In the vertebrate spinal column, each vertebra is an irregular bone with a complex structure

composed of bone and some hyaline cartilage, the proportions of which vary according to the
segment of the backbone and the species of vertebrate.
The basic configuration of a vertebra varies; the large part is the body, and the central part is the
centrum. The upper and lower surfaces of the vertebra body give attachment to the intervertebral
discs. The posterior part of a vertebra forms a vertebral arch, in eleven parts, consisting of two
pedicles, two laminae, and seven processes. The laminae give attachment to the ligamenta
flava (ligaments of the spine). There are vertebral notches formed from the shape of the pedicles,
which form the intervertebral foramina when the vertebrae articulate. These foramina are the entry
and exit conduits for the spinal nerves. The body of the vertebra and the vertebral arch form the
vertebral foramen, the larger, central opening that accommodates the spinal canal, which encloses
and protects the spinal cord.
Vertebrae articulate with each other to give strength and flexibility to the spinal column, and the
shape at their back and front aspects determines the range of movement. Structurally, vertebrae are
essentially alike across the vertebrate species, with the greatest difference seen between an aquatic
animal and other vertebrate animals. As such, vertebrates take their name from the vertebrae that
compose the vertebral column.

Contents

 1Structure
o 1.1Regional variation
 1.1.1Cervical vertebrae
 1.1.2Thoracic vertebrae
 1.1.3Lumbar vertebrae
 1.1.4Sacrum
 1.1.5Coccyx
o 1.2Development
 2Function
 3Clinical significance
 4Other animals
 5Additional images
 6See also
 7References
 8External links

Structure[edit]
In the human vertebral column the size of the vertebrae varies according to placement in the
vertebral column, spinal loading, posture and pathology. Along the length of the spine the vertebrae
change to accommodate different needs related to stress and mobility. [1] Each vertebra is an irregular
bone.
Side view of vertebrae

Every vertebra has a body, which consists of a large anterior middle portion called
the centrum (plural centra) and a posterior vertebral arch,[2] also called a neural arch.[3] The body is
composed of cancellous bone, which is the spongy type of osseous tissue, whose micro-anatomy
has been specifically studied within the pedicle bones. [4] This cancellous bone is in turn, covered by a
thin coating of cortical bone (or compact bone), the hard and dense type of osseous tissue. The
vertebral arch and processes have thicker coverings of cortical bone. The upper and lower surfaces
of the body of the vertebra are flattened and rough in order to give attachment to the intervertebral
discs. These surfaces are the vertebral endplates which are in direct contact with the intervertebral
discs and form the joint. The endplates are formed from a thickened layer of the cancellous bone of
the vertebral body, the top layer being more dense. The endplates function to contain the adjacent
discs, to evenly spread the applied loads, and to provide anchorage for the collagen fibers of the
disc. They also act as a semi-permeable interface for the exchange of water and solutes. [5]

Anatomy of a vertebra

The vertebral arch is formed by pedicles and laminae. Two pedicles extend from the sides of the
vertebral body to join the body to the arch. The pedicles are short thick processes that extend, one
from each side, posteriorly, from the junctions of the posteriolateral surfaces of the centrum, on its
upper surface. From each pedicle a broad plate, a lamina, projects backwards and medialwards to
join and complete the vertebral arch and form the posterior border of the vertebral foramen, which
completes the triangle of the vertebral foramen.[6] The upper surfaces of the laminae are rough to
give attachment to the ligamenta flava. These ligaments connect the laminae of adjacent vertebra
along the length of the spine from the level of the second cervical vertebra. Above and below the
pedicles are shallow depressions called vertebral notches (superior and inferior). When the
vertebrae articulate the notches align with those on adjacent vertebrae and these form the openings
of the intervertebral foramina. The foramina allow the entry and exit of the spinal nerves from each
vertebra, together with associated blood vessels. The articulating vertebrae provide a strong pillar of
support for the body.
There are seven processes projecting from the vertebra; a spinous process, two transverse
processes, and four articular processes. A major part of a vertebra is a backward extending spinous
process (sometimes called the neural spine) which projects centrally. This process
points dorsally and caudally from the junction of the laminae. The spinous process serves to
attach muscles and ligaments.
The two transverse processes, one on each side of the vertebral body, project from either side at
the point where the lamina joins the pedicle, between the superior and inferior articular processes.
They also serve for the attachment of muscles and ligaments, in particular the intertransverse
ligaments. There is a facet on each of the transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae which
articulates with the tubercle of the rib.[7] A facet on each side of the thoracic vertebral body articulates
with the head of the rib. There are superior and inferior articular facet joints on each side of the
vertebra, which serve to restrict the range of movement possible. These facets are joined by a thin
portion of the vertebral arch called the pars interarticularis.
The transverse process of a lumbar vertebra is also sometimes called the costal[8][9] or costiform
process[10] because it corresponds to a rudimentary rib (costa) which, as opposed to the thorax, is
not developed in the lumbar region. [10][11]

Regional variation[edit]

Segments of Vertebrae

Vertebrae take their names from the regions of the vertebral column that they occupy. There are
thirty-three vertebrae in the human vertebral column—seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic
vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, five fused sacral vertebrae forming the sacrum and three to
five coccygeal vertebrae, forming the coccyx. The regional vertebrae increase in size as they
progress downwards but become smaller in the coccyx.
Cervical vertebrae[edit]
Main article: Cervical vertebrae
A typical cervical vertebra

There are seven cervical vertebrae (but eight cervical spinal nerves), designated C1 through C7.
These bones are, in general, small and delicate. Their spinous processes are short (with the
exception of C2 and C7, which have palpable spinous processes). C1 is also called the atlas, and
C2 is also called the axis. The structure of these vertebrae is the reason why
the neck and head have a large range of motion. The atlanto-occipital joint allows the skull to move
up and down, while the atlanto-axial joint allows the upper neck to twist left and right. The axis also
sits upon the first intervertebral disc of the spinal column.
Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina to allow for the vertebral arteries to pass through on
their way to the foramen magnum to end in the circle of Willis. These are the smallest, lightest
vertebrae and the vertebral foramina are triangular in shape. The spinous processes are short and
often bifurcated (the spinous process of C7, however, is not bifurcated, and is substantially longer
than that of the other cervical spinous processes).
The atlas differs from the other vertebrae in that it has no body and no spinous process. It has
instead a ring-like form, having an anterior and a posterior arch and two lateral masses. At the
outside centre points of both arches there is a tubercle, an anterior tubercle and a posterior
tubercle, for the attachment of muscles. The front surface of the anterior arch is convex and its
anterior tubercle gives attachment to the longus colli muscle. The posterior tubercle is
a rudimentary spinous process and gives attachment to the rectus capitis posterior minor muscle.
The spinous process is small so as not to interfere with the movement between the atlas and
the skull. On the under surface is a facet for articulation with the dens of the axis.
Specific to the cervical vertebra is the transverse foramen (also known as foramen transversarium).
This is an opening on each of the transverse processes which gives passage to the vertebral
artery and vein and a sympathetic nerve plexus. On the cervical vertebrae other than the atlas, the
anterior and posterior tubercles are on either side of the transverse foramen on each transverse
process. The anterior tubercle on the sixth cervical vertebra is called the carotid tubercle because it
separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery.
There is a hook-shaped uncinate process on the side edges of the top surface of the bodies of the
third to the seventh cervical vertebrae and of the first thoracic vertebra. Together with the vertebral
disc, this uncinate process prevents a vertebra from sliding backwards off the vertebra below it and
limits lateral flexion (side-bending). Luschka's joints involve the vertebral uncinate processes.
The spinous process on C7 is distinctively long and gives the name vertebra prominens to this
vertebra. Also a cervical rib can develop from C7 as an anatomical variation.
The term cervicothoracic is often used to refer to the cervical and thoracic vertebrae together, and
sometimes also their surrounding areas.
Thoracic vertebrae