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Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

Environmental Effects
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Biomass as a Renewable Energy Source for Sustainable

Fuels
a
K. Kaygusuz
a
Department of Chemistry , Karadeniz Technical University , Trabzon, Turkey
Published online: 06 Feb 2009.

To cite this article: K. Kaygusuz (2009) Biomass as a Renewable Energy Source for Sustainable Fuels, Energy Sources, Part A:
Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 31:6, 535-545, DOI: 10.1080/15567030701715989

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 Energy Sources, Part A, 31:535–545, 2009
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online
DOI: 10.1080/15567030701715989

Biomass as a Renewable Energy Source

for Sustainable Fuels

K. KAYGUSUZ1
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1
Department of Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

Abstract Attempts to establish regenerative energy sources are still being rejected.
Only since the oil crises, have regenerative energy sources been included in energy
policy discussions. Compared with conventional sources of energy that have been used
a much longer period of time, there appears to be a considerable lack of knowledge
on regenerative sources of energy. In contrast, renewable sources of energy, such
as irradiation and energies arising from it like wind, ambient heat, and bioenergy,
have a very low energy density and therefore require a decentralized supply structure.
Bio-energy is now accepted as having the potential to provide a major part of the
projected renewable energy provisions of the future. There are three main routes to
providing these bio-fuels, such as biological conversion, physical conversion, and
thermal conversion. A number of primary and secondary products can be derived
as gas, liquid and solid fuels, and electricity as well as a considerable number of
chemicals. The basic conversion processes are summarized with their products and
the main technical and non-technical barriers to implementation are identified.

Keywords biomass, gasification, renewable energy, sustainable fuels, thermal

processing

Introduction
Renewable energy is of growing importance in satisfying environmental concerns over
fossil fuel usage. Wood and other forms of biomass including energy crops and agri-
cultural and forestry wastes are some of the main renewable energy resources available.
These can provide the only source of renewable liquid, gaseous, and solid fuels. Biomass
is considered the renewable energy source with the highest potential to contribute to
the energy needs of modern society for both the developed and developing economies
worldwide (EC, 1997; IEA, 2006). Energy from biomass based on short-rotation forestry
and other energy crops can contribute significantly towards the objectives of the Kyoto
Agreement in reducing the greenhouse gases emissions and to the problems related to
climate change (Demirbaş, 2004; IEA, 2004).
Despite wide public acceptance, regenerative resources of energy are important only
in a few countries (e.g., Turkey). Attempts to introduce regenerative energy resources
meet with the most varied opposition. Only since the oil shocks have regenerative
resources of energy become part of the reflections in energy policy. It is this short period
compared with the much longer utilization periods of conventional energy resources that
is partly responsible for the considerable lack of knowledge. An additional uncertainty is

Address correspondence to Dr. Kamil Kaygusuz, Karadeniz Technical University, Department

of Chemistry, Trabzon 61080, Turkey. E-mail: dincersev@turk.net

535
 536 K. Kaygusuz

created by the large deviations from the estimated performance potentials of regenerative
resources of energy. It is another aspect that present-day energy supply is based on a
centralized structure. In contrast, renewable sources of energy, such as solar irradiation
and energies arising from it like wind, ambient heat, and bioenergy, have a very low
energy density and therefore require a decentralized supply structure (IEA, 2005; Bilgen
et al., 2007; Kaygusuz and Keleş, 2006).
Biomass fuels and residues can be converted to energy via thermal, biological, and
physical processes. Each process area is described with the greatest emphasis on the
technologies that are attracting the most attention in the research, demonstration, and
commercial arenas. In the thermochemical conversion technologies, biomass gasification
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has attracted the highest interest as it offers higher efficiencies compared to combus-
tion, and fast pyrolysis is still at a relatively early stage of development (Klass, 1998;
Bridgwater and Manitas, 2004).

Thermal Processing of Biomass

Combustion
Combustion of biomass and related materials is widely practiced commercially to provide
heat and power. The technology is commercially available and presents minimum risk to
investors. The product is heat, which must be used immediately for heat and/or power
generation as storage is not a viable option. Overall efficiencies to power tend to be rather
low at typically 20% for small plants and up to 30% for larger and newer plants. Costs
are only currently competitive when wastes are used as feed material such as from pulp
and paper and agriculture. Emissions and ash handling remain technical problems. The
technology is, however, widely available commercially and there are many successful
working examples throughout North America and Europe, frequently utilizing forestry,
agricultural, and industrial wastes (Klass, 1998).

Gasification
Fuel gas can be produced from biomass and related materials by either partial oxidation
to give a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane or by
steam or pyrolytic gasification as shown in Table 1. Gasification occurs in a number of
sequential steps:
Drying to evaporate moisture
Pyrolysis to give gas, vaporized tars, or oils and a solid char residue
Gasification or partial oxidation of the solid char, pyrolysis tars, and gases
When a solid fuel such as biomass was heated to 300ıC–500ıC in the absence of an
oxidizing agent, pyrolysis to solid char, condensable hydrocarbons, and gases occurred.
The relative yields of gas, liquid, and char depend mostly on the rate of heating and the
final temperature. Generally in gasification, pyrolysis proceeds at a much quicker rate
than gasification and the latter is thus the rate-controlling step. The gas, liquid, and solid
products of pyrolysis then react with the air to give permanent gases of CO, CO2 , H2 , and
lesser quantities of hydrocarbon gases. Char gasification is the interactive combination
of several gas–solid and gas–gas reactions in which solid carbon is oxidized to carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, and hydrogen is generated through the water gas shift
reaction. The gas–solid reactions of char oxidation are the slowest and limit the overall
 Biomass for Sustainable Fuel 537

Table 1
Modes of thermal gasification

Partial oxidation Main products are CO, CO2 , H2 , CH4 , N2 , and tar. This gives a
with air low heating value gas of 5 MJ/m3 . Utilization problems can
arise in combustion, particularly in gas turbines.
Partial oxidation The main products are CO, CO2 , H2 , CH4 , and tar. This gives
with oxygen a medium heating value gas of 10–12 MJ/m3 . The cost of
providing and using oxygen is compensated by a better
quality fuel gas.
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Steam (pyrolytic) The main products are CO, CO2 , H2 , CH4 , and tar. This gives
gasification a medium heating value gas of 15–20 MJ/m3 . The process
has two stages with a primary reactor producing gas and
char, and a second reactor for char combustion to reheat
sand, which is recirculated.
Source: Bridgwater, 2003.

rate of the gasification process. Many of the reactions are catalyzed by the alkali metals
present in wood ash, but still do not reach equilibrium. The gas composition is influenced
by many factors such as feed composition, water content, reaction temperature, and the
extent of oxidation of the pyrolysis products (Bridgwater and Manitas, 2004).
Not all of the liquid products from the pyrolysis step are completely converted due to
the physical or geometrical limitations of the reactor and the chemical limitations of the
reactions involved, and these give rise to contaminant tars in the final product gas. Due to
the higher temperatures involved in gasification compared to pyrolysis, these tars tend to
be refractory and are difficult to remove by thermal, catalytic, or physical processes. This
aspect of tar cracking or removal in gas cleanup is one of the most important technical
uncertainties in implementation of gasification technologies (Bridgwater and Peacocke,
1999).
Atmospheric circulating fluidized bed gasifiers (see Figures 1–4) have proven very
reliable with a variety of feedstocks and are relative easy to scale up from a few MWth up
to 100 MWth . Even for capacities above 100 MWth , there is confidence that the industry
would be able to provide reliable gasifiers. This appears to be the preferred system
for large-scale applications and is used by most industrial companies; these systems,
therefore, have high market attractiveness and are technically well proven.
Atmospheric bubbling fluidized bed gasifiers have proven to be reliable with a variety
of feedstocks at pilot scale and commercial applications in the small to medium scale
up to about 25 MWth . They are limited in their capacity size range as they have not
been scaled up significantly and the gasifier diameter is significantly larger than that
of circulating fluid beds for the same feedstock capacity. On the other hand, they are
more economic for small to medium range capacities. Their market attractiveness is thus
relatively high as well as their technology strength.
Pressurized fluidized bed systems, either circulating or bubbling, are considered to
be of more limited market attractiveness due to the more complex operation of the
installation and the additional costs related to the construction of pressurized vessels.
However, pressurized fluidized bed systems have the advantage in integrated combined
cycle applications as the need to compress the fuel gas prior to its utilization in the
combustion chamber of the gas turbine is avoided.
 538 K. Kaygusuz
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Figure 1. Fixed bed gasifiers.

Atmospheric downdraft gasifiers are attractive for small-scale applications up to about

1.5 MWth as there is a very big market in both developed and developing economies.
However, the problem of efficient tar removal is still a major problem and a higher level
of automation is needed especially for small-scale industrial applications. Nevertheless,
recent progress in catalytic conversion of tar gives more credible options and these
systems can therefore be considered to be average technical strength (Limbrick, 2000).
Atmospheric updraft gasifiers seem to have little market attractiveness for power
applications. While this may be due to the high tar levels in the fuel gas, recent devel-
opments in tar cracking have shown that very low levels can be achieved from dedicated
thermal/catalytic cracking reactors downstream of the gasifier (McLellan, 2000; EC,
2000). Another possible reason is that the upper size of a single unit is around 2.5 MWe
so larger plant capacities require multiple units.

Figure 2. Fluid bed gasifier. (Source: Bridgwater, 2003.)

 Biomass for Sustainable Fuel 539
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Figure 3. Circulating fluid bed gasifier.

Atmospheric cyclonic gasifiers have only recently been tested for biomass feed stocks
and although they have medium market attractiveness due to their simplicity, they are still
unproven. Finally, atmospheric entrained-bed gasifiers are still at a very early stage of
development and since they require feedstock of a very small particle size, their market
attractiveness is very low. No company is known to be developing pressurized systems
for downdraft, updraft, cyclonic, or entrained bed gasifiers for biomass feedstocks and it

Figure 4. Twin fluid bed gasifier with char combustor. (Source: Bridgwater, 2003.)
 540 K. Kaygusuz

is difficult to imagine that such a technology could ever be developed into a commercial
product due to the inherent problems of scale, tar removal, and cost (Manitas, 2001).

Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is thermal decomposition occurring in the absence of oxygen. It is also the
first step in combustion and gasification processes where it is followed by total or
partial oxidation of the primary products. Lower process temperature and longer vapor
residence times favor the production of charcoal. High temperature and longer residence
time increase the biomass conversion to gas and moderate temperature and short vapor
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residence time are optimum for producing liquids. Table 2 shows the product distribution
obtained from different modes of pyrolysis process. Fast pyrolysis for liquids production
is of particular interest currently.
Fast pyrolysis occurs in a time of a few seconds or less. Therefore, not only chemical
reaction kinetics but also heat and mass transfer processes, as well as phase transition
phenomena, play important roles. The critical issue is to bring the reacting biomass
particle to the optimum process temperature and minimize its exposure to the intermediate
(lower) temperatures that favor formation of charcoal. One way this objective can be
achieved is by using small particles, for example in the fluidized bed processes that are
described later. Another possibility is to transfer heat very fast only to the particle surface
that contacts the heat source.
In fast pyrolysis, biomass decomposes to generate mostly vapors and aerosols and
some charcoal. After cooling and condensation, a dark brown mobile liquid is formed
which has a heating value about half that of conventional fuel oil. While it is related
to the traditional pyrolysis processes for making charcoal, fast pyrolysis is an advanced
process, with carefully controlled parameters to give high yields of liquid. The essential
features of a fast pyrolysis process for producing liquids are (Bridgwater, 2003):
Very high heating and heat transfer rates at the reaction interface, which usually requires
a finely ground biomass feed,
Carefully controlled pyrolysis reaction temperature of around 500ı C and vapor phase
temperature of 400ıC–450ıC,
Short vapor residence times of typically less than 2 s, and
Rapid cooling of the pyrolysis vapors to give the bio-oil product.

Table 2
Typical product yields (dry wood basis) obtained by different modes of
pyrolysis of wood

Liquid, % Char, % Gas, %

Fast pyrolysis Moderate temperature, short 75 12 13

residence time
Carbonization Low temperature, very long 30 35 35
residence time
Gasification High temperature, long 5 10 85
residence times
Source: Bridgwater, 2003.
 Biomass for Sustainable Fuel 541

The main product, bio-oil, is obtained in yields of up to 75 wt% on dry feed basis,
together with by-product char and gas which are used within the process so there are no
waste streams other than flue gas and ash.
A fast pyrolysis process includes drying the feed to typically less than 10% water in
order to minimize the water in the product liquid oil, grinding the feed to give sufficiently
small particles to ensure rapid reaction, pyrolysis reaction, separation of solids (char),
and collection of the liquid product (bio-oil). Any form of biomass can be considered
for fast pyrolysis. While most work has been carried out on wood due to its consistency,
and comparability between tests, nearly 100 different biomass types have been tested
by many laboratories ranging from agricultural wastes such as straw, olive pits, and nut
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shells to energy crops such as miscanthus and sorghum and solid wastes such as sewage
sludge and leather wastes (Bridgwater, 2003).

Biomass Energy for Electricity Production

It is recognized worldwide that additional jobs are created in the service sector affiliated
to power production. Based on these reflections one may expect for the future that
power requirement will continue to rise dynamically throughout the world. Electricity,
as a highly exergetic secondary energy resource, increases its share in requiring primary
energy especially when considering that worldwide society changes to an information
society. The share of service of the real net output of economy increases. The information
society with its communication network requires a reliable power supply network. The
service society consumes a large part of its power requirements in the form of electricity.
This also causes rapidly rising CO2 emissions due to increasing power production from
fossil fuels.
Today, power generation from biomass is carried out in steam power plants according
to the Rankine process. However, because of the comparatively low energy density of
biomass (revenue per area) steam power plants for utilizing biomass are built considerably
smaller (<100 MWe ) than conventional power plants for fossil fuels (500–1,000 MWe ).
As the investment costs for steam turbines largely depend on the output, biomass operated
plants are much more expensive. Attempts to reduce the capital cost for steam turbines
by using low alloy steels resulted in low operating temperatures and operating pressures
and, consequently, much lower efficiencies (Klass, 1998; Friedrich and Hacker, 1998).
For these two reasons—low efficiency and the use of smaller units—one may under-
stand the low interest in the use of biomass for power production. In 2004, the average
percentage of power production from biomass in the European Union was approximately
2.1% of the total power production, in the U.S. it was approximately 2.4% (IEA, 2004).
Only a short time ago, increasing efforts were started to use biomass for electric power
generation and as raw material for high quality gaseous and liquid fuels. The resulting
main advantages are the low emissions (CO2 ) and a reduced dependence on imported
fuels. For this purpose, conventional technologies like gas turbines are partly being used,
which work very efficiently with low investments even today. Figure 5 shows various
possibilities of biomass utilization with high energy yield.

Barriers
All bio-fuels have to compete with fossil fuels. For those countries who have made
commitments to reduce fossil fuel-derived carbon emissions, the current disincentive to
implementation of bio-energy on simple cost grounds will have to be overcome—no
 542 K. Kaygusuz
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Figure 5. Possibilities of biomass utilization with high energy yield. (Source: Friedrich and Hacker,
1998.)

company is going to invest in ventures that are guaranteed to lose money, regardless
of the environmental benefits that may accrue. Industry will only invest in technology
that has an acceptable return at an acceptable risk. Acceptable returns will come from
incentives to capital expenditure of product purchase, or to disincentives to orthodox
options by, for example, taxation on fossil fuels or legislation, etc. This is one of the
major roles that governments have to play (Thornley and Wright, 2001).
There is widespread approval of the interest in, and move towards, renewal energy
and bio-energy—as long as it is not near me! Increasing attention will need to be placed
on “selling” the idea to the populace where the plant is to be built, and this problem
could be exacerbated by the need to build smaller plants and thus many more plants than
 Biomass for Sustainable Fuel 543

conventional power stations and refineries. Early plants will have the curiosity factor and
may enjoy popularity as an attraction by itself or as part of an attraction of a “green”
site.
For industry to implement renewable energy technologies in order that commitments
made to mitigate greenhouse gases can be met, investment has to be attractive. Without
some fiscal incentives, companies will only invest in those projects that are sufficiently
profitable and most of these will be in niche markets and special opportunities. As
commented above, only governments can create the necessary instruments (Thornley and
Wright, 2001).
Economies of scale are a vital feature of the development of industry and technology
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in which the larger a process can be built, the cheaper it becomes. This is particularly
important in the energy and process industries that will shoulder the responsibility
for technology development and implementation. However, in the bio-energy industry,
biomass is a diffuse resource, which has to be harvested over large areas. A modest 10
MWe power station operating at a modest efficiency of 35% will require about 40,000 t
per year of wood on a dry basis, which will require about 4,000 ha of land. This could
reduce to 2,000 ha if the promise of high yielding short rotation forestry is realized.
Neither figure makes any allowance for non-productive land. There are, therefore, finite
sizes that bio-energy processes can be built in considering the costs and logistics of
transporting biomass to a processing plant. The maximum size suggested in Europe
ranges from 30 to 80 MWe in the short to medium term, and 100 to 150 MWe in North
America. This places a practical upper limit on the benefits of scale.
Investors are generally risk averse and always prefer low risk investments, but if
risks have to be accepted, then an appropriately higher return is expected. Technology
developers can do much to minimize technical risk and this topic has been thoroughly
described and discussed (Thornley and Wright, 2001). On the other hand, the established
energy suppliers and providers have considerable investments in orthodox energy systems
and will always seek to maximize their returns and maintain their competitive edge. Most
major energy companies have their own programs of supporting renewable energy, but
there have always been concerns over the extent to which they will seek to protect their
interests.

Conclusions
Traditional bioenergy in the form of fuel wood, charcoal, and residues has been with hu-
manity since the discovery of fire, but only in the past 100 years or so has it reappeared in
a more advanced and modern version. Even though bioenergy technological applications
were being developed during those times, cheap and ample reserves of fossil fuels in the
form of oil and natural gas came into the picture and for over 80 years pushed biofuels
to the back seat of energy development. Biomass is a locally available energy source
with the highest versatility among the renewable energies; that is to say, it can be made
available in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms. No other energy source can open such new
opportunities for agricultural and forest development, additional jobs, and enhanced rural
infrastructure. It is not by change that bioenergy development is gaining momentum in
many countries, both developing and developed, south and north, east to west. In some
ways this development seems to be going faster than the advancement of the frontier
of knowledge, which should guide decisions, set the environmental boundaries, ensure
sustainability, and assure that social equity accompanies this new field.
 544 K. Kaygusuz

Table 3
Role of biomass energy by major region in 2000 (EJ/yr)

World OECD Non-OECD Africa Latin America Asia

Primary energy 423.3 222.6 200.7 20.7 18.7 93.7

Of which biomass (%) 10.8 3.4 19.1 49.5 17.6 25.1
Final energy 289.1 151.2 137.9 15.4 14.6 66.7
Of which biomass (%) 13.8 2.5 26.3 59.6 20.3 34.6
Estimated modern 9.8 5.2 4.6 1.0 1.9 1.5
bioenergy
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As % of primary energy 2.3 2.3 2.3 4.7 10.0 1.6

Modern biomass inputs
to:
Electricity, CHP, heat 4.12 3.72 0.39 0.0 0.14 0.07
plants
As % of total sector 2.7 4.1 0.6 0.0 3.4 0.2
inputs
Industry (approx.) 5.31 1.34 3.97 0.98 1.45 1.44
As % of total sector 5.8 3.0 8.6 30.3 26.0 6.3
inputs
Transport 0.35 0.10 0.26 0.0 0.29 0.03
As % of total sector 0.5 0.2 1.1 0.0 6.3 0.4
inputs

Source: Kartha et al., 2005.

The sustainable production and conversion of plants and plant residues into fuels
offers a significant opportunity for alleviating the pressure on forests and woodlands
for use as fuel. Along with agricultural clearances, these pressures have been the major
threats to forest and tree resources, wetlands, watersheds, and upland ecosystems. On the
other hand, biomass also has an important role to play in the mitigation of climate change
and fuel supply (Table 3). Using modern energy conversion technologies it is possible to
displace fossil fuels with an equivalent biofuels. When biomass is grown sustainably for
energy, with the amount grown equal to that burned for a given period, there is no net
building-up of CO2 , because the amount of CO2 released in combustion is compensated
for by that absorbed by the growing energy crop.

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