Chapter 1

Introduction to Instrumentation
Outlines

 Function and characteristics of instruments

 Measurement standards
 A Review on Electrical units
Functions and characteristics of instruments

Leader instruments
signal generator

Signal generator

Analog multimeter Digital multimeter

 Measurement
• Is the comparison of a value obtained from an
instrument and an accepted standard.
• The standard could be the frequency transmitted
by the government on radio station or a reliable
instrument considered to be a standard.
• The instrument is used to indicate a value rather
than measure the value.
• If a highly accurate value is required, the device
being used must be calibrated using an accepted
standard.
 General form of measurement system

Measured Signal Signal

value Transduc Signal Display
er converter element

Sensing
element
produces a
signal which is
related to the
quantity being
measured
Standards

Primary Secondary

• Unique • Are calibrated against

• In the hands of the the primary standards
government • Available for purchase
• eg. National Bureau along with
of Standards documentation
attesting to their
accuracy BUT these are
very expensive.
National Bureau of Standards

• Is a non regulatory agency of the U.S. Department of

Commerce
• Established in 1901
• Conducts research and provides the national system if
measurements and various technical and informational
services to commerce, manufacturing, educational, and
government institutions.
Precision vs. Accuracy

The same thing ?

Accuracy versus Precision

• Accuracy is the closeness of a value to the true

value.
Accuracy = 100% - error

• Error is the lack of accuracy.

Error = 100% - accuracy
• Precision refers to the reproducibility of
measurements.

• For example:
• Sets of data in an experiment that can be repeated, the technique
is said to show precision.
 Examples
• A man’s height was measured several times using a laser
device. All the measurements were very similar and the
height was found to be :

184.34 ± 0.01 cm

• This is a precise result.

Precise : multiple measurements, same result

Examples
Height of man = 184.34 ± 0.01 cm

This is a precise result, but not accurate (near the

“true” value)

WHY

The man still had his shoes on.

Accurate : how close measurement is to true

value
Precision vs. accuracy
• The man then took his shoes off and his height was
measured several times with a ruler. The result is:

Height : 181 ± 1 cm

More accurate (near the true value)

But less precise (more variation)
 Precision vs. accuracy
• The man then took his shoes off and his height was
measured several times using the laser device. The
results:
Height : 182.23± 0.01 cm

This result is PRECISE and ACCURATE.

Graphically
 Standards

• Since only PRIMARY standards can be accepted as

100% accurate, the concept of error, probable
error, tolerance and significant figures must be
dealt with.
 Technique

Techniques used in taking a measurement is as

important as the accuracy of the standard or
instrument.
If the proper technique is employed, a relatively
poor piece of equipment can be used to take
reasonably accurate measurements.
Likewise, an expensive piece of equipment can
yield poor results if the technique is poor.
 Interpreting Data
• A person must know the value of the data or they are
useless.
• When measurements are taken, it is important to relate
the data obtained to the problem and recognize the
implications of differences between predicted and
measured results.
• If the results are unexpected, the instrument could be;
• Malfunction
• Interpretation of the data could be poor
• Knowledge of the parameters to be measured
could be lacking
Electrical Instrumentation

• Is important for every engineering

discipline
• Instrumentation – is the design and use of
an electrical system to collect and process
physically meaningful data
 Electrical Instruments

Absolute
- give the value of the quantity to be measured in
terms of the constants of the instrument and
their deflection only.
- no calibration or comparison is necessary in
their case.
- eg. Tangent galvanometer – gives the value of
current in terms of the tangent of deflection
produces by the current
 Secondary

- the value of electrical quantity to be ensured can

be determine from the deflection of the
instruments only when they have been pre-
calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument.

- without calibration, the deflection of such

instruments is meaningless.
 Electrical Principal of operation

• All electrical measuring instruments depend for

their action on one of the many physical effects
of an electric current or potential and are
generally classified according to which of these
effects is utilized in their operation.
Types of Physical Effects
• Magnetic

• Electrodynamics

• Electromagnetic

• Electrostatic

• Chemical

• Thermal
Secondary instruments

Instruments

Indicating Recording Integrating

Indicating instruments
• Indicate instantaneous value of the electrical
quantity being measured at the time at which it is
being measured.
• Their indications are given by pointers moving over
calibrated dials.
• eg. Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters and
wattmeters
 Recording instruments

• Instead of indicating, this instrument give a

continuous record or the variations of such
quantity over a selected period of time.
• The moving system of the instrument carries
an inked pen which rests lightly on a chart or
graph that is move at a uniform and low speed,
in a direction perpendicular to that of the
deflection of the pen.
 Integrating instruments

• Measure and register by a set of dials and pointer

either the total quantity of electricity (in am-hour)
or the total amount of electrical energy supplied
to a circuit in a given time.
• eg. ampere hour meter and watt hour meter.
A review on the Electrical Units
 Electrical Units

Electric current (I) is a flow of charge carriers.

Therefore, the definition of current is;

• Units of current and charge

The quantity of electric charge (Q) that passes a
given point in a conductor during a time of 1s.

The coulomb (C) is the unit of electrical charge or

quantity of electricity.
 Thus,
coulombs
amperes 
sec onds

Since, 1 coulomb is equal to the total charge

carried by 6.24 x 1018 electrons. Therefore the
charge carried by one electron is,

1 19
Q  1.602 X 10 C
6.24 X 1018
 Emf, potential difference and voltage

The unit of electromagnetic force (emf)

and potential difference is volt (V).

The volt is defined as the potential

difference between points on a conductor
carrying a constant current of 1 ampere
when the power dissipated between these
points is 1 watt.

If 1 electron moves through 1 V, then the

energy is in electron volt (eV).
1
1 eV  18
J
6.24 X 10
Resistance and conductance

Resistance Conductance
The ohm () is - the ability of a material
defined as that to pass electrons.The
resistance which
permits a current flow - conductance (G), is
of 1 ampere when a applied to reciprocal
potential difference of of resistance. The
1 volt is applied to the siemens (S) is the
resistance. unit of conductance.

1 1
R G 
G R
Electrical resistors
- component manufactures to posses specific
values of resistance
 Magnetic flux and flux density

Magnetic flux, represented by the Greek letter Φ

(phi), is a measure of quantity of magnetism, taking
account of the strength and the extent of a magnetic
field.

The SI unit of magnetic flux is the

 Weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds)

the unit of magnetic flux density is the

 Weber per square meter, or Tesla (T).
Magnetic flux illustration
- For a closed surface, the sum of magnetic
flux is always equal to zero (Gauss' law for
magnetism).
- No matter how small the volume, the
magnetic sources are always dipole sources
(like miniature bar magnets), so that there are
as many magnetic field lines coming in (to
the south pole) as out (from the north pole).
Magnetic flux through a surface
•Magnetic flux measures the number of magnetic
field lines that pass perpendicularly through a
surface.
Inductance
Inductance is defined by the behavior of a coil in
resisting any change of electric current through
the coil.

From Faraday's law, the inductance, L may be

defined in terms of the emf generated to the
oppose of a given change in current:
Inductance formula
Imperial measurements
L  r 2 XN 2 /(9r  10len)
where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in inches
N = number of turns
len = length of the coil
in inches
Metric measurements
L  0.394r 2 X N 2 /(9r  10len)
where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in cm
N = number of turns
len = length of the coil in
cm
Capacitance
Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric
charge stored (or separated) for a given electric
potential.
The most common form of charge storage
device is a two-plate capacitor.

If the charges on the plates are +Q and -Q, and V gives the
voltage difference between the plates, then the capacitance
is given by

The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F); 1 farad = 1

coulomb per volt.
 Temperature scales

• Celsius scale
• Has 100 equals divisions (or degrees) between
the freezing temperature and the boiling
temperature of water.
• Kelvin scale
• Also known as absolute scale
• Commences at absolute zero of temperature,
which corresponds to -273.15°C.
• 0°C = 273.15K
Unit conversion factor
Cont.