Example—1

► First, calculate an EF for a rubber factory worker (Rubber Man A) exposed to air
contaminant X on the job

► Assume he works eight hours a day, five days a week, with two weeks of vacation per year

► Assume a 40-year career

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𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷⁄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

► 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (50 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤/52 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤) ∗ (5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/7 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) ∗ (8 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜/

24 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) ∗ 40 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 9.16 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

► 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 70 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

► EF = (9.16 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)⁄(70 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦) = 0.13

15
LADD: Occupational Example—2

► What would Rubber Man A’s LADD be if you knew that he was exposed to the same
concentration of air contaminant X and had the same intake rate; we know that:
► 𝐶𝐶 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚3
► 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 22 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
► 𝐸𝐸 = 0.13

► Note: because we are talking about the concentration of a chemical in the air,
concentration is given in milligrams per cubic meter of air
► Intake rates for air are given in cubic meters of air per day
► The intake rate is a default EPA value

16
LADD Equation Setup

𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
0.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑚𝑚3 × 22 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 0.13
=
70 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

17
LADD Equation Answer

𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ► Cubic meters cancel out, which leaves you

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 with the unit 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for your
answer
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
0.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 × 22 𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 0.13
=
70 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 2.0 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

18
Units

► For every variation of the equation:

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 × 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Body weight

► You should end up with the following units in your answer: 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

► Because, using an example with a liquid, the following cancellations occur:

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄𝑳𝑳 × 𝑳𝑳⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
kgBW

19