JOURNAl Of

GEOCNEMlCAl
EWPlORAlION
ELSEVIER

Environmental improvements by the mining

industry in the Sudbury Basin of Canada

Rcsponsildc wining cwnp;mics lxw tlonc rnucl~ to rcdrcs~ ttlc cnvirormls~ll;~l tt;~~n~yc of carlicr
tcchnologics ;tntl con~inuc IO do more. In the Sdbury I?ain. OIIC of 111~ III~N important mining mu
in llic world. bolli Into I.iniilcil mid f4conhriilpc f.iniilcd. Iwo of’ lhr largcsl nickel fmilriccrs, time
sigriiticmtly dccrc;isctl sulphur dionitlc ciiiissiotis in tlic I;151 JO years fcoui ~iibsl;inti;illy lot)% lo
;1h011l IO% or toss of lhc sulfdiur iti the arc: dcmmcil w;ilcr cll111c1ils by recycling: lrc;lld cl’tlucnls
lo comfily with govcrnniclit rcgiilNioris: WVCgClillCll niiric rock ;lIld sudxc IililiIlgs dcposil~ ;llld
rcti;ihiliI;ilctl lantlsc;ipcs iii llic surrocintling commuuilics. Iuco ;iriil Fakoiibritlgc corllinuc lo ilcvclop
improved ~iic’;uis lim clivirotilitccll;ilty sod tidntlling of all wmlcs iriclutlilig rccyclirig ;ind lo rccl;iim
Id al ;~b;rllilotlcd niinc silos. They h;lVc dcVclofUl ;rlld ililf~lcniciilci~ cliviromicril;it fxdicics illld
cotks of fmclicc, ii01 olliy lo coliifdy wilh rcgut;~lio~is. hi11 lo ;inlicifxilc Iticili. ‘l’tic tliiriirig iiiiluslry
rccopiircs ltic iiccil for rcgrrl;ilioli lo prolccl titi1il;i11 tic;tllti ;itid ltic ciivironliicIit. finistirig rcgulalioris
arc hasctl WI ;I h;lzml ;ISSCSSIWIII ;Ipf>ro;l~b. A more rc;di\lic. fmpulic ;111d cost-cl’fcclivc basis l’or
rcgiil;ilioii is risk ~ii:~ri;ipmsril. This rclalcs my tlocr~~iic~ilcil ~lk~ls lo Iiicmtircd cxf~osiircs :i~id
rccognixs Ihc need for cxpo~iirc lcvcls low cnougti Ihal incitlcncc ol’xlvcrsc tdlti dtkfs is ;IS low
iis ill lbc siirroii~iding ax~syslciii.

1. Introduction

Much has been written in ram ycm about fhc adv~:rsc cnvironmmal impacts o1’nGning
and n~ctallurgical optmtions around the world. A recent viewpoint is given in ;I lengthy
paper titled “Mining the Earth” (Young. 1997). A critique ot’ this paper (Jxkso~~. 1903)
offcrcd an altcrnativr point of view. The fkmx viewpoint applies tin assumption of guilt
and places sckncc in the impossible position of having to prove a ncgativc. namely that
sonicthing is not a hamrd or ;I risk. The srcond viewpoint proposes that docunmtcd
problems should be solved but solutions should not lx iniposcd whcrc problms have not
box scientifically cstablishd. The first approach may impose regulations without rcgmf
for economics versus env1ronmcntal benefits. The second embraces both and is gaining
greater attention.
In general. current concerns about the metals industry include air emissions of sulphur
dioxide. production of acid rain. water effluents cont;lllun g metals. disruption of land and
soil by mining and disposal of mine rock. tailings and slags. In many parts of the world. the
metals industry has significantly redressed these problems in recent decades and is contin-
uing to do so. One such mining area is the nickel mining region of the Sudbury Basin. Into
and Falconbridge, two of the largest nickel producers in the world. have been linked for
many years to environmental damage in the area. While both companies have contributed
to the problem, much of the degradation was initiated more than a hundred years ago by
e.xtensive logging. forest tires and construction of the Canadian Pacific Railroad in the
I 8tyO’s.
An early smelting technique was heap roasting of sulphido minerals on the ground.
Ground Icvcl emissions of sulpher dioxide added another burden to already stressed lmd-
scape. The suhsquent lack of vegetation resulted in topsoil erosion and exposure of the
Prccambrinn bedrock. In the early years of this century at Sudbury. nickel production and
population wcrc rclativcly small and the situation w;ls not seen as iin unusual problem
relnted to the riced for metals ad cmploymcnt. llowevcr. with the growing dcmitnd for
nickel during and following the Second World War, nickel production incrcascd substitn-
tially as did emissions of sulphur dioxide to the air, process cfllucnts to surface waters. and
disposal of mint rock, tailings and slags to the land.
At about the time of the Second World War, these two major companies rcaliscd ~hcy
had IO minimize the growing impiU of their operations on the environment. They have
continued to do so. The purpose of this paper is to summarize thcsc major achicvcmcnts
and to identify future plans of Into and Falconbridgc to minimize the overall cnvironmcnlal
impact of their operations in the Sudhury ;trc;l. Space prccludcs ;I comprchcnsivc trcatmcnl
of this suhjcct. The following arc hut sclectcd examples of cnv~ronmcntal improvements.
Mot-c remain to hc achicvcd.

2. Atnwspheric emissions

A major challcngc for nickel production in the Sudbury arca is thitt thcrc is 8 times more
sulphur in the arc than nickel. During the curly years of this century, most of the sulphur
was rclcascd to the atmosphere as sulphur dioxide, but nickel output was quite small.
DamiIgc was signiticant in the immediate vicinity of the roast yards. but the total output of
SO, was not the problem it lutcr bccamc with gradually increasing nickel production.
Since the 1950’s. various means have been implemented to decrease SO1 emissions (Fig.
I ) relative to nickel production. At Falconbridge over the lost 40 years. there has been a
drrtmatic decrease in the weight ratio of SOL emitted per unit of nickel produced from I6 to
less than 2 (Falconbridge Ltd.. 1994). This achievement is even more impressive consid-
ering that in the same 40 year period. output of nickel roughly tripled from approximately
12 to 36 kilotonnes per year. Fig. 2 shows the decrease in total emissions of SO, at
f%dconbridge in the 30 years since 1960. The SO, emissions in 1993 wcrc below 55
kilotonncs. less than one fifth the 320 kiloronnc level of 1970. In addition, emissions of SO?
have been continually below the Icvels set by an Ontario povurnmcnt Control Or&r during
the period 1960 to IYYO and have actually been below the kvcl set for IYY-I since 1080.
Into has achieved an 87% reduction in SO, emissions from I Y7:! to I YYJ.
Over a recent IO-year period, the province of Ontario has docunmtcd thr biological
recovery of lakes in the Sudbury ma, as SO, missions from the mining industry have
dccrcascd. Lake anJ strcarn ilcidification has been chmically rcvcrsed and fish stock
improvements have occt~mxl rapidly as the SO2 missions have dccrcasetl. In I YXO. 35 01
IOJ I:ks ntm Sudhury had a p\t less than 5.5. By 1087, 84 ol the lakes had pH values
grcatcr than 5.5. Even nwrc imprcssivc, in IOX I only one I&c trout wm caught per IO0
hours ol’ lishing in Whitcpinc Lahc near Sudhury. but by I YX7 the catch had incrcascd to
I03 per IOU hours (Gt111n antl Kcllcr, IYYO). Lichen populations have txxxmc cstahlishcd
null have incrc;lsctl. In IYOX, the lichen spccics count at various locations within 70 h 01'

Sutlbury was four or Icss. Dy I YSY. lichen spccics in the S;IIIIC xu hal incrcasd to hctwccn

IO and 30. a ckdr inilicalioir ol’thc iniprovcincnts iii cnvironrncntal qiidily.

This imprcssivc achicvcmcut has rcsultcd from the dcvclopmcnt ol’much NW t~chuology
alId the cxpcnditurc of hundreds of niillioiis ol’ dollars li)r rcscarch. tlcvclopnicnt, capital
cquipnmt ancl IIC'W proccssiog flcilitics. Today SO, emissions I’roni f:alconhridgc rcprclscnt

160 ~-------__--.--~~- -;;._;..-...._...._.., ----- -

.._P
80 _ ___._..._ -._ -__

b+ -- ----

0 --.------- --- ------.. ~-- -~ - ~- .- --- -~

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
ICM than IO’T of the sulphur in the ore. Efforts at-e continuin, (7 to &crease these rtmiAon\
still t’urthcr. Similar inipro\cmcnt\ have been ;Lchic\t‘J b> Into \\ hich ha\ complctd a SS?O
million program to t’urther Jecreur.SO, emissions from 30’ i ot’thr sulphur in the ore in
I 985 to IO’% in I WJ. an’ emission abatement of 420 kilotonnc\ of SO, per year ( Into
Limited. 199.3 ). It should 4~) be noted that the Sudbury arc;1 txiiaions of SO: represent
only a fraction of I% of the total SO2 emissions in North America. Most SO, in North
America comes from thermal power plants hurninp sulphur-hearing fuels. notably natural
~a?;. oil and cad ( Ontario hlinistry of the Environment. I9S3 ).

3. Aquatic eftlucnts

Falconhridpc Ltd. LIW\; ;IS much ivatcr every yc;lr in its Ontxio mining. milling and
smelting operations ;IS a cite of I I7.000 pcoplc. roughly 36 hillion litrcs. llowcvcr. almost
half ofthis water is rccyclzd to the mines and mills. The rcm;~intkr is treated ami tlischorgcd
to surrounding pads unclcr conditions that comply with provincial and fctlcral regulations.
The ponds arc artxigcd in n;iturnl. cxscadin,41cystcms and the water is monitord and trcatstl
as it Ilows from one to the next to contrtd acidity. prccipitatc hc;ivy mctnls. and clarify
susl~~id~d solids. Beforc it finally rc-enters the naturd water coiirxc. it is non-toxic to
r;iinhow trout ;iiid water tlcas.
As ;I result of \vatcr trc;itmcnt in rcccnt years, ;I 300 hcctarc pent ho,11locatccl tlownstrcam
from the Falconhriil~c smcltcr has hccn transli~rmctl into ;I u iiillifc sanctuary. Over the
years the hog was ilcstroycd hy lirc, niitl emission\ ;intl fallout I’rom the smdlcr. A recki-
m;ition prog”;im over the last I5 years has scc’n the ho,0 rcjuvcnatcd 3s ;I proiluclivc wctlxnd.
In Icss than IO years, niorc than X0% id the ho, 0 has hc~oiiic naturally rcvcgctatcil with
hulrushcs antI c:~tti~ils. The IICW tnarsh h;ls now hc~omc ;I h;lbitat for IIKIIIY aquatic li)wl.
m;ush hawks. small tish and t11iII11I11;IIs including musla~ts. hcavcrs ad I’oxcs. NOW ;I
conscrv;ition ;irc;i, this hog has dr;imatically ch;mgcil f’rom its lormcr harrcn, acidic coridi-
tion. Sitnibr wittcr quality cnh;mcctnlrnt progranls have hccn undcrtakcn by I~CO xl,jxcnt
to its mint. mill and smcltcr operations.

‘l‘hcrc have hccn three nl;ijor improvc’mcnts in lanilxxpc m;m;Igcmcnt in lhc Sutlhury
iIlT;I. ‘I’hc first rcl;itcs to hcttcr WilyS Of ilcalin, 0 with mine rock. tailings ;inil slag that arc
di~pikd 01’ in the vicinity of the mine. mills and \mcltcrs. ‘I’hc Wconil is restoration ot
harrcn or strcssccl land along highways xid railroxllr xoimtl coruinmlilics in the Surlhury
;Irc;t. The third is planning for ~nvironn~~ntally ;~ccep~ahlc exploration procetlurcs :rncl mint
close-out.

blctal protluction gcncraks large ;uiiounts 0U nlinc rock. tailin, t’s anil slag. I:or cvcry tonne
ol’ nick1 protlucctl in the Sudhury region, it is ncccs\ary to extract ahou~ IO0 tonnch ()I‘
rock. At Falconbridge alone. up to I million tonnes of mine rock must be disposed of every
year and at lnco the quantities are even greater, reflecting its larger production. The min-
eralized ore component containing the metals is only ;L small portion of this total volume.
Non acid-generating mine rock is used for road bed construction or dams in industrial areas.
However. most of the mine rock contains sufticient sulphides to generate acidic leachate
upon exposure to air and moisture and thus various steps are taken to control this problem.
Where possible, sulphide-bearing waste rock is disposed under water to prevent oxidation.
Where this is not possible. the rock is either returned underground to the mine as backtill
or is disposed in pits or surface areas where any acid drainage is collected and neutralized.
Met;11 ore is ground to separate the nickel-bearing minerals from the tailings waste which
contains mainly iron sulphides. Sulphide tailings are sources of acid drainage when disposed
of in the prescncr of oxygen and moisture. Dependin, (1 on the operation. as much as one
quarter to two thirds of the tailings are utilized underground as backtill in the mines. The
remaining tailings are disposed of in surface disposal arcas. These are surrounded by darns
which ;mdesigncd to hold the solids but allow seepage water to How to established treatment
sites. When the arca is lillcd to dcsipn capacity. ~hesc tailings deposits arc then rcvegctatcd.
The magnitude of thcsc operations at Into’s Copper Cliff operations cover more than two
thousand hectares ( Fig. 3 ) ( Hcalc. IO9 I 1.
Over 40 years of research have gone into dcvclopin, 0 cffcclive nicans for permanent
rcvegctation of tailings. AI Incu the proccdurc that proved to he most rcliahlc and cffcctivc
is comprised of sctcral stages carried out scaron~~lly. The tailings surface is first contoured
to dccrc;lsc cro5ion. In early sunimcr. finely ground agricullural limcstonc is spread and
tlisccil into the surf;icc lo nculralizc surface acidily and provide ;I rcccplive medium for
seeding. Iii mid-~uninicr. seeding begins. prcccdcd by addilion;~l limcslonc and fcrtilizcr
mixcd and disccd into the surfucc. A mixture of f;11l rye ;md grass seed is then planted by
seed drill with addilional fcrtili/cr, followed hy niorc grass seed and compacting of the soil
surface. After gcrmin;Aon. more f’crtili/.cr is ;~ddcd. followed by further additions of limc-
stons and fcrlili/.cr 3s rcquircd.
Once initial vcgctation is cstahlishcd, many other spccics of’ tlora :rnd fauna arc naturally
attr;ka!d lo the ;trc;is. Sonic X6 diffcrcnt trees. shrubs, grassa. rushes, cattails, Icgumcs.
weeds and mosses have been idcntilicd on the Copper Cliff tailings arca. The trees include
birch, aspen. willow, pines, spruces and locust. In addition, more than one million forest
seedlings have been planted. This tailings arca has hccn dcvclopcd as ;I wildlife man;lgcmcnt
arca and now supports 97 diffcrcnt species of birds including shorchirds, gulls, waterfowl.
and others. C~lada geese and other migratory birds use the arc;I for spring and fnl1 migration
stopovers and as nesting grounds. Thcrc arc many diffcrcnt insects and mammals including
mice, voles. harts, chipmunks, squirrels, fox. moose. deer and hear. Into has rcvcgctatcd
and rcf’orcstcd almost 750 hcctarcs of tailings and Falconbridgc in excess of SO hcctarcs in
the Sudhury area.
Falconhridgc gcncratcs half 3 million tonnes of slag per year and Into more than twice
that amount. At Falconbridge these slag deposits arc all) being revcgctatcd.

Into’s efforts IO improve the acsthctic appearance of the local community in the Sudhury
arc;1 go as far hack as the First World War, with dcvch)pmcnt of ;I park at the site of* a
Fig. 4. Top: Sudhury. 1902.barren. dreary landscape. Borfom: 90 years lercr. Sudhury today. modem. vibrant city
with many ~rccs and Kamsay Lake with swimming. tkhing and sailing-a clan. green environment.
Fig. 5. Top: Diamond drill on barren site of the first Falconbridge orebody, 1917. Bottom: 75 years Iatcr. natural
reforestation in same arca today.
Fig. 7. Top: Acidilicd. ha-ren. lifeless settling pond. 1978. part of Falconbridge tailings and eftlucnt diqmal area.
Hottom: Same tirea ahout 5 year\ later, after neutralization and revegetation: now has new generations of in\eclx.
ti\h and Cand;~ gee.~.
Fig. 8. Top: Dcscrtcd tailings uca of the Nickel Rim mine near Fdconbridgc. atwu~ 1970. Bottom: 15 years later.
IwS. aftrr nsurrdir;ttion and rcvcgciation by Fnlconhridgc.
a
Fig. I I. Top: 1991, developmwt arex around lnco underground air raises. Bottom: 1993, after neutrahntion.
rcvegctation and Ianduxping.
Fig. I?. Top: An lnco flux sand pit. Bottom: One year Inter after sloping and revcgctation: this area is now ;I
wildlife habitat.
fonnrropen roast bed. hlore recently. land reclamation beganon lnco property in the 1960’s
around plant and mine sites. In the 1970’s. a multi-disciplinary committee including mem-
bers from Into, Falconbridge. Laurentian University. provincial ministries. municipal gov-
ernments and community representatives was established to foster land reclamation in the
Sudbury area. At that time. more than 100 square kilometers of land in the Sudbury area
were identified as barren rock. Since then. focusing on areas along highways and railroads
around local communities. more than 30 square kilometers of this rock have been revegetated
by manual addition of lime, fertilizer and seed. Summer programs employ students to help
deal with the large areas involved. This truly cooperative community effort has resulted in
the planting of more than two million forestry seedlings. At Falconbridge, a further 600
thousand trees have been planted in the surrounding countryside since 1955. The Sudbury
community program continues to investigate improved and new techniques of land recla-
mation, the latest, by Into. being to spread limestone. fertilizer and grass seed by plane. A
series of before and after photographs taken in the Sudbury area illustrate a selection ot
these major landscapeimprovements ( Figs. -l to I? ).

Both the early and final stages in the life of a mine have had a direct environmental impact
on the land and water. Exploration planning and mint close-out preparations arc now an
integral part of the land managcmcnt stratcgics at both Into and Falconhridgc. At Falcon-
bridge, for cxamplc. exploration work is now basedon a nutnb~rol’cnvirt,nlllcnt~~l guidclincs
including environmental impact studies hefore work comn~unccs:employee and contractor
training about cnvironmcntal regulations, codes and practices; conducting exploration activ-
itics with the least possihlc cnvironmcntal impact; and proper containment and disposal 01
wastes.
Mining companies in Canada participate in a fcdcral. provincial and industrial initiative
called the Mint tlnvirr~nmcntal Neutral Drainage Program, MEND. The objcctivc 01
rcscarch under MEND is to dcvclop means to monitor, treat, control and prcvcnt acid rock
drainage. Ontario’s new Mining Act requires that miningcomp;~ni~s identify their operations
and provide detailed close-out plans for operating properties, accompanied by financial
assurance for the work required. Thcsc plans include information on how to ensure safe and
secure mine sites, minimize potential environmental impacts and restore sites as closely as
possible to their original condition or a condition acceptableto the Director, Ontario Ministry
of Northern Development and Mines in Sudbury.

5. Wnste management and other initiatives

In addition to mine rock. tailings and slag, Into and Falconbridgc, like many other
industries. use many different chemicals, lubricants, solvents and fuels in their processes.
Safe disposal of wastes is fundamental to the companies’ waste management programs.
There is also a focus on reducing, reusing and recycling. The less material used and the
more rccyclcd means both cost savings and rcduccdcnvironmcntal impact. &cycling scrap
m~t:tl is hoth cnviror~m~nt~~lly and economically attractive. Significant cncrgy is saved
compared to processing raw ores and recycled metal is sulphur-free. Falconbridge. for
example. recycles scrap derived from airplane engine components. stainless steel. lathe
turnings. catalysts. concentrates and sludge obtained from many sources in Canada. the
USA and Europe. The nickel, copper and cobalt recovered by this recycling process might
otherwise have been disposed of in landtills.
While meeting new environmental standards at existing mining operations requires retrof-
itting and upgrading. it is easier for new mines to use the best environmental technology
from the outset and build into the plants and mines the best economically achieveable
technology. For example. Falconbridge commenced operations at its new Thuyer Linsley
mine in the Sudbury Basin in the sprin, (7 of 1997. Environmental concerns have been
emphasized since the earliest stages of exploration at this site. The mine is being operated
IO minimize all environmental impacts. There will be no waste water discharged from the
site at 311. Mine process water and any surface drainage water will be pumped to an already
csistinp war treatment facility. The close-out plan for the mine calls for progressive
rehabilitationduring the life ofthe mine. Part of this rehabilitation will be the safe contouring
and vegetation of the non acid-producin, (7 waste rock pile. Other elements of the broud-
based environmental quality plan include:
environmental audits - to monitor operations. identify dclicicncics and optimize
environnientsl pcrforniancc;
responsible core and trmsportation of goods - to cnsurc sal> handling. transport.
use. rcitsc. rccyclin g and dispos;1I of products and workin g with regulatory authorities
to promolc the envirotinicotally safe use of ~ilctal products;
’ rcscarch and development - to lxcp up with cvolvin g cnvironmcntal standards by
continuing investment to improve proccsscs and operating proccdurcs for SO2 ahatemcnt.
tailings stratcgios. mclal rccovcrics and other concerns.
. community awareness - to inform and involve local communities in company initia-
lives to iniprovc the quality of the n;ilur;il cnvironmcnl surrounding its operations.

6. Hcgul;ltion of the metals industry

Regulation is relevant to any discussion of cnvironmcntal improvements and standards.

Existing mining regulations tend to hc h;~hcd Inrgely on ha/.ard asscssmcnt. There seems IO
bc some awarcncss cmcrgin g. howcvcr, in the scicntiliccornrnunicy and among govcrnmcnts
;LSwell 3s industry. that resources arc being incfliciently dcploycd and rxpcnditurcs arc
excessive in relation to the hen&its gained by this process. Thcrc is 3 growing call for ;I
combination of cost-bcnctit an;llysis and risk asscssmcnt ;LS ;I more appropriate basis for
environmental regulation. This approach. culled risk managcmcnt, brings an economic
component into considerations of risk. If there is documented cvidcncc of adverse cnviron-
mental or health cffccts from cxposurc to mca.\urcd concentrations of ;III agent, then the
exposure should be decreased to lower Icvcls. With this more pragmatic basis for regulation.
the focus would shift to scientifically documented effect. cost-bcnclit analysis. risk assess-
ment. and risk m;m;~gcmcnt.
7. Conclusions

From this brief review. it is clear that both Into and Falconbridge have done much to
redress the environmental impacts of their early operations on the Sudbury district and are
continuing to do more. Both companies are committed to the concept of sustainable devel-
opment and plans for on-going initiatives continue to be aimed at minimizing potential
adverse impacts of their operations and products on employees. customers. the general
public and the natural environment.

References

k’oung. I.E.. IYY?. Mining Ihc Earth. The Worldwcrfch Inrt~tulc.

Jac-lson. M.. 1992. Trashing rhc Truth. ~uwn‘s Univcrulq.
Fulconhridge Ltd.. IYYJ. Rcpc~non IIIC EnvirwmwnI.
Gunn. J.M. and Kcttcr. W.. IYYO. I~IoI’~~Ic;II rccowry of an xid lahc afrcr rcducti’w in indurfrial cmi\\i’m\ of

Additional reading