GRAMMAR BASICS

DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH AND WORD CLASSES

PLS LEGAL ENGLISH 2 8-10 A.M., SATURDAY

 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS

• Cases of Personal Pronouns: Nominative Case vs. Objective Case

Case Pronouns When to use Example
Nominative I, we, you, he, she, Pronoun is used as a subject or predicate ü Father and I went to see the show.
Case it, they nominative/subjective complement ⤬ Father and me went to see the show.

Objective Me, us, you, him, Pronoun is used as a direct object, indirect ü He instructed Carlo and me to go
Case her, it them object or object of the preposition out.
⤬ He instructed Carlo and I to go out.
 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS

• Pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, number, case, and person
Type of Pronoun Example Application of the Rule

Singular Indefinite Another, anybody, anyone, anything, either, everybody,
everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one,
nothing, other, somebody, someone, something
Plural Indefinite Both, few, many, several
Singular/Plural All, enough, most, plenty, any, more, none, some
ü Everyone submitted his report.
⤬ Everyone submitted their report.
ü Both students submitted their report
⤬ Both students submitted his report.
ü Most of the pizza has chili sauce in it.
⤬ Most of the pizza has chili sauce in them.

*The number based on the meaning of the sentence determines

an indefinite pronoun that may either be singular or plural.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS

• A phrase that appears between an indefinite pronoun and a possessive pronoun does not
affect the agreement.
⤬ One of the birds broke their wings.
ü One of the birds broke its wings.
• Follow the number of the noun nearer the verb when one singular antecedent and one
plural antecedent are joined by or or nor.
⤬ Either Anna or her brothers is going to the mall.
ü Either Anna or her brothers are going to the mall.
 TENSES OF VERBS
Tense Use Sentence Structure
Simple present Expresses present action or condition; regularly Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
occurring action or condition, constant action or
condition
Simple past Expresses an action or condition that happened at a The men hiked the mountain all day.
definite time in the past or action that began and
ended in the past
Simple future Expresses an action that will take place sometime Bert will join the campers in the summer.
after this moment.
Present perfect Expresses an action or condition completed at an Philippine Airlines has served the country
indefinite time in the past or started in the past and since the 1940’s.
continues to the present or action or condition in a
sentence containing the “since” clause or phrase
Past Perfect Expresses a past action that took place before The traders had supported the
another past action. revolution until they learned of its
excesses.
 TENSES OF VERBS
Tense Use Sentence Structure
Future Perfect Expresses future action that will take place before Mr. A will have led the school as principal
another future action. for 8 years when his term expires next
year.
Present Expresses an ongoing action that is taking place The flight from Taiwan is arriving in an
Progressive now or a future time when sentence contains hour.
adverb or phrase indicating the future.
Past Progressive Expresses an ongoing action at a certain time in the In the late 1800’s, pirates were plaguing
past. traders in the Mediterranean.
Future Progressive Expresses ongoing action that will take place in the People will be speculating on what will
future happen by 2020.
Present Perfect Expresses an ongoing action that began in the past The veracity of the reported occurrences
Progressive and is continuing in the present. in the Bermuda Triangle has been
puzzling scientists for years.
 TENSES OF VERBS

Tense Use Sentence Structure

Past Perfect Expresses an ongoing action that is interrupted by The survivors of the plane crash had been
Progressive another past action. fighting for their lives when they were
spotted by the rescue team down the
slopes of the mountain.
Future Perfect Expresses an ongoing future action that will have By the time your great-grandchildren are
Progressive taken place by a designated future time. adults, people will have been inhabiting
other planets for many years.
 MOODS OF VERBS

Moods of Verb When to Use

Indicative mood States a fact or asks a question
Subjunctive mood Used to express a wish or condition that is contrary to
fact
Imperative mood Gives a command or make request

Note: The form of the verb “to be” is always were in the subjunctive mood.

⤬ I wish I was the President.

ü I wish I were the President

⤬ If I was a billionaire, I would help the needy.

ü If I were a billionaire, I would help the needy.
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Positive Comparative Superlative

• Irregular Forms: The irregular comparative and
Bad Worse Worst
superlative forms of certain adjectives and
Far (distance) Farther Farthest
adverbs must be memorized to avoid
Far (extent) Further Furthest
problems in usage.
Good Better Best
Ill Worse Worst
Late Later Last or Latest
Little (amount) Less Least
Many More Most
Well Better Best
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

• Logical Comparisons: Two or more things being compared must be of similar kind to avoid illogical or ridiculous
comparisons.
⤬ Jim’s idea is more feasible than Dan?
ü Jim’s idea is more feasible than Dan’s?
• Absolute Modifier: An absolute modifier cannot be used in comparisons. (i.e. dead, entirely, eternal, fatal, final,
genuine, impossible, perfect and unique.)
⤬ Probability Theory is more impossible than Number Theory.
ü Probability Theory is more difficult than Number Theory.
PREPOSITIONS

Preposition Time Place or Position

On Days of the week, months followed by the day, or Address with only the name of
before the time indicating the day, month, and year the street

i.e. on Sunday, on June 15, on May 17, 1954 i.e. on Fidel Street
In Indicate year, before months not followed by the When the location is more
day, or before the month and year without the day specific or something is inside.

i.e. In 2005, in September, in May 2008. i.e. in the lobby, in the drawer
At General location

i.e. at the hospital

CONJUNCTIONS

• Correlative conjunctions are always in pairs

Both… and Neither…nor

Whether…or Either…or
Not only…but (also)

⤬ Neither he or I will go to class tomorrow.

ü Neither he nor I will go to class tomorrow.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

• Subjects joined by OR or NOR

When one or more singular subjects are joined to one or more plural subjects by OR or
NOR, the verb should agree with the nearest subject.
⤬ Diane or the girls is going to the market.
ü Diane or the girls are going to the market.
⤬ Either the boys or Val are going to play basketball.
ü Either the boys or Val is going to play basketball.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

• Subjects joined by AND

General Rule: Requires a plural verb.
Exception: Requires singular verb
- If the word Every or Each comes before a compound subject
ü Every man, woman, and child was tested for the virus.
- If the compound subject refers to the same person, place or thing, or event.
ü The owner and manager of the construction firm is her husband.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

• The following are usually singular and need a singular verb: amount,
measurements, mathematical expressions, and mass nouns.
üTen Thousand Pesos is all I need for my vacation.
üTwelve feet is the dept of the swimming pool at the resort.
üOne plus seventeen equals eighteen
üThe water in the jar is contaminated.
 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

• Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite Pronoun Rule As Applied

Anyone, everyone, someone,
anybody, everybody, nobody,
and somebody
Both, few, many, others, and
several
Singular Indefinite pronouns require ü Everyone is expected to submit
singular verbs his project on time.
Plural Indefinite pronouns require plural ü Several of the contract workers
verbs were sent home.

All, any, most, none, and some Require singular verbs if the noun they ü All of the book was ruined.
refer to is singular, and plural verbs if the
noun is plural ü All of the cubicles were
occupied.