THE DATABASE CONCEPTS

Databases are used as replacement for the physical equipment we have in an organization
such as folders, envelopes, and file cabinets, which contains bulk of papers and data replaced on
them for future use. These databases are considered as electronic storage that utilizes computer
memory storing capabilities and that the data/information will be stored and retrieved with the
aid of a programmed system.

Database is defined as a collection of useful information organized in a specific manner.

For instance, you can view a personal telephone directory as a database. This telephone
directory is a listing of names and telephone numbers arranged randomly-arranged. That is, in
the order in which they were entered. However, you can organize these telephone numbers in a
specific order or form according to your preference. For example, you can group the entries by
area codes and alphabetically by last name each area-code group.

There are different types in a database. Data can be classified into main categories,
alphanumeric and numeric, depending on the nature of the information and how it will be used.

Alphanumeric data consists of alphabetic characters (letters A through Z), numerals (0

through 9), and some special symbols (such as # and $).1

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Chou, George Tsu-der, Dbase III Plus Handbook, 2nd Edition, page 3
 For instance, the model number of a television set, RCS-XA100, is an alphanumeric
data. Names, account numbers, and employee identifications numbers are other examples of
alphanumeric data.

Numeric data can be quantified and is represented by the set of numeric digits.

In a payroll database, the number of hours worked by an employee (for example, 38.5
hours) is an example of numeric data. The number of students in a class, the credit limit for a
customer, and the level of inventory for a given item are other examples of numeric data.

Although the alphanumeric and numeric data are stored in a database, the two types play
different roles in their applications. Numeric data is used for computations. Alphanumeric data,
on the other hand, can be used only as text for identification or labelling purpose; alphanumeric
data cannot be used in formula. For instance, if you use the set f digits 83024 as an
alphanumeric string that represents the identification number of an employee, the string is
treated only as label. The string may resemble a numeric value, but cannot be used in a formula.

Database data need to be normalized in order to avoid data redundancy and easy flow of
data as it is being used.

Normalization is the transformation of complex user views and data stores to a set of
smaller stable data structures. In addition to being simpler and more stable, normalized data
structures are more easily maintained than other data structures.
The main objective of the normalization process is to simplify all complex data items that
are often found in user views. These are three steps in normalizing a relation.

These steps are as follows: First normal Form (1NF), which is to remove the repeating
groups; Second Normal Form (2NF), in which all the attributes will be functionally dependent
on the primary key; and Third Normal Form (3NF), that is if all the nonkey attributes are fully
functionally dependent on the primary key and there are no transitive (nonkey) dependencies.

Memorize the 3 normal forms so that you can recite them in your sleep, no repeating
elements or groups of elements; no partial dependencies on concatenated key; no dependencies
on non-key attributes.

First Normal Form: No Repeating Elements or Groups of Elements

Example:2

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Kendal, Kenneth E., Kendall, Julie E., Systems Analysis and Design, 5th edition, page 598
orders order items

order_id {PK} order_id {PK}

order_date item_id {PK}
customer_id
orderso item_desription
customer_name item_quantity
customer_address item_price
customer_city item_total_price
customer_state
order_total_price

Second Normal Form: No Partial Dependencies on a Concatenated Key

Example:

orders order items items

order_id (Pk)
order_date order_id (PK) item_id (PK)
customer_id item_id (PK) item_description
customer_name item_qty
customer_address item_total_price
customer_city
customer_state

:No Dependencies on Non Key Attributes

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 orders items

order_id (PK) order items

order_date order_id (PK)
item_id (PK) item_id (PK)
customer_id item_qty item_description
customer_address item_total_price
customer_city
customer_state

customers

customer_Id (PK)
customer_name
customer_address
customer_city

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