Reviewer in Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person

Chapter 1 – Doing Philosophy

The Meaning of Philosophy and Philosophy of the Human Person

Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to understand reality and answer
questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature. It can be described as either a body of knowledge or an
intellectual activity.

Philosophy as a body of knowledge provides methodologies and insights on how societal questions, such as moral
dilemmas of euthanasia or same-sex marriage, can be answered.

Philosophy as an intellectual activity is an analytic procedure of addressing individual thought processes such as
resolving conflict and confusion, testing positions, and analyzing beliefs. In all instances, doing philosophy is prescribed
by logic, reason, and ethics leading to wisdom.

Philosophy applied to human experience or everyday life denotes the use of philosophy as an intellectual activity. Also
known as philosophy in life, this concept is important because it serves as the guiding principle on how one ought to live
life.

Importance of Philosophical Reflection

Philosophical reflection is the process by which a person undergoes a reflective state or evaluates his or her experiences
first before making any related action. The use of philosophical reflection is important as it enables thought to be looked
into using a deeper, holistic perspective. In effect, actions are directed towards greater sources of wisdom and truth.

Human Activities Emanated from Deliberate Reflection

In the process, one can learn more about himself or herself, including personal beliefs, ideals, or values. Previous
experiences may be seen as important aspects of making reflections because they facilitate deeper thinking and
understanding of the self. Aside from knowing the self, many other activities also emanate from reflection.

Examples:

• learning from your previous mistakes and not repeating them again
• evaluating and knowing the best choice from a set of options
• gaining a holistic point of view first before making any conclusion

Meaning and Process of Doing Philosophy Doing

Philosophy means engaging oneself in “matters of utility” and methodologies to eliminate any practical problem or
abstract idea.

In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of view—the perception of looking at all aspects
of a situation first before making a conclusion. Some other skills involved in doing philosophy are critical, logical, and
analytical thinking, observation, and communicative skills.

Holistic and Partial Points of View

Before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must be able to distinguish between a holistic and partial point of view.
This is critical for anyone doing philosophy because it sets a limit in coming up with conclusions about a given situation.

Holistic Point of View Partial Point of View

• Looks at all aspects of the given problem or
situation.
• All aspects are given importance when making
conclusions.
• All aspects are tied in together to form a general
overview of the problem or situation.
Example
A teacher listens first to both stories of her two arguing
students before making any conclusion about the issue.
• Looks at only a limited number of aspects of the
given problem or situation.
• Conclusions are made based on considering some,
but not all, sides of the problem or situation.
Example
A teacher scolds Student A after Student B accused
him of stealing her pencil case. However, the teacher only
listened to the story of Student B, and not to Student A,
before deciding to scold the student.
Looking at the characteristics of holistic and partial points of view, it can be concluded that using a holistic perspective is
more desirable in doing philosophy than using a partial perspective. Partial points of view only promote limited
knowledge on the situation. This leads to wrong conclusions.

Holistic and Partial Points of View Learning philosophy requires learning to look into all available perspectives and work
on their relationship to come up with sound, logical, and valid conclusions. In the process, doing philosophy helps one to
develop the skill of broadly looking at the situation first before concluding anything.

Importance of Doing Philosophy

Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives. Because it involves an evaluative process,
doing philosophy allows a person to make better decisions and act accordingly to situations with the help of various
philosophical skills.

Furthermore, on life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking which greatly influences a person’s view of life,
challenges, and relationships.

Doing philosophy directs how a person will perceive these factors in life and how they will be faced. In any setting,
wisdom is always gained when philosophy is applied to formulate a conclusion about a certain concern.

Chapter 2 - Methods of Philosophizing

Truth and Knowledge

• Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. It is a fact that has been verified.
• Knowledge is simple data that comes from the outside that pass to our senses. It must be truthful to gain
validity and acceptance.

Propositions

• Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value.

• Propositions are statements about the world or reality which may or may not carry truth.

What is truth and why is it important?

• Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the product of questions that allow for
clear answers provided by facts.
• What we know is what is observable or evident in the real world.
• Propositions which are observed to be real or truthful are considered FACTS.
• There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to be true and they are called
CLAIMS. They require further examination to establish whether it is true or false.

How do we know if something is true?

• Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for determining truth.

• We assume that everything we know about this world is true but philosophers who pondered upon the origins
of knowledge doubted everything that there is to know about themselves and the world. In doing so, they were
able to better understand the means by which humans gain knowledge and determine the truth about
everything.
• It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so that we may learn a new. Philosophers
questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing in order to understand themselves
and the world much better.
• Doubt has a very important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth. Nothing is taken as
true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove that it is indeed true. I am alive. Am I alive? I am
alive. I have a body. Do I have a body? I have a body. I can breathe. Can I breathe? I can breathe.

I am alive. Am I alive? I am alive.

I have a body. Do i have a body? I have a body.
I can breathe. Can I breathe? I can breathe.
Something is true if…

1. It can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.

2. It is based on facts.
3. It is a product of agreement or consensus.
4. It can be applied in real life (tested and verified)
How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth from opinion?

• Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts but also provide conclusions or perspectives
regarding certain situations. They may advance a belief about certain things or provide explanations.
• Opinions are also the bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact. They are
often influenced by bias.
• Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. To judge the
truthfulness of a belief, we must also consider things such as the person’s experiences and views.
• Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true.
• Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim or
opinion is truthful.
• They often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that they
seem reasonable.
• Biases are the personal views of the person presenting it. They are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer
to tendencies or influences which affect the views of people.
• Fallacies are mistaken beliefs based on unsound arguments. They derive from reasoning that is logically
incorrect, thus undermining an argument's validity. Explore the different types of fallacies you can find through
examples.

Example of Fallacious Reasoning

There are many different types of fallacies, and their variations are almost endless. Given their extensive nature, we've
curated a list of common fallacies so you'll be able to develop sound conclusions yourself, and quickly identify fallacies
in others' writings and speeches. Explore several common fallacies and examples.

Ad Hominem, also known as attacking the person, fallacies occur when acceptance or rejection of a concept is rejected
based on its source, not its merit.

• That face cream can't be good. Kim Kardashian is selling it.

• Don't listen to Dave's argument on gun control. He's not the brightest bulb in the chandelier.

Appeal to Authority, when you commit an appeal to authority fallacy, you accept a truth on blind faith just because
someone you admire said it.

• Katherine loves Tom Cruise. One day, she meets Tom Cruise and he tells her unicorns live in New York City.
Without searching to find out if fairy tales have sprung to life in midtown Manhattan, she believes it to be true.
• Princess Kate wears Alexander McQueen. Are you trying to say you have better fashion sense than a royal
princess?

Appeal to ignorance fallacies occur when someone asserts a claim that must be accepted because no one else can prove
otherwise.

• People have been praying to God for years. No one can prove He doesn't exist. Therefore, He exists.
• Since the students have no questions concerning the topics discussed in class, the students are ready for a test.

Appeal to Pity, these fallacies occur when someone seeks to gain acceptance by pointing out an unfortunate
consequence that befalls them.

• I know we don't love each other. But if we don't get married it will crush my mother. You know she has a weak
heart. Do you really want to do that to her?
• If we don't adopt that puppy today, they might put him down. Do you want to be responsible for that?

Bandwagon, you might have jumped on the bandwagon before. Well, bandwagon fallacies occur when a proposition is
claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so.

• Everyone on campus is wearing Air Jordan’s. I need to buy those sneakers.

• All my friends are doing a low carb diet. That must be the only way to lose weight.

Begging the question, also called circular reasoning, is a type of fallacy that occurs when the conclusion of an argument
is assumed in the phrasing of the question itself.

• If aliens didn't steal my newspaper, who did?

• I have a right to free speech so I can say what I want and you shouldn't try to stop me.
Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc, you’ll see these fallacies happen when it is assumed that, because two things occur
together, they must be related.

• People who eat oatmeal have healthy hearts.

• Roosters crow before sunrise. Therefore, roosters cause the sun to rise.

In false analogy fallacies, you make an assumption about two things that are alike. Because they are alike in one
respect, it is assumed they are alike in another.

• People and watches are both complex. Therefore, they both must be the product of complex design.
• Tigers and lions are ruthless killers. House cats must also be ruthless killers.

False dilemma fallacies occur when someone is only given two choices for possible alternatives when more than two
exist.

• In Latin America, only two countries offer travel and tourism options: Mexico and Guatemala.
• Katie is one of 16,400 students on her college campus. The only boy’s worth dating are Dave and Steve.

Hasty Generalization, if you’ve ever been accused of jumping to conclusions, then you’ve committed a hasty
generalization. This type of informal generalization makes an assumption based on a small sample and can lead to
stereotypes.

• My brother eats cheeseburgers and pizza. He is thin. Cheeseburgers and pizza aren’t the cause of obesity.
• Four out of five doctors recommend “Heal” brand lotion for patients. It must be the best.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc, these fallacies occur when it is assumed that, because one thing happened after another, it
must have occurred as a result of it.

• Right when I sneezed, the power went off. I must've caused the outage.
• Mary wore her favorite necklace today and aced her spelling test. That necklace must be lucky.

A red herring fallacy occurs when someone uses irrelevant information to distract from the argument.

• How is talking about vaccinations going to help us find a cure for cancer?
• There are starving children in Africa. Eat your carrots.

You might see a slippery slope fallacy when someone assumes a very small action will lead to extreme outcomes.

• If we allow our 14-year-old to have her first date tonight, what's next? A wedding, kids?
• If we teach Tommy how to drive the car, he'll want to learn how to fly helicopters next!

A straw man fallacy happens when someone appears to be refuting the original point made, but is actually arguing a
point that wasn't initially made.

• President Trump doesn't have middle class Americans in mind. He's part of the upper echelon of America.
• "We should be doing more to make cars greener and more fuel efficient." "Our cities are built for cars; do you
want to affect the economy?"

A sweeping generalization happens when a very broad application is applied to a single premise.

• Dogs are good pets. Coyotes are dogs. Therefore, coyotes are good pets.
• Divorce is rampant in America. We only stand a 50 percent chance of survival. Therefore, we can't get married.

List of different Biases

Chapter 3 - The human person as an embodied spirit

Limitations of the Human Persons

1. Human persons are biologically deficient beings. This means that we are not equipped with the best physical
attributes among all the beings in the world.
2. Human persons do not have the natural ability to fly.
3. Human persons cannot also breathe underwater without the aid of a breathing apparatus.

Definition of Terms Possibility is defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary as:

1. a chance that something might exist, happen, or be true;

2. the state or fact of being possible;
3. something that might be done or might happen;
4. something that is possible;
5. abilities or qualities that could make someone or something better in the future.

Definition of Terms Transcendence means:

1. exceeding usual limits or SURPASSING;

2. extending or lying beyond the limits of ordinary experience;
3. in Kantian philosophy: being beyond the limits of all possible experience and knowledge.

The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

• As an embodied spirit, it provides us numerous opportunities to explore everything around us and even within
us. Though we enjoy a number of advantages compared to other beings, still there are a number of things that
we naturally cannot do.
• Despite these natural limitations, we have used our intellect to devise means to achieve several feats. We now
use airplanes to fly, employ scuba gear to swim underwater for extended periods, and invented tools and
machines to lift gear weights and perform other feats well beyond our physical capabilities.
• The ability to surpass limits is called transcendence. Our mind is an important tool that allows us to go beyond
many of our physical limits. As persons, we are able to exercise our imagination and reflection to go beyond our
own thoughts and experiences.
• Although we have physical limitations, we can transcend them because of our spiritual dimensions. Being
physically limited in our abilities does not prevent us from hoping for or aspiring to greater things.
• Transcendence also means overcoming oneself or being in control even if the body reminds us of certain
tendencies. Although these tendencies are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are exercised
within the bounds of reason.

Chapter 4 - The human person in their environment

John Donne: “No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.”
Environmental Philosophy

• This means that as human person, we interact not only with our fellow human beings, but also with other living
and non-living elements in our environment.
• Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way that changes in
our environment affect us.
• Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the
environment and its non-human contents.
• Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes.
• It is in an orderly environment where human persons thrive best. Disorders give rise to several problems and
challenges for humankind.
• As a rational being, the person is not only capable of transforming the world, but also of understanding the laws
which govern nature. It can be said that the world is a text which the person can read and understand in order
to live a better life. He may treat it as:
1. A source of raw materials to be used in any way he pleases
2. As something that envelops and surround him, and thus have a unique relationship with it.

The Three Major Views

1. Anthropocentrism – focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the
means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive. This view believes that humans are the most
important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use its resources.
2. Biocentrism – believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all other
organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view advocates ethical treatment of animals.
3. Ecocentrism – places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. This view believes that humankind
is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a significant role as stewards or
guardians of nature. This view promotes the idea that order and balance in nature brings about stability and
beauty.

The influence of humanity on the environment can be best understood if we consider the individual person as a dynamic
source of change within his particular environment.

Environmental Aesthetic

• Philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the
surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it.
• The appreciation of natural beauty brings about the concern for the environment and helps people relate more
effectively with nature.

Environmental Ethics

• This is a moral approach that analyzes the relationship between humans and the environment. It also discusses
environmental problems caused by human activities and social issues that impact the environment
• It serves as a basis for reflecting on how our actions show our regard for nature. It also guides us in upholding
the welfare of the environment and everything in it.
• As persons, it is our responsibility to start with our own actions and how they affect our immediate
surroundings.

Environmentalism

• This perspective advocates to address the growing environmental problems. It has become an important issue in
international politics as governments and international organizations have devoted efforts to discuss
environmental issues and formulate plans to address them (Kyoto Protocol in 1997, where various nations
committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in order to curb global warming; and the celebration of
Earth Day, first instituted in 1970, a global effort to raise awareness of issues and inspire action among
communities).

Sustainable Development

This concept focuses on reconciling human activities and economic development with the protection of the
environment. Major ideas:

1. We must make wise decisions regarding the use of natural resources to ensure that there is still enough left for
future use.
2. The misuse of resources often means that other people do not get to benefit from it.
Principles of Sustainability

1. Environmental integrity – refers to maintaining the state of the environment.

• This means that human activities should not unduly disrupt the ecosystems and human communities located in
the area
• Care should be taken that the surrounding landscape is not drastically impacted by human activities.

2. Economic efficiency – refers to prudence in decision-making regarding the use of resources to ensure that there is
minimum to zero waste.

3. Equity – demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so that the next
generation will be able to use them.

• Prudence is the ability to regulate one’s actions and behavior.

• Frugality is being thrifty with the use of one’s resources.

As human persons, it is our responsibility to treat with respect not only our fellow humans, but also everything in our
world. Upholding environmentalism and sustainability will enable us to take the first steps in addressing environmental
issues and contribute to solving the greater environmental challenge of climate change.

Prepared By: Mr. Teddy B. Catimbang