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power sharing. The control schemes for islanded operation coordinated optimization of droop coefficients. As an efficient
can be classified into two main groups with regard to the method for the calculation and reanalysis of eigensolutions,
use of intercommunication wires [3], [6]–[8]. The first one is matrix perturbation theory aims to describe variations of a
based on active load-sharing technique, such as centralized, system’s characteristics in small-signal stability under pertur-
master–slave, average load sharing, and circular chain control bations of structure parameters. Nowadays, it is widely used
[6]–[8]. For these control schemes, critical intercommunication in electromagnetic problems, structure dynamics, automation
wires are needed among modules. The second one is mainly control, and vibration problems [14]–[17]. Compared with
based on the droop method, in which intercommunication other methods of solving eigenvalue problems, such as the
links are not required. Droop controllers, which emulate the QR algorithm, the matrix perturbation technique adopted in
conventional parallel operation characteristics of synchronous this paper possesses the following many advantages [14]–[17].
generators, are adopted as power sharing controllers for dis- First, the eigensolutions can be easily obtained with satisfactory
patchable DG units [5]. The droop strategy has attracted great accuracy under a perturbation of control parameters. Therefore,
attention in micro-grid operation because of its advantages. there is no need to repeatedly solve the eigenvalue problem
Considering that droop control strategy can be used in either of the modified system. Second, the manner and degree of the
grid-connected or islanded mode, transitions of control strate- droop coefficients’ influence on the structure characteristics
gies for DG units are not needed when the operation mode of of the micro-grid can be investigated in detail through param-
a micro-grid changes. In addition, not only the power between eter perturbation analysis. Third, the modifications of critical
dispatchable DG units can be adjusted efficiently [5], but also eigenvalues can be analyzed intuitively, simplifying analysis
DG units can be located far away from each other to improve on parameter changes in parameter-optimization process. Last
the geographic coverage of a micro-grid [3], [9]. but not least, approximated sensitivities of eigensolutions can
Although the fast response of power electronic devices be provided as by products, enabling analysis on sensitivity
enables flexible micro-grid control, their low-inertia interfaces and mode.
make the micro-grid sensitive to disturbances [10]. Therefore, The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section II
it is necessary to investigate the stability of inverter-dominated introduces the basic first-order perturbation theory of eigenso-
micro-grid [10]–[13]. Previous research in [4] and [7] have lutions.Section III describes a perturbation analysis of droop
shown that a large range of dynamic modes can be observed coefficients in DG inverters. Section IV presents the objective
in a micro-grid. The reason for this is the timescale separation function and calculation flowchart for the coordinated optimiza-
between different inverter control loops. These researches have tion process. Numerical examples are provided in Section V,
also indicated that high-frequency modes are dominated by which verify the proposed approach. Conclusions are drawn in
the current controllers and LCL filters, whereas low-frequency Section VI.
modes are dominated by the power controllers. Further anal-
ysis of participation factors has indicated that the dominant II. MATRIX PERTURBATION THEORY
low-frequency modes are influenced primarily by the active Consider the finite-dimensional matrix pair , assume
power controller, particularly by the droop coefficient. that the generalized eigenvalue problem of complex modes is
In [10]–[13], the impacts of droop coefficients on micro-grid described as follows [15]–[17]:
stability were studied extensively from the viewpoints of limit
cases, root locus, sensitivity analysis, and bifurcation theory. (1)
Previous works have demonstrated that, with relatively larger
droop coefficients, the output power of droop-controlled DG
units will be more sensitive to fluctuations of frequency or where and satisfy the orthogonal normalization
voltage in a micro-grid. This contributes to a fast transient conditions:
response and small frequency/voltage deviations. However,
overlarge droop coefficients may cause overlimit power output (2)
or eventually lead to system instability. On the other hand, with
relatively smaller droop coefficients, the output power of the Theorem 1: If is an eigenvalue of with the mul-
DG units will be less sensitive to fluctuations in frequency or tiplicity , the eigensolutions of the perturbed system
voltage. It will worsen the transient response and will cause are given in the following form [15],
larger frequency/voltage deviations, which may exceed the [17]:
regulated range. Therefore, it is essential to select proper droop
coefficients to maintain system performance in disturbances. (3)
In previous work, the coordinated optimization process for (4)
droop coefficients requires to solve an eigenvalue problem (5)
repeatedly, which is extremely tedious and time-consuming.
Furthermore, such a method poses difficulties in studying the where , , and are the eigensolutions of the original
manner and degree of the parameters’ influence on system system, , , and are the first-order perturbations of
dynamics [14], [15]. To overcome these limitations, a novel ap- eigensolutions, , , are the second-order perturbations
proach based on matrix perturbation theory is proposed for the of eigensolutions, and so on. Matrix perturbation analysis for
WANG et al.: COORDINATED OPTIMAL DESIGN OF INVERTER CONTROLLERS IN A MICRO-GRID WITH MULTIPLE DISTRIBUTED GENERATION UNITS 2681
distinct eigenvalues and for multiple eigenvalues has been in- under perturbations of the droop coefficients. Note that all of the
troduced in detail in [15]–[17]. Since the eigensolutions can be changed elements are linear functions of the droop coefficients.
obtained with satisfactory accuracy by using the first-order per- Therefore, , , and can be generally represented as
turbations in this paper, the second-order and higher order per-
turbations items in (3)–(5) can be omitted. Only distinct eigen-
values will be analyzed in the following numerical examples,
so the perturbation theory for multiple eigenvalues is not intro- (11)
duced here. For further details, please refer to [15]–[17].
According to Theorem 1, substituting the eigensolutions of
the perturbed system into (1), equating coefficients of the same (12)
power of , and combining with (2), the first-order perturbations
of distinct eigensolutions can be described as follows [15]–[17]:
(13)
(6)
(7)
(8) (14)
(15)
III. PERTURBATION ANALYSIS OF DROOP COEFFICIENTS
(16)
In a micro-grid, the comprehensive analysis on DG units, in- (17)
verters, load and network has shown that their mathematical
(18)
models can be generally expressed in state equations and alge-
braic equations [18]–[20]. Therefore, a micro-grid with multiple (19)
DG units can be described by a set of differential and algebraic (20)
equations [18]–[20]
(24)
Fig. 3. Comparison of eigenvalues near the imaginary axis for the micro-grid.
V. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
The 0.4-kV, 50-Hz micro-grid prototype shown in Fig. 2
is used to test and verify the proposed approach. Parameters
of this micro-grid are provided in [22]. The testing system
includes three categories of DG units, namely nondispatchable
DG (Photovoltaic (PV) [23]), dispatchable DG (Micro-turbine Fig. 5. Objective value in the parameter optimization process.
(MT) [24]), and dispatchable distributed energy storage (Bat-
tery [25]). Among these DG units, all five dispatchable units in this case as the parameter-variation threshold in each iterative
are operated with droop control as shown in the Appendix, step.
whereas the three PV units are controlled via a maximum power There are 135 state variables in the system. During the itera-
point tracking strategy [23]. These DG units are integrated into tive process, only those eigenvalues which are dominated re-
the system through voltage source inverters. In this case, three markably by the droop coefficients, i.e., the lower frequency
typical operation scenarios are considered in the parameter-op- modes need to be recalculated. Under the perturbation condi-
timization process. Parameters for the inverter control loops, tions discussed above, eigenvalues near the imaginary axis be-
the objective function, and the three operation scenarios are fore and after optimization are shown in Fig. 3.
presented in the Appendix. Fig. 3 shows that, after optimization, the system becomes
stable with the least damping ratio 0.1502 (larger than the
A. Analysis of Parameter Optimization
given value ) and the largest real part of eigenvalue 0.1010
1) Analysis of the Optimization Process: According to the (smaller than the given value ). The most sensitive four
calculation flowchart in Fig. 1, it is necessary to select a proper eigenvalues during optimization are depicted in Fig. 4. It shows
range for parameter perturbations initially. The comparison be- that great changes have taken place in eigenvalues , , ,
tween exact and perturbation solutions under different condi- and during optimization.
tions of perturbation shows that approximate eigenvalues will Fig. 5 depicts the change in the objective function. For a better
be obtained within a 10% relative error if the parameter per- expression, logarithm values are adopted for the axis, with the
turbation is not larger than 10% [15]. Taking into account the objective value at iteration 7 selected as the base of the loga-
calculation accuracy in the optimization process, 10% is chosen rithm function.
2684 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 28, NO. 3, AUGUST 2013
TABLE I
OPTIMIZATION RESULTS FOR DROOP COEFFICIENTS
Fig. 7. Output power of the DG units during mode transitions. (a) Active power
It can be seen that the objective values are relatively larger response of the DG units. (b) Reactive power response of the DG units.
at the first seven iterations. It is caused by the instability of the
system. When the system is unstable, will not be equal to
zero, leading to a large value of due to the relatively larger Simulation results show that, when the micro-grid is discon-
value of . This result validates the iterative process shown in nected from the main grid at 1 s, the droop-controlled DG units
Fig. 4 as well. With parameter optimization process, the testing adjust their output power in proportion to the optimized droop
system is stable. In this case, is equal to zero automatically, coefficients. In addition, the system gets to a steady state rapidly,
and the objective value is relatively smaller due to the smaller within 0.3 s, realizing a seamless transition. Simulation results
values of and . At the end of the optimization process, also show that there is redundant power in Microgrid1 when Cir-
the objective value reaches zero which means that the system cuit Breaker 2 is opened at 3 s. Therefore, Battery1 and MT1 in
is stable, with the damping ratio and the stability margin satis- Microgrid1 will reduce their power output proportionally. And
fying the given requirements. Since the logarithm value of zero Battery2, Battery3, and MT2 in Microgrid2 will increase their
is negative infinity which is difficult to express, a smaller value power output due to the power shortage in the system. In Case1,
is used to replace the objective value in the end. The op- the maximum of % overshoot in the transient response of bus
timized droop coefficients are given in Table I. voltage is 3.5900%, and the maximum of % overshoot in system
2) Comparison Between Perturbed and Exact Eigensolu- frequency is 0.0837%.
tions: The solutions comparison between matrix perturbation 2) Case2. Disturbances in the DG Units’ Output and Load
and QR algorithm are shown in Fig. 6, which compares the Power: In islanded mode, the droop-controlled DG units bal-
values of during optimization process. It indicates that ance the power in the micro-grid. The base case for this testing
the perturbed solutions are approximately equal to the corre- is same as that in Case 1. Here assume that the value of irradi-
sponding exact ones within accuracy limits. ance is increased by 15% at 6 s and the active and reactive power
of Load1 and Load2 are increased by 20% at 8 s. Fig. 8 shows
B. Simulation Verification for Coordinated Optimization
the output power of the DG units during these disturbances.
Two typical simulation cases are provided to confirm the ef- Fig. 8 shows that stable power sharing performance can be
fectiveness and robustness of the proposed approach. The sim- obtained under various disturbances, regardless of whether the
ulations are carried out in DIgSILENT/PowerFactory [26]. disturbance occurs in the outputs of the DG units or in the loads.
1) Case1: Transition From Grid-Connected to Islanded Previous researches in [4], [27] have shown that a considerable
Mode: The micro-grid will transit from grid-connected mode amount of reactive power may be exchanged between DG units
to islanded mode if any fault occurs in the main grid. In Case1, even though some changes occurred only in the active power.
the simulation process is settled as follows. Circuit Breaker 1 This was because of the presence of significant resistance in
in Fig. 2 is opened at 1 s, making the micro-grid transit from the lines, and the selection of relatively small coefficients in the
grid-connection mode to islanded mode. Then, Circuit Breaker – droop controller. In this case, the problem is solved effec-
2 is opened at 3 s, leading to two submicrogrids. Fig. 7 shows tively by the proper selection of droop coefficients. In Case2,
the responses during these transitions. the maximum of % overshoot in the transient response of bus
WANG et al.: COORDINATED OPTIMAL DESIGN OF INVERTER CONTROLLERS IN A MICRO-GRID WITH MULTIPLE DISTRIBUTED GENERATION UNITS 2685
Fig. 8. Output power of the DG units during disturbances. (a) Active power
response of the DG units. (b) Reactive power response of the DG units.
Fig. 9. Frequency and voltage under various power conditions at the PCC.
(a) Frequency of the micro-grid under various power conditions at the PCC.
voltage is 1.7089%, and the maximum of % overshoot in system (b) Voltage of the micro-grid under various power conditions at the PCC.
frequency is 0.0382%.
When the micro-grid offers power to the main grid, the same
conclusions can be drawn from simulation results. VI. CONCLUSION
An approach based on matrix perturbation for the coordinated
C. Robustness Verification of Optimized Droop Coefficients optimization of droop coefficients in a micro-grid has been pro-
To verify the applicability of the optimized droop coeffi- posed in this paper. Parameter perturbation analysis is made on
cients, some operation tests are carried out in various operation the droop coefficients to identify the manner and degree of pa-
scenarios of power exchanging at the PCC. The test process rameters’ influence on the state matrix. The increments of eigen-
is same as Case1. Fig. 9 depicts the system frequency and the solutions are then obtained based on the first-order perturbation
maximum/minimum voltage amplitude at the steady state after items. In the optimization process, a comprehensive objective
mode transition. function is proposed to ensure the stability of the system, to en-
Fig. 9 shows that, when the power is delivered from the main hance the damping characteristics, and to maintain a stability
grid to the micro-grid, both the frequency and the minimum margin for a wide range of operating conditions. The computa-
voltage amplitude at steady state will decrease as the delivered tional flowchart is presented for the proposed optimization al-
power is increased. On the other hand, when the power is deliv- gorithm based on matrix perturbation. Numerical examples are
ered to the main grid, the frequency and the maximum voltage performed using a benchmark low-voltage micro-grid. In the ex-
amplitude will increase as the power is increased. The deliv- amples, the parameter-optimization process is analyzed in de-
ered power will reach a limit when the deviations in frequency tail. And the time-domain simulations are carried out to illus-
and voltage exceed the allowed range after mode transition [28]. trate the responses of the DG units during mode transitions and
The operation scenario is an example of operation limit, in under disturbances. The robustness analysis of the optimized
which the voltage will exceed its deviation range if the delivered coefficients to the change of the exchanging power between the
power keeps increasing. Additionally, increased power will ag- micro-grid and the main grid is presented as well. Theoretical
gravate the transient response, leading to the failure of seamless analysis and evaluation results have confirmed the effectiveness
transition. With the optimized droop coefficients in this case, of the optimization approach, the feasibility of the objective
when the ratio of the active delivered power to the overall load function, and the robustness of the optimized parameters.
is within the range ( 66.27%, 47.63%), and that of the reactive
power to load is within ( 44.24%, 74.78%), seamless transition APPENDIX
and stable operation of the micro-grid can be guaranteed. Such a The droop control system for inverters adopted in this paper
result verifies the robustness of the optimized droop coefficients is shown in Fig. 10 [18], [20]. Parameters for the inverter control
to the change of the exchanging power between the micro-grid loops, the objective function, and the operation scenarios used in
and the main grid. the numerical examples are given in Tables II–IV, respectively.
2686 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 28, NO. 3, AUGUST 2013
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Zhen Wu received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from Tianjin Uni-
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degree.
His research is in the area of stability simulation and micro-grid laboratory
test system.